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THE

CRYSTAL PALACE,

AND ITS CONTENTS

AN.ILLUSTEATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GEEAT EXHIBITION OF THE

INDUSTRY OF ALL NATIONS.

IlBgEc

EMBELLISHED WITH UPWARDS OF FIVE HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS.

WITH A COPIOUS ANALYTICAL INDEX.

PUBLISHED BY W. M. CLARK, 16 & 17, WARWICK LANE.

1852.

A(xqo-u7n

, LONDON :

BnADBURY A>-D EVANS, PKINTERS, WHITEl'KIAnc.

INDEX.

Account of tho Austrian and Turklsli Territories and

their Prodnctlnns 3''2

Acc'uint of tho N.iwah Nizam ^"^

Ackcrinan's Contributions to the Great Exhibition .... 395

Ack<'rman*3 Colour-box, described 40

Adilrcsa, Introductory • 1

Adorno's Cipavctte Machine, described '. 175

Agricidtnral Implements 203, 270

Agriculture and Labour in the East Indies 100

Agricidtural Machines and Implements 11

Agricultural Machinery Department, described 124

AgricuUnral Medals, by Weiner, described 205

Albert'3 (TI.R.It. Prince) Ca<;hmere3 7

AlberfK {H.R.H. Prince) Model Housea for Families,

described SI

All>ort. (TI. R. H. Prince), proposed Statue to 113

Aleni:on Laco 112

Alhainbra Store— Stuart and Smith, Sheffield B23

Allan's Hydrostatic Tura^tile 3''4

Alloys in Wrought Iron, by Mr. Morris Sterling 104

American Rell Telegraph 205

American Pepnvtment. Rrussela Carpct3 in 15

American Plough, described 174

American Loom for Twilled Goods 178

American Exhibition of Industry 191

Analysis of the Awards 62

Analysis of Railways, Dy Wlshaw 358

Anatomical Models '17

Ancient Briton, by Adams, description of 224

Andromeda, by J. Bell, described 173

Anecdote of Egyptian Arabs in the Great Exhibition . . 7

Animals fstuff<^<l) from Wurtemburg, descriution of — 206

Animal and Vegetable Physiology 106, 126

Annealing of Ola'^s S2

Anti-friction Presses, Dick's : 271

Aplos Tuberosa— Lawson's 127

Apparatus of the Royal Humane Society '. 2.37

Apparatus to I llustrate the Tides, by Ryles 00

Appold's Rotary Pump 130

Architectur.al and Building contrivances 167

Architectural and Engineering Department 114

Ariel's Girdle 320

Arms and Armour 342, 38i)

Amott's Stoves. &c 301

Arnott's (Dr.) Contrivances 383

Art in France from the 12th to the end of the 18th Con-

t'lry 122

Art M.anufactures. Lecture on, by Mr. ^ornum 30

Art of Staining Glass, Loss of 279

Article of Food ...'• 106

Artificial Silver Nose, by Whitehouse 00

Arlificial Flowers, by Constantin, described 267

Artificial Leeches 383

Arti'an Schools i Suburban) 123

Artists distinguished In Mosaic 207

Artists" Implements ■ 30 1

Alts of Design and Decoration, 22, 52,76,106,206.279.305.

304

Assam Tea • 12"

Ateney's Dressing Cases, &e. , described 273

Athensenm on the Great Exhibition 15!)

Atherton's (of Devonport) Steam Engines 314

Atmospheric Rec ^rder, by Dollond 83

Auberfs Stocking Frame 138

Australian Gold in the Great Exhibition 15

Austria, Commercial Policy of 109

Austrian Department 372

Austrian Emperor's Pi-esents to the Queen 372

Austrian Candelabra, described 373

Austrian Frinpe 270

Austrian Linens, &c 3^0

Austrian Flutes 303

Austrian Typography 318

Australian Wheat 362

Automaton Fire Extinguisher 389

Avisseau's Pottery in the Great Exhibition, described . 229

A^vard,-*— The Council Medals— The Juries 78

Awards of Prizes for the Great Exhibition &4

Awards of the Great Exhibition ITl

PA(JR

Babbage (Charles), Esq., on tho Great Exhibition 26

Bacchu.^ reclining, by Cherlsc, deacrihiod 227

Badcock'8 (Dr.) Experiments upon Small-pox 383

Baddeley'8 Fanner's Fire-tngino 279

Bailey's Chandelier, described 396

Bain'3 Electrical Clocli 370

Baker's Design for a Monument 359

Bauana. audits Cultivation, description of 327

Bankers' Paper, improved by Saunders 143

BanVs's Twin Staircase ■ -■ ■■ 335

Baptism of Christ, by Carew, described 78

Barbara Uttman and Laee-knitting Ill

Barlow'a Bridge-roads 374

Barrett and Corney's Gold and Silvor Fringe 270

Barrett, Exball, and Andrews's Steam-engine, described 13

Barrett. Exhall. and Andrews's Gorse-bruiser . . ; 311

Bascomb's Indicator Carriage 325

Bashful Be?gar, by Gandolfi. described 98

Basil, on the Silkworm • 354

Baxter's Picture Printing 330

Beckford's Tomb (the Author of Vathek), described . . 277

Bedstead, by Wilkinson, described ,- 351

Bed-room Furniture, by Trollopo and Son, described . . 108

Bees and Beehives 418

Beet-root Sugar.— Professor Hancock on the Prospects

of tho Manufacture in England 130

Beetroot Sugar ■ 1^3

Belfast Flax Improvement Sodety and Mr. Olaussen . . -130

Belgian Department 131

Belgian Coal Mines 133

Belgian Sculpture, Messrs. Simoms and Geefs 139

Belgian Dama As 299

Bellhouse's Fire-proof Doors for Warehouse Hoists 167

BcU Rock Lighthouse 115

Bell's Una and the Lion, described 77

Bell's Victoria Regia Lotus Work-table. &c., described . 212
Bennoch and Co.. of Wood-street.— Collection of Fringes 269

Bentall's Plouih. (Maiden), described 174

Berlin Iron Casting 384

Berlin -wool Work 205

Bernatoff 's Or-molu Chandelier, described 20 j

Bett's Violin 303

B ddelTs Self- regulating Gas-burner, described 15

Biddell's Gas-burners 303

Bijouterie and Sculpture in the Great Exhibition 110

Binney's Life-boat 236

Bituminous Polvtyping 317

Blanqui's Report on the Great Exhibition 209, 237

Blaylocks Illuminated Dials 275

Boehm's Flute 302

Bookbinding (British) 242

Bookbinding (Foreign) - 243

Bookcase, by Rivart and Andrieux. doscribel 250

Bottcar and Schnorr- Discovery of White Clay 143

Bottle or Green Glass 92

Boulton and Watt's Screw-eigine 314

Boy.I's Double-action Scythe 351

Bradbury's Silk Tassels, Newgate-street 269

Brass Mangal (Charcoal-burner), from Turkey 366

Bridles, various Forms of 398, 394

British Guiana, Productions of 43

British Gold 194

British Porcckiin Manufactxire, History of 214

Broad Glass 02

Broadwood's Grand Piano in the Great Exhibition 167

Brockedon's Improvement in Cumberland Lead 394

Bron''ki"s Unbleached Silk and Cocoons, in the Great

Exhibition 354

Brussels Point 112

Brussels Wire-ground 112

Buckinghamshire Lace 112

Building Court, described 140

Burke's Embossed Trimminirs. (Newgate-street) 270

Busby's Plough, (Xewton-le-Willows, Yorkshire),

described 174

Cabinet, by Tahan, described 160

Cabinetwork 229

PAGE

Cadby'3 Pianoforte Zobra-wood Suspended Sounding-
board 201

Calamine •' IW

Caldecotfs Araboyna InLMd Table t33

Calico Printing by Blocks 278

Califomian Gold In the Great ExhiblUon 223

Cambrics of Ireland 298

Canadian Court, described 20

Canadian Timber Trophy, described 45

Cannabic ®8

Cannabis Indicus (Indian Hemp) 287

CaunclCoal 1^'

Cape of Good Hope Feather Tippet ^35

Cape of Good Hope, produc'Lions of 41

Cardinal Wiseman at the Great Exhibition 133

Carlin?ford Lichthou.sc US

Carli-Ue 1 Earl of) on the Great Exhibition 3

Carlisle Fishirn: Tackle 33^

Carpet Manufacture by Hand labour and by Uachiuery 38

Carr.ara and P.irian Material 223

Carriage Department, described 324

Carthanine— Sa.ss-flower 33S

Carved Cabinet and Ghss. Hans'^n and Sons, described 295
Carved Escritoire, and Table, from Switzerland, described 309

Carved Frame, by Barbetti, described 152

Carved Font, by Margetts and Ey les 143

Carved Frame, by Rogers, described 152

Cassava Bread 43

Catoptric and Dioptric systems for Lighthouses, compared 115

Causes of Railway Accidents 359

Cennino Cennini on the preparation of Colours by

Artists 394

Centrifugal Pumps, descriptions of several 134

Centrifugal Filter 391

Centrifu^xl Pumps, described 39C

Ceramic Art. Antiquity of 145

Ceramic Manufactures, General History of 145

Ceylon Contributions to the Great Exhibition 164

Chance's Stained Glass ( nirraingham) 280

Chandelier, by Perry, desc-ibed 417

Chaucer and the Great Exhibition 15

Cheap Tackle 330

Chicory, from Sarnders and Gatebili 172

Chocolate 1*7

Chimney Pie-e and Vase in Terra Cotta. described 143

Chimney Omimeats in Bronze, by LeroUe. described . . 235

China Stone 343

Chromates of Potash 37d

Cinnamon Plantations H5

Claussen on the .\ wards HO

Claussen's Flax Cotton 333

Claussea's Improved Mode of Treating Plai HO

Clay Iron-stones 1^

Cleveland Agriciltural Society 46

Clock and Chimney Ornaments, by Leroy and Sons, de-
scribed 267

Clock-case, by Bell, described 88

Closing Scene of the Great Exhibition, described 103

Closing of the Gi'cat Exhibition, and declaration of the

Prizes awarded *-^

Clothworking. Histoi-y of, &c 379

OoalPeat.&c 190

Cobden (Jf r.) on the Great Exhibition 3

** Cockpit " of Christendom 186

Codfish OU 107

Coffee Berry ■ 127

Coffee-berry Pulping Machiu'? 165

Coir (cocoa-nut fib-ei, frim Ceylon 165

Colonel Hawker's Stanchion Gun 386

Colour-box, by Ackerman, described 40

Colouring of Glass 9?

Collapsible Life-boat, by the Rev. E. L. Beethen 237

Collection of Specimens for Foreign Xations 62

Colman's Drag HaiTOw and Scarifier, described 126

Colossal Bavarian Lion, described 113

Compensation contrivances in Time-pieces 274

Comet Seeker machine 155

Concentrated Butter, by Moore 106

Concentrated Gravy, by Wan-ener and Soycr 107

Conrad Knoll's Goblet, described 87

•fc?0,C7 ^85^ -f 8^3. iT^t'.n

/■9 cc f^ -277 f^-

LXDEX.

PAGE

Consolidated Milk 107

Constable's CompensatiTig Fly-wheel 83

Conrersion of Iron into Steel, with the Diamond 343

Cook's Panel for Amateur's 395

Cook's Carding Crom Wanvick) 118

Cooper's " Pointing" in Wood carving 119

Copeland'8 (Aid rman) Manufactures 227

Copper Swords in Ireland 334

Copperas 323

oral Ornaments, by Pararagiia and Casella 424

Cornwall Pobnechnic Society 282

Cotton Manufacture 70

Cotton Dyeing and Calico Printing 276

Cotton Machines 178

Cotton Manuf icture in Belgium 185

Cotton Manufacture in France 138

Coventry Subscription Ribbon 357

Cow-tree Juice-u^ed as mil*! , and for Indian-rubber . . 43

Cretonnes (French Manu'acture) 262

Crouchet's Frontispiece, described 267

Crown Glass 91

Crystal Fountain, described 19

Crystal Palace by Moonlisht 76

Crystallised Salts 322. 376

Cu'^itt'a Triangular Railway Sleepers 374

Cupid Sharpening his ArrowR, described 206

Curious Facts connected with the Great Exhibition 26

Curious German Pencil 395

Cut Glass Claret Jug, by Green, described 397

Cyanides of Potasli 379

Dante's Heroine 353

Daves" Automatic Invisible Coach Steps 325

Dary on the encouragement of the Arts in connexion

with Manufactures 362

Dawson's Autophon ; 259

Deane, Dray, and Deane's Domestic Flour Mill, described 13

Deane. Dray, and Deane's Toels for Gardening 351

Deciei" (Lord) Culuvator 126

Decorative Art, present state of 22

Demi-pique Saddle 398

Denmark. Department of, In the Great Exhibition 388

Denfs Electrical Clock 370

Denfo Turret Clock 275

Derrick Crane— Henderson's Patent, described 29

Descent from the Cross, by Carew, described 78

Description of Crossley's Tapestry Pattern 371

Description of Pottery Manufacture 146

Detection of Adulterations of Vermilion (Cinnabar) 311

Diamonds and Minerals employed for ornamental pur-
poses 290

Different forms of Rail for Roads 374

Discovery of Gunpowder 346

Disposal of the Great Exhibition Surplus 9^

Distillation of Salt-water 155

Dollond B Atmospheric Recorder 83

Donkin's D ac Pump, described 391

Donkin's Paper-making Machinery, described 292

Dorothea, by Bell, described 128

Doterlo'b Hotel at Slough, decorations there 268

Dresden Chi a 147

Dresden an<i other German Manufacturers in Porcelain 168

Dried Potatoes 126

Dnpin on the French Contributions to the Great Exhi-
bition 261

Duplex Rudder and Screw Propeller 422

Durria-i-Noor (Sea of Light), described 66

Djcing and Calico Printing 338

Dyne's Life Boat 237

Early Use of Steam 130

Earthenware Fnunta'n. Ridgway and Co., described . . 141

Bast Indian Department 66,100

Ebb's Compound Instrument for Lady Gardeners 351

Edward's Atmopyre 303

Eddystone Lighthouse 114

Effect of the Duties on Foreign Silks 355

Egj'pt, Tunis, and Algiers 43

Eider Down 235

Eldon Griup, description of 224

Ellenborough Plate, described 296

Emerald Green 378

Enamelled Slate 300

Engelhard'^ Nymph of Lurleibcrg, described 87

English and Fren h Tiles 83

English Saddles and their peculiarities 398

England's Small Locomotive 350

Engraving on Glass, by Kidd 94

Enharmonic Guitar of Colonel P. Thompson, M.P 90

Envelope Making Machines 422

Errors in the First Construction of Railways 374

EstablUhment of Pottery in Staflfordshire ! 147

Evans of WatUng-street. Fringes by 2(j9

Eve, by De Bay, described .!!.'!!.]!.'." 253

Etc. after her Fall, by Raflfaelle Monti .......'.'.'.'.'.'.'.**. 98

Exhibition ( Great) as a School of Industry 99

Exhibition? (Industrial) of England 282

Exhibition (The Great) and its result* "c3

Expanding Circular Table "..'.'''.. 424

PAGE

Falrbaim's Riveting Machine 103

FandeVs State Bedstead, described 364

Fate of the CrysUl Palace 23

Faujas dc St. FonJ on British Porcelain %\\

Felspar Porphyritic Rocks, or * ' Elvans" 142

Field's Chromo-Typography. 394

Figgins" Type 317

Filtering Paper, Swedish and Norwegian 294

Filters 391

Fine Arts Department 52

Fire-extinguishing Ceiling, by Bergin 250

First Mail Coaches 324

Fishing-tackle and Fish-hooks 33 1

Fitch or Pulccat Fur 197

Fitz-Cook's Day Dreamer's Chair, Papier Mache 212

Flatchet on French Cabinet Work 230

Flax Cultivation and Manufacture in Belgium 186

Flint Glass, or Crystal 91

Flutes. Violins. &c 302

Fly-Sruttle, Inventor of the 143

Foley's Wanderer, described . .^ 267

Foot's Fringes, Spital-square £69

Foreign and Colonial Departments :—

Aboriginal States 42

Au tria 372

Belgium 131

British Guiana 326

Canada 20

Cevlon 164

Denmark 388

France 261,347

East Indies 66,100

Egypt 182

Germany 204

Switzerland 3'.'7

Turkey 366

Tuscany 225

ITnited States 294

ZuUverein 84,204

Foregn Bookbinding 243

Foreign Guns 387

Foreign Linens 299

Foreign Pianos 202

Foster's Violin and Violincello 303

Fountain, by Jabez James, described 303

Fowler s Improved Draining Plough 203

Fox's Magnctical Balance 75

Frauds upon Artjsts 394

French, Belgian, and Swiss Carving 119

French Decorative Art 347

French Dcpanment 244

Fren'jh Fringes 270

FrenchFlutes 302

French Institutes and the Great Exhibition 237, 269

French Paper-Making Machine 292

French Surgical Instruments 382

Fringe. Gimp, &c 268

Fuller's Carving, from Famham 118

Furniture Decoration. &c '. 212,229

Furniture— General Notice 108

Fur Trade, Accouut of 157

Furs, Skins, &c 534

Garden Furniture 351

Garrett's Patent Horse Hoe, described 124

Gear's Substitute for Ivory for drawing upon 395

Gener.il Description of the Great Exhibition Building. . 34

German \ xhibitions 199

Gibson's Painted Window, from Newcastle 281

Giles's Railway Sleepers 374

Girl at the t^tream, by Wldderfield. described 267

Glass Cutting 92

Glass coloured to imitate Gems— Bohemian 93

Glass Embroi'lering. Silvering, &c., by Mr. Kldd 94

Gla-s for the Great Exhibition, by Messrs. Chance & Co. 93

Glass Manufacture 92

Glass Manu'acture, described 49

Glass Pressing, by Messrs. Powell, Whitefriars 94

Glaze for Sione-ware 376

Gordon's Caning, Bristol 118

Gothic Bookcase, presented to the Queen by the Empcrar

of Austria, described 133

Gothic Chair, by Iloffmeister, of Saxe Cobourg, described 365

Government Purchases in the Crystal Palace 46

Government School of Mines, &c 224

Grand Vase, by Odiot, described 250

Granites of Cornwall and Devon 141

Gravel Filter '. 390

Grays (Dr.) Medical Walking Staff 9')

Gray and Davison's Organs 203

Great Exhibition Awards 129

Great Western Railway Engine 350

Greaves's Plan tif Permanent Railway 374

Grebe(P..dicep3 Cristata) 235

Greek Hunter, by J. Gibson, described 18

Green's Merchantmen 258

Grciner's Instrument for Tuning the Unison 202

Grief and Faith, by Gandolfi. described 98

Group of Glass by Green, described. 12S

Group of Jeweb, by Bolin and Aln. of St. Pct:r8burRh. 327

Group of Objects of Vertu, by Werthelmer, de.'*cribed, . 321

Group of Ru.'-^^ian Plate, described 137

PAGE

Grubb and LTfeell's Machines for Grinding and Polish-
ing Speculums 221

Grundy's Frames, from Manchester 359

Guardian Angel, by Odiot, described 250

Guns and Gunpowder 346

Gwynne and Bessemer's respective claims as to Centri-
fugal Pumps 153

Hairpowder

Halbig's Drinking-Cup, described

Hardware — General Notice

Hardware— Buttons

Hardware. Sheffield Manufacture

Hardware, continued

Hagar and Ishmael. by Villa, described

Hagar and Ishmael, by Max. described

Hamburgh Work-table, described

Harness, General Description of

Harris's (Sir W.) Lightning Conductors for Ships

Harrison's Improved Power-Loom described

Harvey's (and other) Easels

Hely's Catamaran Life-boat.

Hemp, Ropes, and Cordage

Hetley's Stained Glass (s-oho square), described

High-pressure Filter

History of the Great Exhibition 2. 30, 34, 55,

History of Industrial Exhibitions, 122, 133, 154, 186, 198,

History of the Bow

Holbrook's Iron Bottomless Life-boat ,

Honiton Lace.

Hope's (Mr.) Diamonds In the Great Exhibition. .
Hornsby's Poriable Steam-engine, &c., described

Horologlcal Department

Houldsworth's Machine for Embroidering Silk . .

Howard's Ploughs, described

HuUman id's I.ithotint

Hydraulic Hoisting Machinery — Armstrong

Hydraxilic Press in the Great E.xbibitlon

148

114

303
383
227

98
389
398
235
180
395
236
287
281
391
,152
,220
282
343
236
112
290
279
274
356

14
331

niustrations In Porcelain 149

Improvements in Railway Carriages 358

Improved Threshing Machine, by Garrett, described . . 125

Inauguration of the Crystal Palace, described 22

Indian Corn in the Exhibition 127

Indian Presents to her M^esty 66

India-rubber Air Gun. 386

India Rubber Threads 154

Industrial Exhibitions of Ireland 220

Industry of France 261

Infant Subjects, by Galll and Cacciatori 97

Instruction for the Blind,- Works for the purposem the

Great Exhibition 219

Ionian Islands Department 166

Ishmael, by Strazza, of Milan, described 99

Irish and Scotch Carving 118

Irish Chemical Produce 160

Irish Linen Trade 298

Iron Ores and Manufactures 18, 193

Ivory Throne in the East Indian Departmeat 66

Jacquai^ Loom 138

James Walt 319

Jephtha's Daughter, fey Galli 98

Jewel-case in the Cinque-cento Style, described 357

Jewels 01 the Queen of Spain 249

Jewels, by Huntaod Co., described 295

Jewelled Figure of Britannia, by Gass, described 327

Jones's Rose Wat«h, described 375

Joslah Wedgwood 214, 2 tO

Judkin's Sewing Machine 250

Kaolin discovered in Cornwall 342

Kelly's Fishing-tackle, (from Dublin) 330

Kenilwonh Buffet, by Cook, Warwick, described 109

Kesterton's Amempton Carriage, described 325

King's Gas-cooking Range, described 152

Kirk's Ariadne, described 5

Kirkroan's Oblique Pianoforte, described 201

Knighthood offered to Mr. Cubltt 51

Kobler'B Improvements In Brass Instruments 285

Koh-1-noor, History of the 6

Lace Gassing JIachines 47

Lace— Gene' al Notice Ill

Last Days of the Great Exhibition 33

Lead Mines on the San Saba 15

Lecture, by Professor Whewell, on the Great Exhibition 333
Lectures on the Great Exhibition, Dr. Playfalr on tho

Chemistry of Manufactures 362

Leighton's Picture Printing 331

Leistler's (of Viennx) Bed, de3crlt>ed 231

Le Sclgneur'.s Colossal Group of St. Michael and the

Dragon 267

Life Boat Models 236

Life- Preserving Contrivances 237

INDEX.

TAdR

LlfbtliouBca and Optical Instrumonta 114

Hsmlto 190

Linen Pama«k 298

Llnlo Laco : 113

Litoraturo of tho Groat Hxhibltlon 26

Literature of ttiu Great Kxliihltlon, continued— Manatio*

muDt of tho Exhibition 74

LIUiotratic Instruments 383

Local ReinlnI''ccnccH of tho Cotton Manufacture 70

Locomotive Kiiglncs 340

Lonsmcad's Mineral Products In tho Groat Kxhlhltlon .

LouRh'H " Mourner," doHcrlhod 207

Lord Rosio's KxcentrlcH In Orlndlnn, Ac, Spoculums . . 2121

Lowestoft and Yarmouth LUo Hoats 230

Lyoncso Workmen and M. Jacquard 164

Machinery and Mechanical Contrlvancea 14, 103, 271, 300

Machinery Court, described 27

Machine for Teaching tho Blind to Read 309

Mackenzie's J ncquard Reading Krarao 278

Mftder'a Paper Hamming 388

Maddor, Munjeet. &c., yielding Dyes 338

Madonna, by Jehotto. of Brusaols, described 224

Magnetic Klcctrlcal Machine worked by Steam, Elking-

ton's 253

Maunus's Works In EnaracUed Slato 300

Making and Barbing of Fish-hooks 330

Malachite 201

Maltese Stone 273

Manchester Industrial Exhibitions 283

Manton's Fowling Pieces 386

JIanufactures In Manchester and Rouen 139

Manufactures in Porcelain, &c 168

Jlap Cupolas, described 143

Marble Vase, by Van Llndon. described 396

M archcsl's Eurydlce, described 98

Marine Steam Engines 314

Marine Glue (Jeffrey 'si 61

Marquis dAvcze and the First National Exhibition 123

Maudslay and Field's Engines 315

McClintock"3 Wood Chair 90

McDouKala Girl Praying, described 353

Mechlin Lace 112

Medieval Court, description of 215

Memoirs of Working Men 111,250, 319

Metallic Pens 304

Mexican Figures and Dolls, described 2(j7

Mexican Figures, by Madame Montaiarl, described 365

Microscope and Microscopic Preparations 46

Midd'eton's Centripetal Wheel Plate 103

Miller's Brushes (Drawing and Painting) 993

Mineral Blues 310

Mineral Ores, Extraction, &c. of 162

Mines and Metallurgj- 18

Minever (Ermine) B irs in Heraldry 1^6

Miniature Knives. &c., from Sheffield 91

Minineand Metallurgy 150,193,222, 290

Mink and Musquash (Musk Rat) Furs V.9

Mlntonand Co.'s Statuettes, described 229

Minton's Group of Ornamental China, described 396

Miscellaiieous Manufactures 268, 292, 378

Model of Brian Boroimhe's Harp 313

Model of Prince Albert's Birthplace 175

Mosul Diamond, from Golcouda 290

Momentary Action Life Boat, Skinner, of Aberdeen . . 236

Money Awards at the Great Exhibition 62

Monocleid Cabinet, by Sopwith, described 108

Mont el's Miniature Pianoforte, described 367

Montgoifiers '* Parchemin Animal" 293

Morel's Diamond and Ruby Stomacher, described 272

M osalcs, from Rome, History thereof 206

Moyen-age Ships 259

Musical instruments .42, 200,285, 302

Mutton Fat, Art Manufacture in, by W E. Hall 90

Nasmyth's Steam Hammer, described 15

National Exhibitions of France under Napoleon 138

, Native Metals and Metalliferous Ores 222

Nautical Department 257

Needham's Self-priming Gun, described 3S6

Needles, Manufacture of, &c 10

Netherlands Department 389

New Pattern for Dinner Plate, Fell and Co., described . 296

New South Wales, its Productions, &c 44

Newton's Mode of Joining Pieces of Ivory to be Drawn

upon 395

Niagara— Model of the Falls 22

Nicolay's Collection of Furs in the Great Exhibition . . 158

Nizam Diamond— its History, &c 291

Northumberland Prize Lifeboat 237

Nova Scotia, its Productions, &c 43

Gala 127

Opal 291

Operation to Cure Squintinj 382

Organs 202

Origin of the Dimple, Group by Kirk, described 128

Ormolu Clock, Howell and James, described 176

Ornamental Silver, description of 156

TALK

Ornamental Iron^vork Doors, by) tho Coalbrook-dolo

Cnmi)any, dcHcrllrtd 89

Ornamental Inmwork, doscrlbod Id4

Orntthorhvnc\w 235

Ostrich Milk 360

Owen JonoH, Kkq. -Printed Klowon* and Fruits 331

Owen J ones, EHq., on tho Colouring of the Interior of

the Great Exhibition 270

Oxide of Zinc (the White) 310

Oxland'H Mineral Collection In tho Great Exhibition . . 163

O xychlorldo of Lead 310

Paints and PlRnicnta 310

Paper Staining, Hanging, &c 234

Papier Macho, History, Slc, of 212

Parquet for Floors (Russia), described 327

Parr, Curtis, and Madolcy's Cotton Machines 178

Parson's Digging Machine, dlsj>0Hal uf 352

Pttxtun Furniture, description of 206

Peat, &c ISO

Pelrce's Pyro- Pneumatic Stove, doacribed 303

Penn's. (of Greenwich) Engines 314

Peraian Red 310

Person's " Impressions dca Tlntes" 338

Perry's, (of Taunton) Carving 118

Philischer's Microscope, described 47

Philosophical Instruments and Preparations 46

Phonotyj-ics and Phonology 317

Piano- Violin, by Wood 91

Pianofortes £00

Picture printing in Colours 331

Pins, Manufacture, &c., of 114

Plain Ir sh Linen 298

Plaster Group, by Munro, described 353

Plato and Plated Goods 262

Plate Glass 91

Pompeo Savinl of Urbino 206

Pope tjllvester's Or^an 130

Port-alts of the Queen and Prince Albert in Porcelain . 170

Potato ;... 126

Pottery, Porcelain, TUea, &c 145. 167. 214, 217

Potters' Clay 342

Powell's Bisunlque, or Reversable Cloths and Clothings 255

Presents by Exhibitors to the Commissioners 23

Presents of the East India Company to the Queen .... 187

Preservation of the Crystal Palace 51

Prt served Meats, by Gamble, Leonard, Soyer, &c 106

Preparations of Sulphate of Copper 378

Principles of Modern Ship Building 258

Printed Calicoes in France 154

Printing Machine of the " Illustrated London News,"

desi ribed 376

Prize Medals of the Great Exhibition ' ■. . 35

Productions of Abi^riginal States , 42

Products of Peat 75

Professor Owen's Lecture on Raw Materials from the

Animal Kingdom 354

Prussian Blue 379

Pr-jssian Dye 155

Prussian Manufactures 199

Prussian Zundadel Gewehr, described 387

Pru^sic Acid 379

Quarries of Tuscany 226

Queen's Withdrawins-room in the Crystal Palace,

described 54

Queen and Prince of Wales— a Group, described 152

Ragged School Visit to the Great Exhibition 46

Railroad Bars in the Great Exhibition, described 103

Railway Department, described ' 358, 374

Railway Plant 358, 374

Ransome and May's Cane top Cutters, described 126

Reaping Machines of the rival Americans, Jl'Corraac

and Hussey 46

Reed's Patent Shuttleless Power-Loom, described 179

Reed's Substitute for Cumberland Lead 394

Reflections on the Great Eshibiiion by a German 151

Regulators of Time Pieces 274

Relievo Leather, description of 316

Remontoire of Time Pieces 274

Report of the Great Exhibition Juries 59

Revolvers, explained 387

Rice 127

Robertson's Furnace Bars, described 221

Rogers's Mining Tools, described 151

Roman Alura 322

Rope-making 287

Rosewood Cabinet, by Petot, described 335

Roj-al Dress of State and Jewels, descripUon of 66

Royal Fan, description of 250

Ruins of the Great Exhibition 224

Russell (Lord John) on the Groat Exhibition 3

Russell's (of Famingham) Plough, described 174

Russian Department 4

Russian Furs, &c 196

Russian School of Mosaic at St. Petersburg 207

Rustic Furniture, from the Netherlands, described 3f9

PA*]dlcry, namexa. and.nuntlnir Oar N8

Ht. VancrxH S\(,<M Lodicing houiief m

Salt* In the Great ExhiMtlon - 323

Salter's Model of the Great Opening Bridge VTer the

Oum;. at >-"clI.y. iJe*rrlbcd OK

Hantanlna, aTuncan Vennlfugo '. 2M

Savage's Alarum Bedstead .- ..,,, 2M

Savory'H Htcam-cngino ]" 310

Schcclo'H Green jjo

ecot^Jh Damaxkg /.../....'......[.... . '. ' 5«»

Sculpture '.V.V.V.'.V.V.V/.V/i«i," 224', 567, 30fi

Sculpture— ThcMus and tho Amaxonn, deKrtUd. . ICl, 307

Sculpture Room In tho Austrian Dci«rtmcnt, doiCTibed 67

Sculpture In tho Autitrlan Dcirartmcnt G4, 267

Sculptured Pcden »1, by Drake, described 143

Self acting Fire Alarum and Ratltray Wbl«tio 100

Hemlbreve Guitar, by Dobrowskl go

Serpentine Stone, or Ophite '.....'.'.'.'.'.'. 14S

Sevres Porcelain ...'..'. 170

Seward's Tree Remover '.'.'.'.'.'.'.......'.'. 362

Seymour's Gold Vase, described ] 347

Sha- p's ** Christ's charge to Peter," dcucrlbcd 78

Shawls

Sheffield

Sheffield Manufacture

Sheffield Plating ...."./." ^....M

Shepherd's Electric Clock at the Great Exhibition Biiud-

ing. described

Shield of the Anns of all Nations, described

Sideboard, by Jackson and Graham, described

Sideboard, by Fourdonols, described

Sideboard, by the Gutta Percha Company, described . .

Siknt Alarum Bedstead, by Jones, described

Silk from the Sussur Moth

Silk Manufacture

Silk. Material and History of

Silver Centre-piece, by Hunt and Roskell, described. !. .

Silver Centre-piece, by Morel, described

Sdver Cup. by Fries, of Zurich, descrited

Silver Dish, by Angel, described

Silver Inkstand. Lambert and Rawlings, described

Sinful Man Undeceived, by Guelroo, described

SioiLx Indians

Skins, Fu s, and Feathers 157,

Slave in the Market, by Monti, described

Slaughter's Steam-engines for Screw Propeller

Small Notibilia of the Great Exhibition

Smoke Nuisance

Snell's Sideboard, described.

Solitude, exhibited by the Art Union, described

Somerset Sadd'es

Spirit of Science unveiliDg Ignorance and Prejudice, by

Evan Thomas

Sprcngel and Hartman's Ploughs, described

Spurgu:*'s (Dr.) Hoes

Stained Glass in the Great Exhibition, from France. . . .

Siand and Casket, by Werthemer, described

Statistics of the Industry of France

Stationery

Statuary Porcelain

Statuettes, by Gropius, Description of

Stearine

Steatites

Stent's Pea Supporters

Stetheoscope

Stirling's Wrought Iron Process

Stores, by Jeakesand Co., dc^rlbed

Stow, on the First Carriages in England

Struggles of Genius

Suburban Artisan Schools . ,

Successien of Styles in Decoration

Sugar Spoons, by Lias. d-:scribed

Sulphuret of Antimony in Drawings

Superiority of English Cabinet Work

Supply of Coals

Surgical Instruments

Susannah, by Galli, described

Suspension Vase, by Vittoz, described

Swans Down

Sweden and Norway, Departments of

Sweet Potatoes

Swiss Watches

Swiss Cotton Manufacture

Switzerland, Deiiartment of

Syphon Filter

Table and Bookcase, by Morant, described

Tanner's Cabinet, described

Tea Plants, Blue and Green, Loddige, Kew

Tcbray's Water Meter

Telesraph, Dempster's Sea, described

Telescope Funnel for Steam Boilers, K. Taplin. de-
scribed

Textile Manufactures 70, 177, 254, 298.

Theinc and Cafeine

Thomas's Rosamimda, desci'ibed

Tobacco

Toby and S n's Greenhouse

Twledo Blade, by De Ytasi, description of

Tour de Corduan

Tourniquet

Trade Museum

367
323
303
304

309
223
192

391
335

90
355
355
384
207
137
309
241
360

43
195

98
314

87
110
396
153
398

73
176
351
347
327
246
292
227
2)6
155
143
352
383
383
176
324
143
123
230
397
395
230
1S6
382

9S
250
159
388
126
308
3C9
307
391

leo

368
127
143
34

94
338
li7
5
127
351

40
114
382
379

INDEX.

PAGE

TuDgstein 22 !

Tunis Court, description of 183

Turkey. Department of 366

Turkish Manufactures, Dresses, Arms, &c 366

Turner's Cerise 234

Turn Tables. Railw.iy 374

Turret and other Large Clocks 274

Tuscan Department 224

Tuscan Marhlcs and Slinerals in the Exhibition 226

Typhi Latifloria (M'Culluni'sl. described 127

Typc-casting;Machine, by Richards .' . 317

Typography and Miscellaneous Stationery 317

Ulilands " Kaiser und Dichter" 30o

Ultramtrine | Artificial) by Grimet 154

Underwoods ncraldio Table Clotli, described 384

United States Department 204

Uranium and Chromium 223

Valuable Heron-bill Spoon ■ 30G

Van Diemen's Land, its productions, &o 44

Vanilla, Seed-pod of an Orchid 172

Various kinds of Olass, described— Glass cutting and
colouring 91

PAGE

Various kinds of Cannon 346

Vase and two Groups, by Froment-Meuricc, described . 2i37

Vaucauson's Loom, described 138

Vegetable Productions of Scotland 73

Veiled Vestal, by Monti, described 98

View of the Western Nave, described 183

View in the French Depa tment, described 391

Vintage, by Motelli. described 93

VerkhoTZoff's Exhibition of Plate, described 137

Voltaic Battery of the Great Exhibition, describcii .... 371

Wagner's Clocks, from Paris, described 276

■\Valker, Pishop, Holditch, and others. Organs 203

Wallis, Fuller, Cook. Gordon, and others, "VVGod-carvlng 117

Wardian Cases, ft r the Transporting of Plants 363

"Wardrobe, by Wilkinson, described 332

Water-colours Prepared with Wax 3l>4

WaterloWs Autographic Press 243, 399

Watson'3 Gilding 395

Watt's Monuments 320

Weapon!? of Chivalry 342

Weir's " Old Gentleman's " Saddle 398

Weiss's Surgical CaVdnct, described 3i^3

Wellington (His Gra^e the Duke of), incident to, at the

Gre:it Exhibitiou 34

PAGS

Western Africa, its Productions, &c 43

Westrop'a Conical Flour-mill, described 14

Whewell's (Prufessor) Lectxu-e on the Great Exhibition. 333

White Lead Manufacture, its History and Processes, . . , 310

White's Improvements-in Saddles 399

Whittingtou, a Plaster Figure, by Carcw, described 78

AVilson's Double Boiler Tank Engine 350

Winfield's Stamped Bmss Cornice, described 384

Wire Ropes, by Newell, described 333

Woollen Manufactures, British 254

Woollen Manufactures in France 13S

Works in Artificial Stone, by Ransom and Parsons, de-
scribed 143

Works in Ormolu, by Potts, described 278

Works in Ornamental Iron, described 199

Wornum's Piccolo Piano, in Walnut-tree Wood, de-
scribed £00

Wyatt's Nymphs, described 300

Voung's Crossing Gates, for Railroads ii7j

Zollverein Department

LIST or ENGRAVINGS.

PAGK

Arcs of Life, by F. Dmko (4 KngrariogH) 152

Agrlculluriil Maubinery Bopartincnt 124

Allmuibra Stove, by Stewart and Smith, Sheffield 328

Alpha Clock, by Roberts (2 Engravings) 274

Amazon, by Kiss 37

American Starbiick Plough 175

Ancient Briton lookine out as Scout, by Adams 221

Andrews' Improved Centrifugal Pump (3 Engravings). . 135

Andromeda, by J. Boll 173

Angelin Ccntrc-Picco, by Oropius 204

Appold's IlotAry Pump (,'i Enpvavings) 135

Architectural Medal, by Wiener, of IJruges 300

Archangel Michael after overcoming Satan, by Stephens 305

Ariadne, by Kirk fl

Arm Chair, by Jeanselrao 247

Arms and Shield, in the East Indian Department 344

Articles in Pai>ier Machc. hy Si)icr-« ani Son, of Oxford 213

Asminstor Garnet, designed for Windsor Castle 251

Bacchus Reclining, by Neurinl, of Florenco 225

Baddeley's Fanner's Fire-Engino . . .'. 279

Banks's Twin Staircase 335

Barrett, Exhall. and Andrews's Gorse Bruiser 311

Barrett antl Bxhall's Steam-Engine 12

Ba.s-rolief, in Carton Pierre, by Hardouin 261

Bay of the French Department 244

Bedroom Furniture, by TroUope and Son 108

Bedstead, by Rogers and Dean . . ._ 332

Bed'tead. by Wilkinson' .' 348

Bedstead (State!, by Faudel and Phillips, Newgate-st . . 364

Bee Hives, by Neighbour 419

Belgian Court 132

Bellhouse's Fireproof Doors for Warehouse Hoists .... 167

Besscmers Centrifugal Pump 134

Biddoll's Self-regulating Gas Burner 15

Blake's Centrifugal Pump 134

Boy with Punchinello, by Simonis 133

Boy with Broken Drum, by Simonis 133

Bracelet, by Bonillette and Co 365

Brass Candelabra, by Potts 77

Brian Boroimhe's Harp 329

Bronze and Ormolu Candelabra, from Russia 13(5

Bronze Fountain, by Jabez James 300

Brussels Lace, by A. Ducpctiiux and Sons 112

Brussels Lace, by Robyt. Brussels 112

Brussels Laee. by Duhagon & Sons 112

Building Court 140

Busby's Patent Prize Plough 175

Cabinet, by Tahan 160

Cabinet, Rivart and Andrieux 245

Cabinet, Rosewood, Petot 333

Cabinet, by Tanner 363

Cabinet, White and Gold, Mr. Ingram, Birmingham . . 339

Caine, by Jehotte '- 2T7

Canadian Timber Trophy ;.. 44

Canadian Court 20

Candelabra 209

t'andelabrum from Austria 373

Candelabrum, by Webb 322

Candelabrum. &c., Harvey and Co 397

Carpet, Axminster, designed for Windsor Castle 251

Carriage Department 324

Carved Baptismal Font, by Margetson and Co., Oxford 142

Carved Cabinet and Glass, Hanson and Sons 293

Carved Casket in Walnut-wood, by Barrett, of Tuscany 117

Carved Crozier Head, by Rogers 316

Carved Escritoire and Table, from Switzerland , . . 308

< arred Frame, by Barbetti 152

Carved Frame, by Rogers 153

Carved Frame in Box- wood, by Rogers 118

Carved Frame, by Barrett!, of Tuscany 118

Carved Ivory Throne from India, exhibited by her

Majesty 65

Casket, Ivory, from Denmark 388

Cast-Iron Balusti-ade. by Bailey and Sons 193

Cast-Iron Fountain, by Andrd*. of Paris 193

Ccntrc-Piece— Sir Roger de Corerley— by J. Aogeli 21

Ccntre-Piece. by Morel 129

Centre Piece (Silver!, by Hunt and Roskell 208

Centre- piece, by Elkingtons 253

Centre-piece, by Lambert and Rawlings ^ 352

Centre-piece, by Froment-Meurice 365

Centrifugal Pump, by Gwynnc (3 Engravings) 390

Ceylon Department 164

Chair, by Jeanselme 230

Chair (Arm) Jeanselme 247

Chair, Gothic, from Saxe Coburg 364

Chandelier, by Bailey and Sons 396

Chandelier. Cornelius, of Philadelphia 294

Chiumey-Piece and Vase, In Terra Cotta, from the Lady

Shore Works 141

Church Medals, by J. Weiner (4 Engravings) 340

Cinque-cento Jewel-case, desii^ned by Gruner 359

Clay Models of Hindoo Cistea and Trades 101

Clock-case, designed by J. Bell, Manufactured by El-

kington. 82

Clock, Leroy and Sons. Paris 268

Clock, Medifeval 209

Clock, Jfechanism of the Electric, by Shepherds 370

Clock, Pendulum of the Electric 370

Clock-stand (Ormolu) hv Potts 284

Clocks, by R. and J. Moore 272

Clocks, by Frodsham 275

Closing of the Great Exhibtion— Prince Albert receiving

theReportsof the Juries, Oct. 15th. 1851 104,105

Collection of Indian JeweU, &c., exhibited by the East

India Company 68

Colman's Drag Harrow and Scarifier 126

Colossal Bavarian Lion, by Halbig ._.. . 113

Colossal Statue of the Queen, in Zinc 16

Colom'-box.by Ackerman 41

Coifs Revolvers 387

Coral Ring, &c., by Paravagna and Casel'a 424

Cotton Machinery of Messrs. Hibbett, Piatt and Sons 72, 73

Coventry, Ribbon Pattern by Berry, from 381

Coverlet. Worked MusUn, C. Staheli Wild, St, Gall,

Switzerland 309

Croskill's Root Washer 335

Crystal Candelabra, by Osier 83

Cryst!il Palace as a Winter Garden 263

Crystal Fountain in the Transept 17

Cupid Sharpening his Arrow, by Leeb, of Munich 205

Curtain Cornice of Papier Mach^, by Jackson 240

Cut-glass Claret Jug, by Green 397

Cut-glass Chandelier, by PeiTy 417

Damask Communion Cloth, by Pegler 297

Deane. Dray and Deane's Domestic Flour Mill 12

De la Rue's Envelope Machine 423

De la Rues Stall and Envelope Machinery 292

Diamond and Ruby Stomacher, by Morel 272

Dicks Anti-friction Presses (2 Engravings) 271

Dolls, bv Madame I\Iontanari 267

" Dorothea,- by Bell 128

Dreamer's (The) Chair, in Papier Mach6, by Jennens

and Bettridge : 213

Dicssing-casQ, &c., by Asprey 28i

DrinkiuR Cup, by Johan Heilberg 85

Ducie's (Lord) Cultivator 126

Dunin's Expanding Figure of a Man 78

Duplex Rudder and Screw Propeller 422

Dun'ia-i-noor, or Sea of Light 68

Duvelleroy's " Royal Fan" 245

Earthenware Fountain, by Ridcway and Co 142

East Indian Department, Northern Court lOJ

East Nave, Foreign Department, looking from the
S.W. of Transept '. 120,121

Eiiony Table inlaid with Silver, Hancock (2 Engravings) 223

Egyptian Plouch and Norcz M.achinc to Sow Seed 1B2

Electric Telegraph, Comic, by G. R. Smith 270

Electric Telecraph, Face and Hands of 3®

Elgin Flower Vase 421

Elizabethan Bracket in Box-wood, by Rogers 118

Ellenborough Testimonial, Silver Scrncc, by Hunt and

Roskell 29

Enamelled Gold Vase, by Seymour and Son 357

Encampment of Foot Guards at the Eastern End of the

Exhibition Building 48

End of Pianoforte, by Broadwood 3D1

English Pillow Lace, by B. Hill, Olney, Bucks 112

Engine Pit of Walbottle Colliery (G Engrariugs) .... 1S3, 189

Erards Pianoforte and Harps 200

Etru-Hcan Vase, Alabaster, ^- Cherici 226

Eve, by De Bay 249

Eve, by Bell, in Elcctro-Bronzo, by Elkingtona 2$3

Exhibition Voltaic Battery , 371

Exiianding Circular Table 424

Fairbairn's Patent Riveting Machine 103

Fairy Bell, The 156

Faithful Messenger, The, by Qeefs, of Antwerp 9t>

Fine Arts Court 52

Five-barrelled Pistol, by Lefaucheux 386

Flour-mill 12

Fontaine a The, by Durand 341

Foreign Nave, looking West.— Zollverein and Belgian

Departments 8

Fountain, by Thomas 379

Fowler s Improved Draining Machine Plough 203

Fox (Mr.), Contractor for the Crjstal Palace, Portraitof 32

French Department.— Constantine's A rtificial FioTvers . 260

Frieze of Paper Pattern, by Jeffrey ana Alien 91

Frontispiece, by Cruchet 263

Furniture, by Webb 321

Garrett's Patent Horse shoe 129

Girl at a Stream 269

Giri Pi-aying, by J. A. M'Dowall, R.A 353

Glass Blowing 49

Glass Gwblet, by A. Boehm 45

Goblet, by Conrad Knoll 85

Godfrey de Bouillon, by M. Simonis 114

Gothic Bookcase, presented to the Queen by the Empe-
ror of Austria 177

Gothic Panel, by Thomas 3ti5

Gratitude, by Eenzoni 64

Great Western Railway, looking West 360

Greek Huntsman, The, by J. Gibson 76

Greek Slave, by Hiram Power 520

Group of Bohemian Qkiss 92

Group of Books, by Hanicq, of Mechlin 243

Group of Books, by Lcighton 242

Group of China, from Bavaria 168

Group of China, by Daniel 149

Group of Diamonds, Sec, by Hunt and Roskell 289

Group of Diamonds, (3 Engravings) 290

Group in Glass 92

Group of Glass, by Green 128

Group of Graces 421

Groupof Jewels, by Bolin. St. Petersburg 336

Group of Objeets, of Vertu, by Wertheimer 32

Group of Ornamental China, by Mioton 39*j

Group of Porcelain, from Missen, in Saxony 169

Group of Sculptured Vases, from Malta 273

Group of Se^Tes Porcelain 169

Groupof Silver Plate, by Reid 421

Group of Stufted Cats, from Wurtemberg 196

Group of Stuffed Frogs. „ 197

Guardian .Vngel, by Vittoz 247

Gun to be loaded at the Breech on Lefaucheux's Plan. . 387

LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.

PAGE

Hagar and Ishmad, by TUla, Of Florence 225

Halifax Court ••• J°9

Hanson and Sens' Carved Cabinet and Glass J93

Harp 22»

Harrisons Improved Power-loom J"»

Heraldic Table cloth— Arms of all Nations 384

Homsby's Portable Steam-engine and Thrashing Ma-
chine 278

Howard's Patent Plough 13

Hunter and Tigress, by Jerichau, of Denmark 388

Indian State Barge carved iu Ivory, at Morshedabad . . 101

Inlaid Calmet. by Qruner 420

Inlaid IVood Table, from Ceylon ICS

nnocence protected by Fidelity, by Benzoni 64

Ionian Islands Contributions 1C5

Iron Park-gates, by Cottam and Hallen 195

Ivory Carving— Procession of a Native Indian Prince,

from Morshedabad 101

Jewelled Figure of Britannia 33i>

Jewelled Hawk, belongine to the Duke of Devonshire. . 45

Keith's Silk Trophy 312, ?13

King's Gas Cooking Range 151

Knife. Fork, and Spoon, by Lambert and Raw lings — 297

Koh-i Noor, or Mountain of Light 5, 69

KShler's Improvements in Bra,ss Instruments (6 Figures) 285

Limp, by Supc 420

Lectern, by Cottinsham 341

Liberation of Caractacus, by Panomio 173

Life Boats {6 KagraTings) 23G

5r.

Macbinery Court -8

M'Cormick's American Reaping Macbine 12

Majolica Vases, Wall-Tiles, &e., by Minton and Co 148

Malichite Doors and Va-^es in the Russian Department 301

Marble Chimncv and Mirror Frame, from Milan 345

Marble Fire-place, by John Thomas ; StOTe, by Feelham 5l9

Marble Vase, by Van Linden 300

MargetsoQ and Co.'s Carved Baptismal Font 142

Marqueterie Tattle, by Bautry and Sons 230

Mfdiaeval Candles 215

Mediaeval Court 217

Mexican Figures, by Montanari 364

Michael (St ) Overthrowinc; the Dragon 2til

Middletnn"s Centripetal Wheel Plate 103

Min ature Grand Pianoforte, by Kirkman 201

Miniature Pianofor:c. by Montal 363

Model Houses for the Labouring Classes, exhibited by

Prince All-K:rt - 81

Model of the Jlonuinent to ttic Earl oE Durham in

CannclCoal 190

Models of Ships and Boats— Ind a 257

Monocleid Cabioet, by Sepwith 108

Mosaic Table, by Barberi 207

Mourners, The, by Gough 268

Murder of the Innocents, by Geets, of Brussels 307

Muse Melpomene, by Gropius 204

New Pattern for Dinner- Plate, by Fell and Co £97

Korman Painted Window, by J. Gibson 281

North Transept— Great Gates of the Ccalbrook-dale

Company 40

Nymph of Lurleiberg, by Engelhard ^5

PAGE

Opening of the Great Exhibl'ion, May 1st. 1851 24, 25

Origin of the Quarrel of the Guelphsand GhibeUine3,by

F. R. PickersgiU, A.R.A 53

Ormolu Chandelier, by Bemstorff 204

Ormolu Clock-stand, by Pott^ 284

Ormulu Flower-stand, by Potts 284

Ornamental China, by Mint m 336

Ornamental Iron-Work Dome, by the Coalbrook-dale

Company 89

Ornamental Leather, by Dulud, Paris 316

Ornamental Slate-Table 300

Panel Decorations, by Haselden 283

Panel of a Stove, by Jeakes 420

Paolo and Francesca, by A. Munro 353

Paper Patterns, by Scott, Cuthbertson and Co 231

Paper Patterns, by Turner and Co 231

Papier Mache Canterbury, by Jennens and Bettridge . . 212
Papier Mache Jewel-Case, by Jennens and Bettridge . . 21

Papier Mache Ventil itor, hy Bielefeld 367

Patent Ornamental Mirror, by Kidd 329

Paxton Fumicuro. by Fleischmann 205

Paul and Virginia, by Cumberworth 421

Paxton, Portrait of 1

Pianoforte, by CoUard and CoUard 201

Pianoforte, by Pape, of Paris 201

Pillischers Microscope 47

Pistol, by M. Lepage 345

Pleiades Adorning Night (in Parian), by Rose and Co.. . 145

Porcelain Candelabrum - - 424

Porcelain and Earthenware Flower Stands, by Small

and Maling 146

Porcelain Vases, ic, by Mansard, of Paris 1^8

Pottery, by Aviaseau (2 Engravinss) 228

Prie Dieu, by Lestler 373

Printing Macbine, in the Great Exhibition, of the Illus-
trated London News 376, 377

Prize Medals— No. 65, by M. Hippolyte Bonnardel ;
No. 24, by Mr. Leonard Wyon ; No. 103, by Mr,

G. G. Adams 36

Proving Pistol, by Devlsme . .'. 38G

Queen and Prince of Wales, by Bell 152

Queen's Withdrawing Reom, Her Majesty's ArriTal at
the North Entrance 60

Railing for a Tomb— Coalbrook-dale Company 277

Ran^omeand Mays Cane Top Cutter.- 123

Reed's Patent Shuttleless Loom 179

Revolving Pistol, by Devisrae 383

Road to the Exhibition— Hyde Park Comer 33

Bosamunda, by J. Thomas 5

Royal Procession at the Opening of the Great Exhi-
bition 56,67

Russian Department, Malachite Doors 4

Russian Parquet ; for Floors 328

Rustic Furniture, from the Netherlands 389

Salt-cellars, by Leas and Sons 341

Scenes in Interior of the Great Exhibition 41

Secretaire, by SntU 276

Shawl, by Webber and Hairs 381

Shawl Pattern, by Jacieson and Banks 355

Shield and Arras, by M. Le Page 345

Shield of the Arms of all Nations in Enamel 211

Sideboard, by Panting 418

Sidebo.ird, by Messrs. SncU 385

Sideboard, by Fourinols 393

Sideboard, by Jackson and Graham 192

Sideboard, Gu'.ta Percha Company 326

Silver Brooch, from the loni m Islands 166

Silver Claret Jug, by Lias and Sons 156

Silver Cup, by Fries, Switzerland 308

Silver Dish, by Angel 241

Silver Inksttnd, by Lambert and Rawlings 363

PARE

Silver Salt-cellars, by MorcU 21

Silver Soup Ture;n, by Odiot 418

Silver Va'^e, by Odiot 363

Silver Vase, by Wagner, Berlin 88

Silver Wine Flagons, by Lambert and Rawlings (2. En-
gravings) 156

Solitude, exhibited by the Art Union 153

South End of the Building 48

Specimen of Binding— The Pilgrim's Progress, by Leigh-
ten and Co 287

Specimen of Hollow Brick-work 82

Specimens of Hooks 331

Stained Windows, by Gibson 340

Stained Windows, by Martin of Troyes 280

Stamped Brass Cornice, by Winfield and Co 38 1

Stamped Leather Ornaments, by Leake 317

Stand and Casket, by Wertheimer 32S

Startled Nymph, by Behnes 306

State Bedsteads, by Lcistler, of Vienna 232

State Howdab from India, exhibited by Her Majesty . . 6?

Statuette, by Blenkhom, (2 Engravings) 372

Steam Engme, by Evans 314

Stove, Jobsonand Co., Sheffield 80

Stove, by Messrs. CaiT aad Robertson 320

Stowell and Eldon Group, by the late Mr. L. Watson . . 22')

Successive Stages of Glass blowing fin

Sugar Spoons, by Lias 39^

Susannah, by A. Galli 97

Suspension, by Voiainlieux 24S

Sword and Handle, by Delacour 31-''

Sword and Handle, by M. L« Page 34'j

Table and Bookcase, by G. J. Morant 160

Table in Electro-SUver, (Elkingtons) the property of

Her Majesty 252

Tapestry Pattern, by Bright and Co 30

Tapestry Pattern, by Crossley Halifax 3"1

Tassels and Fringe, by Burg 269

Tea and Coflfee Senice, by Smiley 156

Three Specimens of Wall Decorations, in Cannabic, by

Albano 288

Toledo Blade, by M. De Tsasl 4(»

Transparent Blind, by Bach 373

Vase, by Cellini 421

Vase in Sevres Percelain 214

Vase, by Elkington 2o2

Vase, and Two Groups in Silver, by Froment-Meurice .. 263

Vase, by Odiot 248

Veiled Slave in the Market, by R. Monti 64

Victory, by Nelson 173

View of the Western Nave of the Great Exhibition, 184, 1:::;.

View in the French Department 3"^-

Vintage Garden Vase 421

Vittoz's Guardian Angel 247

Wall Decoration, by Morant 172

Wanderer, The. by Foley 269

Wardrobe, by Wilkinson 328

Watch, The Rose, by J. Jones, Strand 375

Watts First Locomotive Engine 350

Westrup's Conical Flour-mill 13

Works in Artificial Stone 141

White's Patent Tugs 39'.>

Wood-carving in Walnut- wood, Messrs Cooks, Warwick 116

AVork-tablp, from Hamburgh 389

Worked Muslin Curtain, from Switzerland— View of the

Village of Appenzhall 240

Writing Bm'cau, by Rnmcndahl 413

Youth at a Stream, by Foley 277

Zollverein Department 84

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

INTRODUCTORY ADDRESS.

'I'HK Great InduKtriiil Exliibitiou of 1851, now on tlio ovo of closiug, is an
acliiovement, tlio beueficial effects of which iiro not for our owu day
only, but " for all time." That congress of tho liighest practical and
speculative intelligouccs of the vai"ious nations of tho world, that vast
assembling of natural products, of mechanical appliances, and of manu-
factured goods from all quarters of tho globe, must have led to a
reciprocation of individual experiences, au interchange of thought, which
must add largely to the general store of knowledge, and au acltnow-
ledgment of relative commercial interests which cannot but promote
tlie common weal of the whole human community.

In this great mart of intelligence and wealth, the poorest of om- fellows
share equally, perhaps more largely, in proportion, than the richest in the
land ; for it is by tlio stimulus thus given to the energy and enterprise of
the world that they must hope to improve theu* condition, and rise in the
scale of societ}'. And have not the millions who have flocked from the
extrcmest end of the land to this great industrial gathering shown that they
rightly appreciated its general importance ; and have not their scrutinising
inquiries in various departments, each according to his calling or views,
proved that they wore determined to make the most of the valuable
opportunities it afforded them.

Yet, the advantages intended to society, through this great undertaking,
will mainly depend upon tho Record which is kept of important faobi
eliminated, and the valuable examples presented to obsei-vation. This
record does not exist at present ; and it is with a Tiew to supply a desi-
deratum which so obviously presents itself, and to perpetuate to the use
of tho intelligent and industrious millions all tho more impoi'tant facts and
features of tho world's industrial fair, of scientific, as well as social bearing,
that the present work is projected. "The Crystal Palace" will contain
well-digested accoimts of all m.atters of enduring interest comprised in that
gi-eat display, copiously illustrated with engravings, and published at a
price which will place it within the reach of all readers.

In order to render the work a complete record of this important, ailiBtic,
and scientific gathering, a Historical Sketch will be given, taking a complete
review of all the events connected with the progi-ess and accomplishment of
this great National imdertaking; from the firat inchoate suggestion in
1845, to Prince Albert's definite proposition in 1849, down to the final
closing of the doors, and the adjudication of prizes in October, 1851.

The subjects wUl be classified in gi'oups as far as practicable, which will bo
continued imder their several distinct heads from time to time, cai-e being
taken, however, to provide suSicient variety in each number. On the com-
pletion of the work an index will be given, which will render it available as
a Cyclopsedia of Science, Arts, and Productions in 1851.

JOStrU TAXTOK, ESQ., r.S.A.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

HISTORY OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

I. Pkelimisart Movement. — Appointment op the RoiAL Commission.
" THE Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Xatious, 1851," -nill
stand recorded in the annals of future ages as the first event of the kind
which has occurred in the history of man. We say the first event " of the
kind," for, although many expositions of industrial productions have been
held from tune to time in various other coimtries, and also recently in some
of our own cities, they have always been restricted to tlie works of the pai>
ticular nations, or localities, to the exclusion of the rest of the world. Fur-
thermore, it may be added, that expositions, regulated by these principles,
were m reality little else than Large fau-s, where the immediate extension of
individual commercial dealings was the main object held in view.

England, then, has been the first not only to tln-ow open her own shop
for the inspection of all the world, but to invite all the world to compete
with her in it, and that in every walk and department of business. It
■was a bold, a courageous, a generous step ; and although in the working out
of tho details, aud in some of the accidental incidents inseparable from all
great imdertakinga, she may not fancy herself adequately requited, upon
the whole, we do not think she will have reason to repent wliat she has
done.

We will now briefly trace tho history of the events which led to this
undertaking; an undertaking, tho honour of which, we must state at the
outset, is mainly attributable to the Society of Arts of London. As early
as the years 1756 — 7, the Society of Arts of London offered prizes for
specimens of manufactures, tapestry, carpets, porcelain, &c., and exhibited
the works which were offered in competition ; and about the same period,
the Royal Academy had organised its exhibitions of paintings, sculptures,
and engi'avings.

The first exhibition of industrial productions in France, occurred in 1789,
being confined to Gobelins tapestry and Sevres china, exposed for sale for
the benefit of the workmen who were in a distressed condition ; the next
in 1708, which included sumptuous fm-niture and other articles of luxe;
the next in 1801, a foiu-th in 1802, and a fifth in 180(3. But it was not tiU
the restoration in 1819, that the expositions of French industry began to
take place systematically, and to include that larger and more varied class of
objects adapted to the requii'emeuts and means of the masses. The eleventh
and last great exposition took place in tlie Champs Elysees in 1849, (the
previous one having taken place in 1844.) in a building erected for the pur-
pose, which covered more tlian fi.ve acres of ground, aud in which the pro-
ductions of 4494 exhibitors were displayed. The Bavarians and the Belgians
have of late years imitated the example set by France, and with good suc-
ces-«. Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham, Dublin, and other towns have also
held similar exhibition.^, being more properly styled bazaars; aud in 1845,
the great Free Trade Bazaar was held at Covent Garden theatre, which was
open twelve days.

We now come to trace what led to the infusion of a more cosmopolitan
principle in these exhibitions, so signally exemplified in the Great Exhi-
bition which has just closed. As early as 1845, in consequence of the
good success which had attended the Paris Exhibition of the preceding
year, the Society of Arts made some efforts to move our Government to
promote or favour a somewhat similar exposition in this country, but
mthout success. . Governments are always slow to " move on ; " aud there
being no precedent for such a proceeding in the books of the Treasury,
how could they be supposed capable of doing anything in t)ie matter ?
Even BO late as tlic year 1848, a proposal to establish a self-supporting
Exhibition of Britisli Industry, to bo controlled by a lioyal Commission,
was submitted to Prince Albert (then President of tho Society of Arts),
and by him laid before tho Court; but again without leading to any result.
Meantime, however, the Society of Arts had begun to Bubetitute action
for theory, example for persuasion : —

"In 1847 (we quote from the introduction to the OfiScial Catalogue) the
Council of the Society substituted action for tlieory, and, in the midst of
discouragement, established a limited exhibition of manufactures, pro-
fessedly as the beginning of a scrie.?. Tlie success of this exhibition
deteiTnined the Council to persevere, and to hold similar exhibitions
annually. Accordingly in tho next year the experiment was repeated
with such greatly increased success, that the Covuicil felt warranted in
announcing their intention of holding annual exhibitions, as a means of
establishing a quinquennial Exliibitim of British Industry, to be held in
1851. Having proceeded thus far, tlie Council sought to connect the
Schools of Design, located in the centres of manufacturing industry, witli
the pi'oposed exhibition, and obtained tlie promised co-operation of the
Boai-d of Trade, tlirough the President. Mr. Labouchere : moreover, with a
view to prepare a suitable builtling, they secured the promise of a site from
the Earl of Carlisle, then Cljief Commissioner of Woods and Forests, who
offered either the central area of .Somerset House, or some other Govern-
ment ground. In the year 1849, the exhibition, still more successful than

any preceding, consisted chiefly of works in the precious metals, some of
which were graciously contributed by her Mnje^ty. To aid in carrying out
their intention of holding a National Exhibition hi the year 1851, the
Council of tho Society caused a report on the French Exposition, held in
1849, to bo made for them and printed. A petition was also presented by
the Council to the House of Commons, prayiug that they might have the
use of some public building for the exhibition of 1851, wliich was referred
to the Select Committee on the School of Design."

It should be stated that, m Febniary, 1849, M. Buffet, the French
Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, addi'ossed a circular to the
Chambers of Commerce of France, proposing that specimens of skill in
agi'iculture and manufactures from neighbouring nations should be
admitted to this approaching exposition, and asking the opinion of the
manufacturers upon tlie subject. The answer he received, however, v.-as
not favourable, aud he abandoned the idea ; aud it was this very circum-
stance, probably, which forced upon the Society of Arts, with Prince Albert
at their head, the conviction that this wider and more generous field was
the one they must adopt, if they would enlist the sympathies of the world
in their project, and render it commercially self-supporting and independent.

His Royal Highness the Prince Albert, as President of the Society, had
of course been fully informed, from time to time, of all these proceedings,
which had received his Royal Highness's sanction and approval ; but
immediately after the termination of the session of 1849, the Prince took
the subject under his own personal superintendence. He proceeded to
settle the general principles on which tho proposed exhibition for 1851
should be conducted, and to consider the mode in which it should be
carried out.

On the 29th June, 1849, the general outUnes of the Exhibition were dis-
cussed by his Royal Highness ; and from that day to the present time,
accurate accounts of all proceedings have been kept, and the greater part of
them printed and published. The minutes of a meeting of several inembei-s
of the Society of Arts, held at Buckingham Palace on the 30th June, set
forth as follows : —

His Royal Highness communicated his views regarding the formation of
a Great Collection of Works of Industry and Art in Loudon in 1861, for the
purposes of exhibition, and of competition and encouragement.

His Royal Highness considered that such Collection and Exhibition
should consist of the following divisions :^

Raw Materials.

Machinery aud Mechanical Inventions.

Manufactures.

Sculpture and Plastic Art generally.

It was a matter of consideration whether such divisions should be made
subjects of simultaneous exhibition, or be taken separately. It was ulti-
mately settled that, on the first occasion at least, they should be simultaneous.

Various sites were suggested as most suitable for the building ; which it
was settled must be, on the first occasion at least, a temporary one. The
Government had offered the area of Somerset House ; or if that were unfit,
a more suitable site on the property of the Crown. His Royal Highness
pointed out the vacant ground in Hyde Pai'k on the south side, parallel
with, and between, the Kensington drive and tho ride commonly called
Rotten Row, as affording advantages which few other places might be found
to possess. Application for this site could be made to the Crown. •

It was a question whether this Exhibition should be exclusively limited
to British industry. It was considered that, whilst it appears an error to fix
any limitation to the productions of machinery, science, .and taste, which
are of no country, but belong, as a whole, to the civilised world, particular
advantage to British industry might be derived from placing it in fair
competition with th.at of other nations.

It was further settled that, by offering very large premiums in money,
sufficient inducement woulil be held out to the various mauufacturers to pro-
duce works which, although they might not form a manufacture profitable
in tho general market, would, by the effort necessary for their accomplish-
ment, permanently raise the powers of production, and improve the chai-acter
of the manufacture itself

Tlic rest of the minute relates to the proposal for forming a Royal Com-
mission to carry the project into effect ; aud the organisation of a sub-
scription list in aid.

After another meeting at Osborne House, on the 14th July, same year,
his Royal Highness, in order to bring the subject officially to the notice of
the Government, addressed a letter to the Home Secretary, which opened
a correspondence that eventuated in tho appointment of a Royal Com-
mission, dated Svd January, 1850; —

" In this stage of the proceeding," (we quote again Mr. Cole's Introduc-
tion.) " it became necessary to place the accomplishment of the undei-
taking, as far a-s possible, beyond a doubt. Having acquired experience, in
1845, of the difficulties to be encountered, the Council of the Society of
Arts felt that the proposal must not be brought a second time before the
public as an lij-pothesis, but that the only means of succeeding was to prove
tliat they had l>oth the will aud the power to carry out the E.xhibition.
The Society had no funds of its own available for the advances necessary
to be made. The outlay for a building upon* the scale tlien thought of,
aud for prelimiunry expenses, was estimated at the least at 711,000/.

"After much fruitless negotiation with several builders aud contractors,
an agi-ceraent was made between the Society of Arts and the Messrs.

AN TLLUSTllATKl) CYCL0P7EUIA OF THE GREAT EXIfllUTIOX OF 1851.

Miiiiclii,y, by wliicli tlio liiUof uiulortook to dppoait 20,000i. na ii prize fund,
til ui-nct a suitiililo buiMiiig, to find olTiooH, to mlvanco tlio money i-c(|ui»ito
for nil pnilliniimi'y cxpi^iiscs. mul to tiikc llio wliolo rink of Icirs on coi-taiu
conditionn. It wlis imiposiMl that tlio rocnipts nri«inK IVoni tlio Kxliibition
slinnld lio ddidt with (ih follows :— Tlio on.OOO/. prizo fund, tho cost of tlio
Imildiii)-', and fivo por oont. on all mlvniU'Cfl, wore to bo r(|iaid ill tlio fll'nt
iiiHtancc : tho rcHidno wuH then to bo divided into throo oiimil pai-t« ; one
part was to be paid at onco to tho Society of Arts as a fiiml for fiittiro
exhibitions; out of the other two parts all other incidental ookIk, hucIi as
those of (,'eneral nianiigeniout, proliininary expenses, &c., wore to bo paid;
and tho residue, if any, was to bo the roniuncration of the contractors, for
tlioir outlay, trouble, and risk. Subscipicntly, tho contractors agreed, that
instead of this division they would bo content to receive sncli part of tho
surplus, if any, as after payment of all expenses, might be awarded by
arbitration. This contract was ' made on U3rd Aiigust, ISli), but the
deeds were not signed imtil tho 7th Novcnilior following.

" For tho purpose of carrying tho contract into execution on bohalf of the
Bociety, tho Coiuicil nominated an Hxecutivo Committee of four mcniberH,
who were afterwards appointed tho H.xccutivo in tlio lloyal ConiiiiiMsion,
and the contractors their own nominee, lii thus making tlie contr.ict with
ju'ivate parties for tho execution of wdint, in fact, would liccomo ii national
object, if tho proposal shoulil bo entertained by tho public, every euro was
taken to anticipate tho public wishes, and to provide for tho jiublio
interests. It was foreseen that if tho public identified itsolf with tho
ICxhibition, they would certainly prefer not to bo indebtcd_to ])rivate enter-
priso and capital for carrying it out. A provision was made with tho
contractors to meet this probability, by which it was agreed, that if tho
'I'reasury were willing to take the place of the coutr.aetors, ami pay tho
liabilities incurred, the Society of Arts should h.avo the power of deter-
mining tho contract before tho 1st Febniary, 18-50. In the event of an
exercise of this power, tho compen.^atiou to be paid to tho Messrs. Munday
for their outlay and the risk was to bo settled by arbitration.

" Tho Society of Arts having thus secured the performance of tho
pecuniary part of the undertaking, the next step taken was to ascertain tho
readiness of the public to promote the K.xhibition. U has been shown
that tho proof of this readiness would materially inlbicneo Her Majesty's
Oovernmcut in consenting to the proposal to issue a lioyal CommisHion to
superintend tho Kxhibitlon. The Prince Albert, as President of tho
Society of Arts, therefore commissioned several membei-s of tho Society, in
the autumn of 1S49, to proceed to the 'manufacturing district* of tho
country, in order to collect the opinions of tho leading manufaetiirors, and
further evidence with reference to a Great Exhibition of tho Industry of all
Nations to bo held in London in the year 1851, in onlor that His Itoyal
Highness might bring the results before Her Majesty's Oovernmcut.'
Commissioners were appointed, visits made, and reports of tho results
submitted to the Prince, from which it appeared that C5 places, com-
prehending tho most important cities and towns of tho United Kingdom,
liad been visited. Public meetings had been held, and local committees of
assistance formed in them.

It further appeared that nearly 5000 influential poi-sons had registered
themselves as promoters of the proposed Exhibition."

This arrangement, wdiich was gladly availed of by the original projocturs
of the Great Exhibition, was soon found to bo incompatible with tho free
action of the Commission, the due scope and importance of what was uow
become a national work. Accordingly, at the first meeting of the Com-
missioners, held on the 11th January, 1850, the propriety of confirming the
contract w.as discussed, and negatived, with a handsome and well merited
acknowledgment, however, "that in agi-eeiug to it at a time when the
success of the scliemo was necessarily still doubtful, the Messrs. Munday
evinced a most liberal spirit, that it has hitherto afforded the means of
defraying all tlio preliminary expenses, and that its conditions ai'B striotly
reasonable and even favourable to the public."

The minute adds : —

"The Commissioners feel that in thus abandoning a contract, which,
regarded in a pecuniary point of view alone, is luidoubtodly advantageous
to the public, and resting the success of tho proposed experiment upon
public sympathy, they have adopted a course in harmony with the general
feoUngs of the community. It now rests with tho public to determine, by
tho .amount of their contributions, the character of the proposed Exhibition,
and the extent of benefit to industry in all its branches, which will result
from it," &.C.

The Executive Committee, however, do not appear to have coincided in
their views, perhaps with a feeling of doubt, not inexcusable uuderthe circum-
Btimccs, as to how far public sympiathy and the casual contributions result-
ing from it, would supply the necessary means for so gigantic a project ;
accordingly they tendered their resignations in the following terms:

" ' The members of the Executive Committee submit that the dissolution
by the Royal Comnii.ssion of the contract, which they had been appointed
fur the pui-poso of carrying out, has changed the nature of their functions,
and even superseded miiuy of them. They are of o]>iuion, therefore, that
it is desirable that the Royal Commission should bo left .is free to select
the beit organisation for carrying their intentions into effect, as if the
Executive Committee h.id uovor been appointed. They feel that they
should not be acting in accordance with their sincere wishes of witnessing
the perfect success of the Exhibition, if they did not come forward to

express their entiro readiness at onco to [iluco their position in tho handil
of his Itoyal iJighiicHs tho Princ'.' Albert, and tho Itoyal Coiiiniiiyiioncrii.'

'• Those resignations were not accepted, and «jmo time clapkcd Ix-foro
till! executive arrnngoments were concluHivoly mo'lifitd to meet th(i altered
circuin.itnneei of tlio ciuie."

Mcaiitiino Princo Albert, and the other promotcrfl of tho great work wcra
luiceiising ill their oxortions, not only iu wbut related to tho ncctsFary
arriuigcnionts for tho Exhibition itself, but In awaking the public mind to
tho UMcful and iiiteresting results which might bo expected to flow from it : —

"Ills Royal IlighnusK, in his speech at tlie York iMuiquct, Haid, in tho
name of tho Hoyal Coinniiiisiou ; — 'Although wo perceive in tome countries
nn appreliension that the uUvantugeu to bo derived from tlie Exhibition
will bo mainly reapeil by England, and a coiiHCcpieiit diutrust in the cfl'cctH
of our scheme ujion their own interests, wc must, at the same time freely
niid gratefully ueknowledge, that our invitation has been received by all
nutions with whom conmiuniciitiou wmji poisiblo, in that Hpirit of liberality
and friendship in which it w.is tendered, and that they are making great
exertions, and incurring great expenses, in order to meet our plans.' Upon
tho same occasion, Lord Carlisle, one of tho most enlightened men of the
ago, thought that 'tho promoters of this exhibition were giving a new
impulse to civilisation, and bestowing an additional reward upon in-
dustry, and supplying a fresh guarantee to tho nniity of iiationn. Yci, the
nations were stirring at their call — but not as tho trumpet somidsto battle;
they wore summoningjthem to tho iieaceful held of a nobler competition ;
not to build the superiority or iircdominaneo of one country on tho
doprohsion and iini.stration of another — but where all might strive who
could do most to embellish, improve, and elevate their common humanity."

"And I,ord John Russell said, ' I participate with my noble friends who
liavo spoken, in entertaining lio)>es of tho brightest kind from the Exhi-
bition of next year. I do so, because I think, as I have said elsewhere,
that there are not only direct, but many collateral benefits likely to accrue
from this jirojoot ; and now, let it bo remembered, wo are about to try
what can bo ell'ected by tho arts of peace. Thirty-five ycai-s J,ago, the
nations of Europe were emerging from a dreadful, costly, and sanguinary
war ; in the course of this war, tho various nations of Eurojje cxliibited,
let it be confessed, all tho virtues of wiu' — hardihood, enterprise, ond
fortitude, enduring, for the sake of national independence, the greatest and
most painful sacrifices ; they suffered all this because, whether war was
wisely or luiwisoly entered into, national iudopendonco was felt to be tho
prize, for tho preservation of which evci^y effort should be mado. But if
the nations of Europe then exhibited, with scarcely an exception, those
virtues which belonged to war, I think, after so many years of peace, it is
now for us to show that there arc atlvantagos which can be gained from
peace — that there aro virtues which belong to peace ; and, I tinist, in tho
Exhibition of next year, we shall show that we can jiromote the comforts
— that we can enlarge the knowlodgo — that wo can strengthen the kindly
affections of mankind towards each other, and prodiice effects which, great
as were the virtues in war, will bo far more profitable to the world gene-
rally, and more conson.ant with tho lessons which we learn from religion
and morals, I trust, therefore, wo shall show, not only that peace has
been victorious as well as war, but that those victories have a far clearer,
purer glory than any that can be.obtained by combat and the destruction of
men by each other ; and if wc can accomplish this, not only this country,
but the nations of tho world, will have reason to be gi-ateful to that Prince
who has'framed this project, who has persevered in it against all opposition,
and who is about to reap the reward of exertions attended witli no indi-
vidual benefit, but with much labour to himself, but which have been
dictated by a lively concern for the interest and earnest aspiration for the
true welfare of mankind at large."

"At a meeting in Eirmiugham, Mr. Cobden. in speaking of the advanbiges
that might bo expected to flow from this exhibition, said, ' We shall by that
moans break down the barriers that have separated the people of different
nntions, and witness one universal republic ; tho year 1851 will bo a memo-
rable one, indeed : it will witness a triumph of industiy, instead of a
triumph of .arms. We shall not witness the reception of the allied
sovereigns after some fearful conflict, men bowing their heads in sub-
mission ; but, instead, thousands and tens of thousands will cross tho
Channel, to whom we will give the right hand of fellowship, with the
fullest conviction that war, rather than a national aggr.audisement, lias
been the curse and the evil which has retarded tho progress of liberty
and of virtue ; and we shall show to them that tho people of England — nOt
a section of them, but hundreds of thousands —ore ready to sign a treaty of
amity with all tho nations on the face of tho earth.' "

AVe pass over the intervening struggles, — tho discouraging effects of the
apathy, not disguised aud_ not to be doubted, on the part of a large
portion of the industrial' dhs's, — not only agricultural but manufacturing;
the tardy and nigg.ai-dly tilling up of the 8ubscri]ition list, which amounted
in April" 1851, to only 75,000/., of which, about UJ.Oi'O/. had been paid in ;
the doubt as to the necessary funds being procured to pay for the pur-
chase or hire of a suitable buikUng for an entertainment to which the
whole would have been invited. Siiffice it to say, th.at on the 15th July,
1850, a charter of incorporation was granted to the Commissioners (which
relieved the individual membei-s of it from tho responsibilities under which
they had previously lain) ; and in August, a guarantee fund of 230,000^. was
subscribed by a limited number of individuals, some of whom were com-
missioners, upon security of which, the Bank of Englaud consented to
make such advances as might be reqiured from time to time.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

THE RUSSIAN DEPARTMENT.

"THAT portion of the Russian exhibition shown
in onr Eiigi-aving comprises several articles of
great value, from their rarity and workmanship,
and of real beauty of material and design. It
is a department, however, made up entirely of
articles for those whose wealth enables them to
set no limit to the indulgence of their taste?.
By the pillars stand two gi'eat candelabra, of
richly-gilt bronze, each ten feet in height, and
made for fifteen lights. They arc from the manu-
factory of Krumbigcl, of ]\Ioscow, and were entered
for duty at the value of 500'. a piece. Looking
from the centre aisle into the compartment, the
most striking object is the folding doors of mala-
chite, thu'teen feet high, panelled and ornamented
in gilt bronze. Our rcadei-s have probably made
acquaintance with malachite as a precious stone,
in brooches, jewel-boxes, and other small articles
of ornament, but never di-eamt of seeing it
worked up into a pah' of drawhig-room doors.
The effect is exceedingly beautiful ; the brilliant
gi-een of the malachite, with its curled waviness
like the pattern of watered silk, and its perfectly
polished siu'face, is heightened by the dead and
burnished gold of the panellings and ornaments,
and sets one imagining in what sort of faii-y palace
and with what other furnishing and decoration
the room must be fitted to satisfy those who had
made then* entrance by such precious dooi's.
They are valued at 6000?. The large vases on
either side of the compartment are also, pedestals
and all, in malachite like the dooi-s, ornamented
in gilt bronze, and are valued at fi-om 1500?. to
3000?. a piece ; and to show that a whole suite of
apai'tments might bo decked out in the same
bright precious stone, there stands to the left
and not fai' fronn the doors, a mantelpiece, in
Louis Quatorze style before it ran quite wild in
confusion of ornamental form ; the fender, hearth,
fii-e-back, and grate are in bronze gilt and bur-
nished gold : the mantelpiece in beautifully
shaded malachite, with just enough of ornament
for contrast ; and on either side of this splendid
fire-place are a table and chair of the same material.
The chairs are valued at 120?. each, the tables at
400?. In the next compai'tment the malachite
(carbonate of copper), is exhibited in the strange-
shaped rough lumps in which it comes from the
mine, and in every stage of preparation. It is
found in the copper-mines of Siberia and the
Ural Mountains, and has lately been met with in
equally large pieces, and of not less beauty, in the
Burra Bm'ra mines, in Australi;v. That in the
Exhibition is from the mines of Prince Demidoff.
The manufacture of articles of malachite is in
itself a work of ai*t ; and, smooth as the surface
seems, it is made up of a multitude' of variously-
shaped little pieces carefully selected to produce
particular patterns, and which in their fitting
require the gi'eatest exactitude. In the doora
there may be some 20,000 or 30,000 pieces im-
bedded in cement, made of the malachite itself.
The doors are of wood covered with copper, the
malachite being about a quarter of an inch thick.
The vases are of three-quarter inch cast u-on, and
the malachite in the same way inlaid. Nor is
this the only precious stone made to serve such
large uses in this Russian compai-tment ; there
are also upon the left-hand side, near the great
candelabrum, three real jasper vases, one of them
three feet six inches in height, which has excited
the admiration of those most skilled in such
matters by the exquisite cutting of its border of
leaves, which, as the process is not explained,
they have come to the conclusion must have been
done by mounting the diamond, the only minei-al
of sufficient hardness to cut agate, in some speci-
ally contrived machine : the value of this vase is
not stated, but tlie cost of the workmanship alone
exceeded TOO?., and the vase can certainly not be
under 2000?. These vases are the property of the
Emperor, and were made at his own mauufactoiy
at Katrinburg. The great vase in the centre front
is in porcelain, from the imperial manufactory at
St. Petersburg, and is valued at 2500?.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPiEDIA OF THK CHEAT EXIIIBITIOX OF 1851.

To llio Icfl unci riglit in front aro jewels valued at 40,000/., ami which
are exhibited by M. liuliu and M. Kammcrci', both crown jewellers at
St. I'etersliurgh. Nothing cau o.xcood their richnes:) and Rplondour.

'J'lie jilatc which is on another
table at the right, and comprises
a great variety of articles, is en-
tirely from the workshop of M.
.Sizikoii'. of Mo.<cow, one caudola-
bruni shown by wlioin contains
•J cwt. of silver, and sots forth nn
incident nieniorablo in Kus.sian
history. The Didio dc Morti,
(irand Dnko of Wuseovy, in a
ilcrco battle with the Tartars, in
l;iSO, fell severely wounded by a
blow on the head with a hammer,
a main weapon of warfare with tho
Tartars then : the Duke, surround-
e>l by his staff of knights in nr-
monr, lay \inder a lir tree, faint
and, to all appearance, dying, when
a soldier of hi.i army galloped up
and announced the battle won —
the Duke revived and recovered.
The candelabrum represents the
lir tree and the above incident.

(In the same side of the compart-
ment is an ebony cabinet, designed
by liarou Clott. one of the first
artists in the Russian empire. On
the top i.s a bunch of grapes, in
amethyst, so modelled, that as tlie
light falls upon them, they seem
to show the very juice of the real finiit, and which are sot off by a sprig of
mountain ash in coral.

In the background are seen specimeus of inlaying in wood for floore ;
a Warwick Vase, in hammered iron, from Warsaw ; a cui-ious carpet, very

bright in its colouin and cnect, made in KiuarcK of Hquirrel likin, KuiToundcd
each by a border of needlework ; and near thiH otandii a cabinet, ma'lc by
M. Yancbs, of St. Petcrnburgli, in light wood, with porcelain mcdallioDD
from tho Imperial manufactory.

THE KOH-l-NOOR.

valued at 500/., and a second por-
celain voHC of azure and gold, from
Uio Kiunc works.

Almoxt all the articles cxbibitc'l
in this Northern Bay aro the pro-
duce of a system, almont univcmal
among tho monarcliies of Europe,
of carrying on Itoyal or National
manufactories, as a matter of lux-
ury and OH an exaui]>le of taste.
.Such in Franco are tho national
manufactories of Gobelins tapestrj-,
of Beauvais carpets, and Sdvre.i
cliina ; in Prussia, of iron casting
and porcelain ; in Saxony, of por-
celain ; and in Tuscany, of mosaic
iu pictra dura. To several of these
establishments, particularly in
Russia, and in the Gobelins esta-
blishment in France, schools
for instniction in drawing and
painting as applied to manufac-
tures are attached for the benefit
and the due training of workmen.
In England, it is with difficulty
that money is obtained for
schools of design; but although
we wisely rely on private enter-
prise for manufacturing excel-
lence, it would pay us to devote more money to cultivate taste.

On leaving the splendid department dedicated to luxury and fine arts,
we find iu the small avenue to the north some more real and utilitarian
specimens of Russian industry, in a set of very handsome carriages, of a

-(iKE NIXT PAGE.)

SCULPTURE,

The works of Sculp-
ture, both British and
foreign, which con-
duced so highly to
the docoi-ative cha-
racter of the Great
Exhibition, will come
iu for a full share of
om" notice. They aro
important, not only
for their individual
merits, but for their
influence in the cul-
ture of a pure taste
for the beautiful and
truthful in Art ; and
it cannot be too
strongly urged, that,
the same principles
which regulate in-
vention and taste iu
111 at which is called
! ligh Art, apply in
degree to every
1 'I'anch of ornamental
manufacture. This is
a point, however,
upon w-hich we shall
enter at more length
on a future occasion.
The subjects chosen
for our present page
are Kirk's "Ariadne,"
a very pleasing speci-
nien of the romantic
style, and the " Bosa-
uuiuda ' of John Tho-
mas, without doubt
I aie of his best works,
the attitude being
dignified and grace-
fid ; the costume is
somewhat medieval
in character, the same
feeling pervading the
monumental details.

ARIADNF, BY KIEK.

ROSAMTXSA BT J. THOMAS.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

peculiar national form. These are the Russian drosky, equally available
on wheels, or in the wintcv on runners, and the favourite cai'riage of RusKinu
gentlemen. They are on four ivheels, very low, with a strong iron forked
perch, and a double body, the first of wliich either holds one or two persons
abrCTSt. There aro speeimens of both kinds : the other merely hokls a seat
for the driver, who sits close upon his horse or horses ; when a pair are
used, the correct thing is for a shaft-horse to trot, while the second, har-
nessed to an outrigger, gambols at a canter beside him. They are voiy
stylish, and the workmanship deserves unqualified praise, except tho shaftn,
which are heavy and clumsy. The leather splash-boai-ds round tlio wheels
are particularly well arranged — no stitching .appears, and they look like
pieces of soli<l japan ; tho lining and the varnishing arc equally well
finished. If tho wood is sound and well seasoned, tlicy arc not dear at the
price set upon them — 47/. A set of harness in the large room is also of a
fashion peculiar to Russia. It is difficult to explain, to those who Imvo
never seen them in use, the arrangement of a great birchwood bow, which
is .an indispensable oraament of Russhau harness, and from which bells nro
suspended over the hoi-se's neck.

The staples which constitute the export trade of Russia, are exhibited in
gre.at v,-u-iety ; one part of the walls is hung with leather, iuoluding choice
specimens of the " Russia " de.ar to book collectors. Amongst the boots
and shoes are a pair of dress-boots, made of the tliinncst and licst calf leather
we ever remember to have seen. It is as soft and flexible as kid, but
stronger. Wc are informed that the material is much u.wod in Russia for
full dress boots. If it can bo delivered Ijcro at a reasonable price, a large
demand is certain.

On the s.ame counter as the leather are a number of gtockingR, bIiocs,
and other articles made of felt by the Russian pea.santry. A vci'y curious
manufacture indeed, well worth the ex.amination of tho tr.idc. Each
•article seems felted separately, and made solid yet soft. On the opposite
table are basins, jugs, cups, helmets of the same material japanned inside
.-md out. They .are light, tough, and not to bo broken. A washhand juo-
and basm are rather dear- (17s.), but they would be famous articles for sea
voyages. Gutta porcha has been tried for that purpose, but it melts in
tropical climates.

A trophy of sheafs of seed-be.aring agricultur.al produce, very elegantly
arranged, containing every kind of wheat, barley, o.its, rve, buckwheal, fl.ax,
hemp, pea.s, and beans, gi-own in tho Russian dominions, occupy tho
centre of a counter, round which are arr.auged in bowls the seed .and flour
of these articles.^ Among them our cooks may find it worth while to try a
small kind of dried pea for winter use, in soups, of a very sweet taste. On
the walls around are specimens of the famous Russi.an liemps, r.aw and manu-
factured, with canvas and ropes and twine, which, with gi-ain and tallow
are too well known to our morch.auts for this last hundi-ed years to need
further notice.

The dried provisions include caviare, dried sturgeon, isiurdasg a sub-
stance resembling isiugl.ass made up In the shape of a nide whip which is
olitained from a fish called the rnlffa, and used in Russia to make pies ;
but, perhaps, the article most likely to become a new staple of commerce
IS the fflazc, now imported, as wo are Informed, for the first time. This
article, so much used in this country for making sauces and soups in clubs
hotels, and great houses, is obtained in Russia by boiling down tho fle.sh of
liori.cd cattle, which, on the plains of the interior, ore only valuable for
tlieir liulcs and tallow. Anything that can be made out of concentrated
meat or glaze is so much additional profit. But it is an operation which
requires care— a littlo burning will spoil tho whole boilin"-. Lieb
directions for tlic operation iu his last work
product affords very littlo nourishment.

The speciincn.9 of iron and copper, in ore and In a manufactured siate,
are numerous. Tlie iron, some of which is of a verj- fine quality, , is a
matter of mterciit to us ; because Rus-ia, in conjunction with Spain and
Sweden, supplied most of the iron consumed in this country for more than
1 00 years, between the tune that tho timber for charcoal in" Surrey, Sussex
Kent, Stafrordshirc, and Wnreest.rsliire, w.os exhausted, and the suceessfiil
application of coal to smelting iron, by Abraham Darby, at the Colebrok
Da e works, m 1 ,1.3, and the ai plication of the use of blowing cylindci-s,
instead of bellows, at tho Carroii Works, set up by Smraton in 1760.

Our connexion with the Russian iron is of very ancient date. In 1B69
tiie hngheh obtained by treaty tho riglit of seeking for and smelting iron
ore, on condition that they should toaeli tho Russians tho art of smelting
this metal and pay on the cxi)ortation of every ,iound, one halfpenny.

i,very branch of iiuning rfcoivod great dcveloptncnt un.ler I'eter the
Oreat, who seems to have ncgloctod no branch of jnaterial pro.sperity. It

ose to

big gives
as commonly conducted, the

was under his reign and direct patronage that the Demidoff family rose t
importance as miners, and obtained the property which has Tendered them
ever since one of the wealthiest families in Kurnpe. Up to 1784. Great
J.ritam importc.l a continually increasing quantity of iron from Russia,
winch in that yep amounted to forty thousand tons: after th.at period, in
consequence ot improvements iu machinery for smelting by co.al, tho im-
fin^^l °f^, rJ^ ''"'■'""'* '" "''""' "^ t''0"™»'l tons In 1805, .^nd con-
CZo^^ I =""■'•■,•!'' '.° '*^^' """'' P>-o>«Wy, is about the same now.

hW. ?i „ ,°r .T" "'' '", "'" "■"^'''' '^=^'«"1 ^- C. N. D. old sable iron,
w hich is used for tlio manufacture of stoci

r,J!7'rlT"''"'' ""/ "■''i'*-"™' exhibited have all been made at one of tho
,.fr I? >"™ufoetones, where the work is done, under the inspection

at Tula, ^^here, besides muskets and (ide-arms. tho iron-work of horse

hai-ness, iron bedstead.s, files, chains, &c., are made. This est.abUshment
Was burnt in 1834, according to the rumour of the day, by the workmen,
who hoiked to get rid of the forced labour imposed on them by the cease-
less wars of the Emperor iu Turkey, Persia, .and the Caucasus. Under the
Russian Royal Factory System, increased work does not give increased
wages. But the Tula establishment was rebuilt.

In the Nortli C4-.ilIery, the Emperor exhibits, with other fur.s, a black
cloak made from the neck of the silver fox, which he has valued at 3500^. ;
this valuation brought out a letter from l\Ir. Nicholay, the well-known
furrier, who offers to make a finer cloak for 1000^., and explains that black
and silver fox skins, so much valued in Russia, and so little used here, are
chiefly imported into London from the territories of the Hudson's B.ay
Company, and then purchased up for the express purpose of " being
fniugi.'lcd into Russia as occasion m.ay offer.'' Whtit a commentary on the
Russian protective system !

In the back of the same ease as the furs, are two splendid specimens of
twilled shawls, by a Cossack woman, from white goats' hair, of wonderful
flnouess. One of these shawls is the propci-ty of the Empress, and justly
valued at the price of Brussels lace.

Russi.an manufactures are for the most part inferior and dear, while
mineral, and vegetable, and animal ]iroduce could be supplied in unlimited
quantities, at a profit, if roads were m.adc and facilities given to trade. But
Russia is essentially a military country, prepared to take advantage of
events, and probably the Emperor considers that a large trade might
produce inconveniently pacific tendencies in his land-owning nobles.

THE KOH-I-NOOR— ANCIEKT A'ND MODERN HISTORY.

The following interesting particulars relative to the great diamond of tlie
Exhibition will probably be not unacceptable to our readers. The Ki>li-i-noor
is one of the most valuable di.amouds known, there being only two others
estimated at a higher price. One of these is the great Russian sceptre
diamond, a perfectly round and beautifully cut brilliant, the finest diamond
in the world, and valued .at 4,800,000?. ; the other belongs to the little
kingdom of Portugal, but is uncut ; it is the size of a turkey's egg. and is
supposed to be still more valuable, but it has never yet been entrusted to a
lapidary. The Koh-i-noor has long enjoyed both Indiau .and European
celebrity, and ha.s accordingly been the subject of much tr.aditionary fable
as well as historic record. Hindoo legends trace its existence back some
four or five thousand years, and it is mentioned in a heroic poem of great
antiquity, still preserved, called Mahaharata, which would imply that it is
one of the most ancient of all the valuable precious stones that have come
down to our times. The poem in question details its discovery in the
mines of the South of India, and states that it was worn I'y Kama, King of
Auga,, one of the warriors slain during wliat is called the Great Indian War.
The date of this war is fixed by other and trustworthy testimony in the
yetu' 3001 before Christ, or nearly 6,000 years ago. No mention is made of
the diamond iu Indian record or fable from this period up to the year 56
before Christ, when it is referred to as being the property of Vikram.aditya,
the Rajah of Nijayin, from whom it descended to his successors, the Rajahs of
Malwa, until tlie principality was subverted by the Mohammedan conquerors,
into whose hands it fell, with other spoils, said to be of greater value than were
ever before or since amassed in India. Whatever may be thought of the
legend th.at gives so high an antiquity to the Koh-i-noor, it might be expected
that sonic more tnistworthy information would be av.ailabie when we come
down so low as tiie beginning of the fourteenth centuiy. The Mohamme-
dans, iu their turn, became, about this period, subjugated ; the principality
of Malwa was invaded and overrun by tlie armies of Ala-adin, the Sultan of
Delhi, in 130G ; and, according to tlic autobiography of Sult.an Baber, whose
book is of undoubted authenticity, it became the property, with other
trea.surc.s, of the Sultan Ala-adiu. That it did become the property of the
sultans of Deli, and remained for a long period in the possession of that
dynasty, there can be no doubt, although some ancient Indian historians
ascribe its possession to fraud or treacliery, and otliers to still less worthy
motives. "VVhcu we reach a period of about 200 years back we get upon
satisfactory ground, and here m,ay be said really to commence the modern
histoiy of this singular diamond, .loan B.aptiste T.avernier, an entei^prising
and intelligent French traveller, and ,aii eminent jeweller, although dignified
by the French monarch with the title of Paron I'Aubonne, visited India about
the year 1G60, for the purpose of luirchasing diamonds .and other jewels.
His profession and his personal cliaracter would appear to have recom-
mended him to the favourable attention of the nobles of the Court ot
Delhi, .and even of Auruugzcbe himself, by whose command Tavernier
was permitted to inspect, and handle, and weigh the jewels in the imperial
cabinet. Among them was one which far surpassed all the rest in size and
value. Tavernier describes it as rose cut, the shape of an egg cut in two
lengthwise, of good water and gi'cat transparency, and weighing 319 ratis,
which ho says is equal to 280 of our carats. There is but little doubt
th.at the di.amond thus examined and described by T.aycrnier, as forming
one of tho collection in the Delhi cabinet 200 ycare ago, wa.? the Koh-i-noor.
Baber, the Jfogul I'^inperor, to whose autobiogi'aphy wo have already
referred, obtained a diamond corresponding exactly witli this in the course
of his conquchts, and it passed eventually into the possession of the ruling
family of Kabul. Niidu' Shah, on his occupation of Delhi in 1739,
compelled Mohammed .Shah, the great-grandson of Aurungzebe. to give up
to him everything of value that the imperial treasury possessed; and his

FUKEIGN KAVE, LOUKIXG WEST.— ZOLLVEUEIN Ais'D liELGIA>i UEl'AKTMENT.S,

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPiEDLV OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

THE MANUFACTURE OP NEEDLES.

The art of needle-making, in many of its departmentfl. presents much that
is gouemlly, or, to use a teim commoii-placo enough, j>opularIy interesting
to a larpe class of re-idors ; yet, rcmoJ'kably little ia kuown as to the man-
ner in wliich the tiny article in question is jiroduoed ; and of tho immense
number of the " needleuaing population." but a small ]n"oportion have a
due conception of the operations and processes through which a needle
goes, from its rough form to the beautifuily poIiBhed insCmment used oft
" by ladyc fair, and maido of low degree."

Needles, as all our readers are aware, are made of steel, tho steel being
made into thin wire, of a diameter proportionate to tho fineness of the
needles to be made. As the wire 18 bruviylit to tho factory in circular bun-
dles, the fii-st operation is untying them and cutting the wire into certain
determiuate lengths. A pair of shears, of large dimensions, arc fixed to the
wall of tlie cutting shop, having tho blades uppermost ; one limb is fastened,
the other is loose. The workman is pro\nded with a gauge liy which the
length of the wire to bo cut off iit determined. Uncoiling the bundle of
wire, he puts the end into the gauge, and placing the serios of wires forming
the thicknc.'tB of the coil between the blades of the shears, ho presses against
the loose limb with his thigh, aud, by moving tlie coil up and down to
assist the cutting action, he speedily sevem the lengths from the coil. Pro-
ceeding thus, he cuts off a aeries of length;? till the coil ia exhausted : out
of one coil he may tlms obtain as many as 40,000 distinct wirci. Tiio coil
being circular, it is evident that oacli individual wire must partako somewhat
of its curvilinear shape ; in fact, each is fur from being straight. Aaonoofthe
requisitesof a needle is that it shall be straight, tho next process is to straighten
all the'wires. Supposing two of tho curved wires to be placed in the palm of
one hand, and rubbed quickly, backwoi'ds and forwards, by the fingers of tho
other, a slight straightening would ensue ; but, if tho needles were removed
to a hard, fiat surface, as a table, the operation would be much faeditated.
If, however, a dozen or two of wires were to be placed on the table, and so
kept as to lie close to one another, and then rubbed, the piccea, rolling one
upon another, would soon b« straightened, as the round part of one w.tuld
roll upon the flat part of another, and thus, by the continuance of tho pro-
cess, the whole wire^ would be straightened. 'Vh'm is, in fact, tho rationale
of the process carried on at this stage of the m.-innfacturo. Two rings of
iron are provided, some 3 inches in diameter, j inch broad, and the »amo
thick; these are placed a distance apart on a flat stone slab some 18 or
20 inches from the ground. Tho distance between tho rings is such, that,
when the wires are placed within them, tho ends ai-o flu!<h or even with the
outer surfaces. Supposing a number of wires arc placed tlius, uufficient to
lill tho interior of the rings one-half of their diameter or so ; tho wholo ai-e
fiistened tightly in, and placed in a furnace and heate^l to a rod heat.
They are then taken nut, placed on the slab, and tho fastening removed, so
that all the wires are free to move one upon auother. Tho workman then
takes a piece of cui-ved iron, some inch-and-adialf broad and half-inch thick ;
he places the curved or convex side of this on tho top row of wires between
the rings, and pressing forcibly by means of his hands at cither end of tho
iron, works tho rings briskly backwards and forwards on tho slab, By this
means the wires aro kept rolling upon each other, and continually shifting
their places, thus presenting a new portion of their surfaces to tho action
of their neighbours. The shifting of tho wires may oaaily be ascertained
by inserting a piece of cold wire, which, being black, is easily observable
among its red ueighbourB, near the bottom of the ring. In a few seconds it
will be Been at the top, its course being distinctly traced, winding its eccen-
tric way amongst the others. When cold, the wires aro all straight.
The next operation i% the pointing. In order to save time, each wire
is long enough to form two needles; each is therefore pointed at both
ends. The grind-Honcs by which the wires are pointed arc of small
diameter, not more than 10 or 12 inches, but they revolve at nn immonBC
velocity, the moving power being generally water-wheels. Each gi-inder
sits on a low stool, in front of the grindstone, a Gmall trough of wator being
placed before him. Takuig up GO or 100 needles, according tu tiioli- quality
he places them on the palm of the right lnud, so that tho ends project
over the length of tho forefingor. Next placing tli<- left-hand fingew on
those, the tliumb grasping tho back of tho right, ho is enalih'd m to move
the whole range of wires that they may rotate vf\i\\ ease on their axis, and
yet without rolling over one another. He then applies tho points of tho
wn-es to the rapj.% revolving grindstone : if he hold thorn always in one
direction, the action of the stone would be fiueh, that tho points would bo
bevilled off like chisels ; but by the fingers ho makes them nil to wvolve
thus giving to each a gently tapering and perfectly round point. As tho
wu-es arc apt to project unequally over tho finger, thus presenting one wire
longer than another to the grindstone, the workman every now and then
Btrikes the pomts gently against an upright Hat faced piece of timber, Bomc-
what in the s.ime mann-r as o pORoii slmffling a pack of cards makes them
aU even by knocking their ends upon the table. On tho wires becoming
rod-hot. the workman dips them into tho trough of water plocpd before
him. A brilliant stream of fiery sparks is oontinvially iiasfling from the
pomts. The matter thus evolved being inhaled into tlie lungs of the
workmen, formeriy rendered them a peculiariy short-lived race The
deletenous products are now. however, by the tise of a powerful fan. drawn
away from the zone of respiration as soou as they are pro.luced. The trade
IS now as healthy as any other. The operation of grinding is exceedmgW
mterestmg, and presents an exemplification of the dexterity attainable by

long practice in any one broooh; but this remark is equally applicable to
many other departments in the manufacture of needles. A good workman
can point upwnrrls of 10,000 la an hmu-. It is amusing to see the rapidity
with which uo will take up a hondful of wii-os, point an end of them all,
and turning them bo as to present tho other ends to tho stone, lay them
aside perfectly pointed at both ends.

The wires thus pointed 01*0 next token to tho •' stftmping shop," and hero
the wire first gains its approach to a needle. Such needle is to be rounded
at the head, and have a hole made there, called the eye, aa also an indented
channel on each side, called tho "gutter" of the head : tho stamping makes
the round form, and marks the place of the eye-hole. A wooden-framod
stand, or table, is provided with a masoivc anvil, on the upper sui-face of
which is placed u die or design intaglio ; a weight is suspended by a
rope over a pulley placed obove tho table, and plays between two
vortical guides; tho same design as in the dio is made on tho lower
Ruifaco of the weight, but in relief, or jirotruding from the surface.
The lower end of tho rope sustaining tliis weight is provided with
a fltinup, in which the workraou can place his foot. Standing before the
table, hu tAkes n number of needles in his left hand, and with Iuh right,
places each wire exactly in itti centre on tho lower anvil or die, and
letting tho weight drop suddenly, by raising his foot, the design is impressed
on the centre of tho wire, on both sides. The round oircles aro the
place.'! through which the eye-holes are to be punched; they are very
slightly indented at this stogo, merely enough to denote their situation,
By depi-esfling his foot, tho workman lifts the weiglit, and places another
wire on the die, allowing tho weight to drop suddenly, as before : tho
imprcision is mode, and the wire oast aside, to bo replaced by another, and
so on. So rapidly is tho process gone through, that it is actually induoivc of
an optical deception. The workman takes cacli wire from bis left hand,
places it upon the die, withdraws it, and throws it aside to take up another
BO very quickly, that a quick-cyod witness of tho operation actually believes
that it is but one and the same neodlo that tho operator ia moving out and
in. Considerable nicety is required in the stamping, as each wire is to ho
pl.icod RO that it will be stnick exactly on the centre ; the chief guide to
aid liim is tho eye ; and so rapidly does he become aware of its being
wrong placed, that he arrests the fall of tho weight at any jiarticular point
of its descent; indeed, the facility with which he can do this by the im-
mediate action of the foot is not the least remai'kable matter obsei'vablo in
this department.

Tho oyc-holos are next to be punched. Tliis operation is generally per-
formed by little hoys. A small scrow-puuch is used for this purpose. Tho
lower end of the punch in provided with two projecting poiuts placed at a
distance from each other, exactly equal to that between the indentation
formed in tho wire, through which tho eyeholes are to bo made. The
littlo operator, taking a number of the stamped wires, spreads them out like
a fan, and placing each one on the centre of a small slab, brings down tho
upper slab, which makes tho hulea in tho wire forming tho oyes. Tliis is
a very nice operation, as the slightest misplacement of tho wires, so that
the centres were not in the right places, would involve tho spoiling of
each, from tho punches passing through wrong places. To guide tho
operative, a small indentation is placed in the lower slab, or bed ; into this
the wire ia placed : by means of this, a delicacy of touch, and a quickness
of the eyesight, almost every wiro ia placed on the slab, and properly
punched in the exact places.

Each of tho wires bos two moulded partfl, gutters, and eye-holes in tho
centre ; the next operation is tho dividing of these so as to form two
needles. The first step in dividing the wires ia what is termed "spit-
ting," that is, passing n fine steol wire through the eyes of perhaps a
hundred mres, as there are two eyes there are also two wires j when they
are all thus spitted, by bending them backwards and forwards betweon
the handw, they are broken in tlio ceutro. one half remaining on each wiro.
Before dividing tlicm, howovor, the protubemnces on cither side, are filed
off, by placing tho wires (spitted) on a convex block, keeping them tight
thereon by means of a leather band, while the workman uses a amooth file.
When broken, each needle lias a tquare head. It is nicely moulded by
means of a veiy small grind.stono.

We have thus far tiacod our piece of wiro to a very rospectablo-looking
nccdlo ; but it is by no moans fit for use : to make it so, it has to undergo
many other procoBsos. Tho needle, at tho stago wo have an-ivcd at, is m
soft that it cooi bo bent between tho fingcra as easily as a piece of lead of
the fame diameter. They thoivforo require to be hardonod. Provious to
the hardening, tho "Roft-straightcning" is to bo gone through. This
operation is meant to restore tho Rti-aightue8.s of each needle, lost by the
repeated processes which it has gone through, as "pointing," "etamping,"
kQ. Tho "Eoft-Btraightoning" is simple. The opemtive Bits at a bench
having a flat surface. Placing tho needles panillol to one another on thii,
he jirosaeB a convex piece of iron on each of the needles, rolling it over and
over, until it is straightened. So quickly ia the operation ctfected, that
a good workman may Btrnightcn upwards of 3,000 needles in an
hoiir. The stmightcned needles are then hardened by being heated to
redne«8 in an ovou or furnace, and suddenly plunged into cold water or oil.
This makes them bo brittle that they can bo broken ojt easily as glass.
They require, therefore, to bo " tempered." This is effected by placing
them on a hot plate, and moving them about bo as to present each needle
111 succession to the action of the plate. As soon as they have all acquired
a particular colour, they are removed. Wicn cold, they are then beauti-
fully elastic. As they are, however, slightly distorted by the action of the

biographer, a secretary, specifies a pcshlccuh or present by Mohammed Shah
to his conqueror of several magnificent diamonds. According to the
family and popular tradition, Mohammed Shah was in tho habit of wearing
the great diamond in the front of his turban, and en the first interview
between himself and his wily conqueror, the latter iusistcil upon exchanging
turbans as a proof of his regard and frieiuUhip. In whatever way ho
obtained it there is little doubt that the great diamond of Aumngzebe.
which WAS then famous all over the ea'5t, was in tho possession of
Mohammed Shah at the time of the Persian inva.sion, and that it then
changed masters and became, according to the concurrent testimony of
all the Indian writei-s and bistoriana, the property of Nadir Shah, and it
was when it came into hia hands that it first obtained the name of tiie
Koh-i-noor. Upon the death of Nadir tho diamond, which he had wrested
from the unfortunate representative of the house of Timur, became tho
property of Ahmed Shah, the founder of the Abdali dynasty in the
kingdom of Kabul. It is gcnorally believed that Ahmed Shah prevailed
upon tho young sou of Nadir Shah to show him the diiunond. and then
retained possession of it, Shahrick, the young man. not having the means
of enforcing its recovery We have thus traced the Koh-i-noor to Kabul,
aiid its Bubacqucnt fortunes are no longer matter of doubt or question.
The jewel descended to the successors of Ahmed Shah, and when Mr.
Elphinstone was at Peshawur he saw it worn by Shah Shooja as an armlet,
surrounded with emeralds. When Shah Sliooja was driven from Kabul,
be became the nominal guest and actual prisoner of linnjcot Sing, who
spared neither importunity nor menace to get poRsession of it, and
ultimately in 1813 lie induced or compelled tho fugitive monarch to
resign the precious gem, presenting him on the occasion with a lac and
25,000 rupees, or about twelve thoufiand pounds sterling. Shah Shooja's
own account, however, differs materially from this. Ho states that
Ruiycet Sing assigned to him In exchange for it the revenues of three
large villages, not one rupee of which he ever realised. Runjeot was
highly elated by tho acquisition of this valuable gem, and wore it as au
nrmlet on all state occoBions. When ho waa dying an attempt was mado
by the persons about hira to porauado him to make tho diamond a pre-
sent to the great Indian idol, Juggernanth, and, according to the stat^j-
meut of tho parties iutorostod, tho priests, he intiinatcd his assent by an
inclination of his hoatl. The treasurer, however, in whose charge it wils,
refused to deliver it up without some bettor wan-ant, and Runjeot, dying
before a written order could bo mado out and signed by hun, tho
Koh-i-noor was preserved for a while to his successors. It is frequently
mentioned in the nan-ativo of stato coremonials and public festivals after
this period, and appoam to havo boon oooasionaliy worn by Rhurreuk
Slug and Shu Sing. After the murder of tho latter monarch, it remained
in tho Lahore treasury until the supersession of Dhulcep Sing and the
annexation of tho Punjab by tho British Qovcrnment, when the civil
aulboritiofl took poesossion of the Lahore treasury, under the stipulations
previously mado, that all the property of the state should bo confiscated
to tho East India Compauy, m part payment of the debt due by the
Lahore Qovornmont and of tho expenfies of the war. It was at tho same
time stipulated that the Koh-i-noor, as being a state jewel, and not i-eadily
convertiblo into rupees, should bo prosentod to tho Queen of England.
Such is tho strange history of certainly one of tho most extraordinary
diamonds in tho world. After the Company became possessed of the gem,
it was taken possession of by Lord Ualhousio, aud sent by him to Eogland
in charge of two officora. We have no record of tho precise time when
the jowol was cut and polished. One account states that tho Italian
lapidaiy by whom it was cut, having performed his ta.sk in nn unwork*
manlike manner, was immediately executed. A close examination of the
facetB shows that thpyaro vciy inartistically formed and boar by no means
the high polish which a diamond of its gi'cat purity ought to exhibit
This, with its peculiar shape will account for the small amount of refraoti-
bility it displays, and is evidence of its having boon out and polished
before the laplclary's art had arrived at its present degree of perfection.
Its weight has been eonsiderably reduced by the cutting, and tiic opinion
of the mo.st eminent jewellers and lapidaries in this country is, that it will
require some further reduction before it can bo considered a peifect gem.
Tho flood of rod light which tho sun now pours in upon it through tho
orimBou cloth covering and the rich colour of which is reflected by tho
numerous jets of ga'?, is evidently a most injudioious arrangement, and ill
calculated to display the brilliancy of tho diamond, which will require to
undergo another cliango of acouory and decorations before it rovoala its
full splendour and beauty.

The old phrase of "spoiling tho Egyptians " was amusingly reversed on
Thursday-week, in the case of a family of Egyptian Arabs, consisting of a
tall old Sheik, in oriental tatters; two or three women, jealously concealed
in voluminous linon, by no means of tho whitest, and four little boya, who
might havo boosted that their faces had never been washed since their birth.
On arriving at the barriers, all tho iutorpretors in tho establishment were

fiut into requiaition to explain to tho Sheik the incvitubleness of the pre-
iminary shilling, but .ill in vaiu, He had neither money nor compre-
heiiHion, aud the gordian knot was at length out by permitting him and hia
distinguished family to go in on credit. Thus, instead of a Jew or Gentile
"spoiling the Egyptians," the Egyptian succeeded in spoiling the roj-al
commissioners ; and tho case deserves to be recorded as the first successful
attempt at tho Crystal Palace.

PRINCE ALBERT'S CACHMERES.

Tub contribution of his Royal Highnsas Prince Albert has been an obj.:ct
of great interest to all interested in the woollen and wor.''ted manufacturea
of this country, and not the leas so bscauao it indicates the ommently
practical turn of the mind of tho Royal contributor whose interest in tlie
progress of industry never flag^. The specimens ft manufacture are
arranged in a tasteful gloss case, appropriately placed in the Central Avenue,
in front of the department to wliich they belong, as a trophy of that chws
of articles. They consist of two shawla, two dross piccea, and a specimen
of coarse woollen cloth manufactured from the wool of the Cochmere goats
kept by hia Royal Highness Prmee Albert in Windsor Park; aud the
experiment has been made at hii suggestion, and for him, by Messrs. T.
Gregory Brothere, of Shelf, near Halifa,x, and Messrs. John Hidey and Soni
of Bromley near Leeds,

In the raw state, the Cachmeit goat's wool Is very pcculior in its charac-
ter, consisting, as it does, of two distinct materials. Those ore known as
wool aud kemp. The wool is soft, beautifully rich, superior even to the
finest Continental lamb's wool, and is divisible into distinct qualities. The
kemp is a coarse, rough-looking hau-, and is consUntly avoided by the
manufacturer, as tho smallest admixture of it with the wool gives the fabric
an oppearaucc of coarseness, thi-ough its harahuosa. Interiuinglcd as these
two wools are with each other when shorn from the goat, it becomes a
matter of great dilfloulty to separate the one from the other, and, as there
is no meclumical invention for doing this, it has to be effected by hand,
and this ia done fibro by fibre, a difficult and tedious process. To have
done this in tho ordinary course of trade would havo entailed an expense
of no ordinary chracter ; but it was no sooner known in the woollen districts
of Yorkshire, that the Prince desired that an experiment in the manufac-
ture of the wool from his goats should he made, than there were hundreds
of volunteers to do the preliminary work of aepamting the fine from the
coarse haira ; aud from the highest to the loweat in station, all set about
their work earnestly, under the direction of Messrs. Haley and Messrs.
Gregory; aud the ouly remuneration given, or required, was an elegantly
engraved certificate, with a view of tho Crystal Palace as an ornament,
stating that the holder had been employed in forwarding the experiment
of the Prince in the maoufaoturo of Cochmere wool ; and it is a singular
fact, that for some months upwards of 1000 persons of all grades were so
employed, according o-s their leiauro enabled them to devote attention to
this " labour of love."

In the manufacture of th« shawls considerable diflHeulty arose, from the
impossibiUty of again divldhig the small quantity of wool produced in
order to mako warp aud weft yai-ns, bo that the fabric is not so fine as
might be expected, or indeed as appeara in tho dress goods where the warp
is composed of silk. The white shawl, however, has a very delicate appear-
ance in colour, aud the extreme fineness of material is easily seen on
examination. The dreaa goods will attract mc^t attention from the lady
visitors; but then it must bo rcmombered that they ore ouly pai'tly com-
posed of the Caohmero wool, the warp being of silk. The white dress is
very elegant in its appearance, the pattern being of the \vild strawberry,
prettily put together to form a "trail." The larger pattern of the coloured
dress is not so good, tJiough the effect la broad, for it appeal's to have been
elongated in the weaving. The dresses are the production of Messrs.
Gregory, and the shawls are manufactured by Messrs. Haley, who have also
wrovight up the " kemp " into the specimen of coarse wOoHen cloth placed
in tlie centre of the display ; and oa this hitter is produced from a material
hitherto considered worthless, and by that means mokhig use of tiie wliole
produce of the goat, these gentlemen ore dtsc-i ving of all praise fnr the
manner in which they havo seconded the efforts of the Prince in thw
matter, through tlio medium of Mr. Pollock, of Leeds, who interested
himself largely in tho experiment.

How far tho manufacture of Cachmere wool may prove of ralue in au
oeonomic point of view, remains to be seen ; but the present experiment
is not the less interesting because tiie ultra-utilitarian may consider it will
not " pay." Under any circumstauces, tlio greatest credit is due to the
I'rince for promoting the present attempt ; and liad it doue nothing more
than prove the tarnost feelings entertained towards him by those engaged
ill the preliminary labour of assorting tho wool, it would have baen a
source of gi'atiflcation to every loyal subject.

THE ZGLLVERKIN DEPARTMENT.

Thk Engi-aving standing across the eighth and ninth pages gives a com-
prehensive view of thot portion of the Eoat Nave (looking west) apprn-
priated to tho Zollvorein Department, tho courts of which branch off nght
and left The largo tent-like object bounding the foreground is the tent
containing the fumouB Dante window from Milan; tho equestrian statue to
the rear is the colossal Godfrey de Bouillon ; and in tho foreground are the
Ama7on. by Kiss, of Berlin, ond the Bavaiiau Lion, which we shall take
occasion to speak more fully ab'^ut in a future number. Around arc
various objects of Sculpture, which have been very libei-ally contributed by
the States belonging to the Zollvcreiu.

AN ILI;UST11ATED CYCLOl'yKDIA OF THE GIUIAT J'lXillHITION OF 1H31.

lu-at, curli iiro.llo U Klnil^;liteiiO(l hy Riving it ii tiny Mdw witli a tiny
immmer on ii Rniall Ktcol luivil. Tliis process ia noceusarily todioufi. It is
called the " Imnl-straiKlitening."

Tlio noodles. tlninglniow properly tompci-cd.iiroBtill ronKli luid un|'nlislie.l
on their .siirfaeo : to oljviato tliis, an<l make IIi.mm liriRlit, is the next of tho
series nf operations. Tho process is termed the " soonrinj;." A Btriii of
eanvais is laid on the table, .and an immense number of ncedh-B are placed
on tliia, all Jiarallel to one .inother ; a jiretty larfce alhnvaneo of Koft soap,
Kwoet oil, and powdered .stono found in tho noigldjourhood of Hcdilitelli
ia then pluoed over them, and the whole tigiitly wrappeil and curdou
up into shapo. A considcral'le number of these bundles being pre-
pared, they are placed boneatli a moving table of wood, working to and
fro in a wooden bed. The needles by this means are rubl)ed one agniiist
another, until, in process of time, they are smootlud and partly polislicd
on tlieir surface. After being subjerted to the ai:liou of this maeliine, the
rolls arc untied, and tho needles washed : they aro then replaced in tlio
canvass, and tied up with a fresh supply of soft soapj oil, and emery, and
subjected to tho action of tho scouring maehine. This is repeated ROVeral
times, till thoy nl'o pei'fectly smooth. After being wasliod for tho last
time, the needles aro jilacod among some dry «aw-(hist, and worked to and
fro in a peculiarly-shaped eoppin' tray till they are all perfectl.y dry. At this
stage a very curious operation is observable : tho needles being mixed up
■with tho saw-dust, it becomes a matter of importance to separate tlieni with
rapidity ; this is effected in a manner as simple as it is effectual. Tlie tray
in which the needles and saw-dust are placed tapers up to an edge, which
li.as no margin, thus affording a place over which matters can pass without
obstruction! The workm.an moving the tray i-ather rapidly up and down,
causes the needles and saw-dust to approach the edge : the saw-dust lieing
lightest, flies off, tho needles remain ; but suck is the dexterity of tho
■workman, that, although the needles are seen glancing half over the edge,
still it is an exceedingly rare occurrence for one to pass completely over :
thus in less time than we have taken to writ(; the above half-dozen lines,
the workman can separate thousands of needles from their attendant saw-
dust. As may be supposed, the needles from this rough proceeding are
lying in .all imaginable positions. To make them parallel to one anotlier is
the next oper.ation. This is easily effected by placing them in an oldong
tin tray, and givmg it a peculiar shake, in a remarkably short sp.ace of time
some thousands are parallelis-sd. But, although they aro parallel to one
another, still they arc wrongly situated for subsequent operations — the
head of one may be next to the point of another ; it is necessary that
1 he heads of all .sliould lie one way. tho points another. To attempt to do
this by singling out each individual needle, would be a hopeless ta,sk where
nullions have to be operated upon. By a very simple contrivance — we
may say maehiue. for it saves Labour — the operation is effected most rapidly.
A small piece of linen rag is wi"ap]ied round the forefinger of the operative,
and. placing a few thousands of the parallelised needles before her on tho
table, she piusscs the covered finger along one side of the heap, the finger of
tho other hand on the other side; the needles having tlieir points at one
side stick into the linen rag : these are placed by themselves. In
this way all the needles with their heads lying one -way are left by
themselves.

The next operation is "drilling" the eyes. Prom the nature of the
operation of " punching," the holes aro rather rough and uneven : it is
to remove this, and to countersink the holes, so that the sharp edges may
be taken off. that the operation of drilling is gone through. As the needles
l-iy this time are hard, they have to be softened by the application of heat,
so that the drill may not be spoiled by the hard met.al. For this purpose
a number of needles are placed upon a bar of iron, with their heads
projecting over the edge a short distance : these are then applied to a red-
hot bar. -^vhich reduces tho temper of the needles, causing the head to
assume a beautifully bluo colour : this process is called the " blueing."
A number of tho blued needles ai'e next taken by the driller — generally a
little gii'l — and placed beh.ind a flat steel bar, with their heads projecting
slightly above its upper edge. The operative sits exactly in front of a
little drilling-lathe. 171 which a small drill is placed, and made to revolve
rapidly. The needles aro brought one by one before the point of the
drill ; the dnll not only cleans out the eye, making it internally smooth,
but it also countersinks the outer edge of each. Some idea of the extreme
nicety of the oper.ation may be obtained, when it is remembered that the
variation of a hair's breadth in the presenting the eye of the needle to the
point of the drill would result in the complete spoiling of the article; yet
such is the amazing rapidity with which the drilling proceeds, that a dozen
■will be drilled in as many seconds ; in fixct, it is difficult to believe on first
witnessmg the operation, that the needles are really drilled.

The needles are then taken to the polishing-room, ■n-here they are beauti-
fidly polished by being held to the periphery of revolving wheels, covered
with buff leather. The needles are taken up in a dozen or so at a time,
and first held by the points and the upper ends, then by the heads and
the pointed ends : the whole surface of each needle is thus rapidly
polished. They are next counted and put up in little blue )iaperp. twenty-
five in each, labelled, and tied up in bundles for sale. We have thus
briefly traced the manufacture of a needle from its rough state to its final
condition, which includes no less than seventy cUstinct processes.

There are fourteen cxhibitoi'S of needles in the Crystal Palace, ten of
whom are British manufacturers, one from France, one from Austria, two
from Aix-la-Chapello, in the last case tho raw material is stated to be of
English origin.

AGRICULTURAL MACHINES AND IMPLEMENTS.

'I'lIM collection of agricultural muchlnea and implements in tho Great

lOxhibitioii are daily examined with ititercat, not only by tenant-farmers
and tho proprietors of the Boil, but by tlio community at large.

'J'lio space dcvot«d to this department on tho Bouth-'vcst Bide of tho
Buihling is about 660 feet In length and nearly 50 feet in width. Tho
whole of this extensive araft i* overed with ingenious niecbanical con-
trivances for facilitating tlis various operations of agriculture, such a^
nclaiming swamps and bogs, and converting them into salubriou.^ and
fruitful I'clds ; for digging, pulverising, and di.-dutegratlng the soil, so as to
prodiicc tho finest tilth ; for depositing manure and scad with tbo exactciess
and certainty of the human hand ; for eradicating and destroying weeds;
for tho housing the crops with safety and dispatch ; for the preparation of
tho [iroiluco for market, and the converting that pro'luce into proper food
for man and animals. In every department of those, tho various operations
of the farmer, will bo found an infinite variety of machinos, calculated to
atsist him in Ihoir better, quicker, or more economical perfonnance, for
every description of land, whether wet or dry, light or heavy, on the level
or hill-side — evei-y circumstance has been provided for, exhibiting an amount
of ingenuity, theoretical and practical study, not exceeded in any other
department in the Building.

The design and construction of agricultural implements has in the last
few ycai's made the nio;t rapid advances, creditable alike to the farmers
who have patronised and constioictod, and to the manufacturers who have
invented them.

To the house of Ran.some and May, of Ipswich, agriculturists are mucb
indebted, for they were among the first who made the great move in the
better consti-uction of the implements of husbandry, by the judicious
substitutiion of iron for wood in the frames of field implements, and in
tho better construction and fitting up of the working parts. A few years
ago. the ordinary implements of tho farm consisted only of some wooden-
framed, unwieldy ploughs and harrows, and an equally clumsy wooden
roller ; and, in many old leases and agreements, will be found a covenant
that the landlord is to supply plough timber, by which was understood
wood for the construotiou and repair of tho teu.aut's stock of agricultural
implements. A farmer now, glancing at tho long array of beautiful
machinery exhibited in Class 0, ■n-ould not be slow at discovering that an
unlimited quantity of plough-wood would do but little towards supplying
him with a stock of such elaborately-wrought machines as those before
him. A person unacquainted ■n'ith the merits of the various implements
here exhibited, ■vvould be sure to imagine that too great a sacrifice had
been made to show, and that the machinery exhibited could never bear
the rude shocks and violent strains to which this description of machinery
is subjected. To foreigners this eSect must be pai-ticularly striking ; for.
as compai-ed with similar implements exhibited by them in their several
departments, our own must appear so light as to be almost useless. The
reverse of this, however, is really the case ; for nearly all these implements
have been subjected to the severe tests of the Royal Agricultural Society's
appointed judges; and, although some will be found better than others,
there ■will be but few that do not possess some good ciualities, and scai-cely
any that can be considered as actual failures.

The agricultural machines and implements exhibited in the foreign
departments also come in for a considerable share of attention, ■which is
w-oll deserved. The largest number of contributions of this kind are m
the department allotted to the United States of America. They consist
of a largo number of ploughs, of various kinds, but all having one strong
family likeness, being remarkably heavy in appearance, full breasted, high
framed, and having the stilts unusually short and elevated, with the
holding part mclined at a flatter angle. In addition to ploughs, there ai-e
horse-hoes, grubbers, cultivators, and drills, and two specimens of remark-
able-looking machines for reaping corn.

In the Belgian department are a number of implements, some posses.;-
ing considerable merit. They consist of the usual kinds of gi-ubbers, land-
pressers, horse-hoes, drills, and some ploughs. In the department of
France we observe a wool-cleaning machine, and some specimens of
corn-mill. Denmai-k exhibits a largo well-made chaft'-cuttmg engine.
Switzerland sends a double plough, and some good specimens of daiiy
utensils. Austria sends scythes, reaping-hooks, Sec. In the department
allotted to British possessions abroad; are some wooden framed ploughs,
very similar, as may be expected, to those exhibited by the United States.
In the same department are specimens of hay and manure forks, scythes,
and malt shovels.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

m'cobmkk's AMF.r.:cAN r.EAPis'o jiACHi.vr:

We now proceed to notice iu detail some of the most striking objects
exhibited, commencing with

M'CORMICK'S (AMERICAN) REAPING MACHINE.

Rude attempts at reaping machines were made by the Romans, and
numerous ingenious contrivances have been introduced at various times
Kince, both in Great BriUiin and on the Continent : but at the present time
tliere is not one in ordinary use in England. Tlic general fault of the
machines hitherto coustnicted is that they will only cut the coru when it
is in first-rate condition, the straw being erect, and the ground exceedingly
even.

Two methods have been adopted in the vai-ious attempts at reaping
machines — the one to cut by a series of clippers or shears, and the other
bv a rsvolving plate. The'latter plau was adopted by the late Mr. Smith, of
lieanston, in 1811, and was improved and used until about as late as 1837,
but has now entirely disappeared. The macliine that has been the
most successful was the invention of the Rev. Patrick Bell, of Forfar-
shire, and a premium was awarded him by tlie AgrieiUtural Society of
Scotland in 1827. It cut a breadth tf five feet, and did its work exceed-
ingly well ; but, from the defects before alluded to, it has not come into
general use.

The .-.ubject of the present Engraving is the invention of C. H.M'Cormiek,
ICsq., of Chicago, who has already received the gold medal of the American
Institute for it. The jjrinciple of the cutting action is shown in the
iliagram, and consists of a cutting blade about on inch in breadtli, sliglitly
toothed on the front edge, and extending the whole lengtli of the breast of

Cl'lTINO KNIFE OF M'CORMICK's RF.APING MACHINE,

the machine, a quick reciprocating motion being given to this by a crank
The straw, as the machine moves round, passes into tlie space between the
projecting fingers, and is sawn off by the action of the cutter. Directly
over the cutting-blade is a light reel, with flat transverse blades of deal, set at a
slight angle with the front of the machine, revolving as it moves round, and
holcUng the straw firmly between the fingers and against the blade while
being cut. When tlie com is cut, it falls upon the floor of the machine, and
is removed to the land again by a man who sits on a saddle-shapsd piece
of the machine and is carried forward with it.

We copy the following description of its extraordinary cutting powers
from an American paper devoted to agricultural subjects, called the

BAREKTr A^•D EXAT.L'S 8TEAS1 EXOIXF.

DEASE, DHAV, AND UF.U<e's UOMESIIC FLOVK Vll.I,

AN ILLUSTI5ATKI) CVCLOl'.KDIA OF TIIK GRKAT KXIIIIHTFOX OF 1851.

^r,

lUtWMlU a r.VTKNT PLOUGH,

Cultivator, — "The macliiiio cuts all tlio grain ; iiud if tlio rakci' is cai'of\il,
none is scattered ; and if tlio binders carry a rake and use it, none need
bo lost. Fields harvested by these machines have a beautiful appearance.
The stubble is uniform in height, while no prostrate, scattering straws
speak of waste. If the binders have felt at all interested in doing their
work well, there is nothing t<j glean with the sickle, bagging-hook, or rake.
Weeds, brush, pitchforks, rakes, if standing in the way, or even horses' legs,
are all cut smooth alike."

To this valuable niachiue the gold medal has been awarded.

BARRETT AND EXALL'S STEAM-ENGINE.

Baurett, Exall, and Co., of Reading, exhibit a portable steam-engine,
a striking peculiarity of which consists in placing the cylinder and the
whole of the engine part upon a metal frame, which is complete in itself,
independent of its attachment to the boiler, and renders its removal easy
at any time it may be neccssai'y, without aflectiug the other pari;, and a

much steadier action is also produced while working. This engine m well
adapted for all purposes connected with agriculture, as well as sawing,
pumping, &c. ; and, as its consumption of coal is not more than 7 lb. per
horse-power per hour, and any smart man on the fann may, with a
month's practice, bo safely entrusted to work it, there can bo no question
about the economy of using it. This production has liad a prize medal
awarded to it.

DEANE, DRAY, AND DEANE'S DOMESTIC FLOUR MILL.

This is an excellent little machme and does its work in a very superior
manner, the flour being perfectly soft and fine as from a large mill. It also
dresses and separates the flour, seconds, ami bran, at the same time, and in
such a manner as we should not have expected in so small a maehijie.

Messrs. Deane, Dray, and Deane seem to have succeeded in producing
that which has long been a desideratum, namely, a good and effective hand
coni-radl, for occupiers of small holdings and emigrants.

W> STRIPS C M U. ILOI-R MILL

StCTIOX.U. VIEW.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

MESSRS. HOWARD'S PATENT PLOUGHS.

Messrs. Howard's new patent ploughs are made principally of i^TOUgUt
iron, and ai-e an improved form of their prize ploughs, which are known
throughout the kingdom ; the Royal Agricultural Society of England,
having, since 1811, awarded to Messrs. Howard uiue first prizes for ex-
hibitmg the best plough at their annual meeting. The exhibitors show a
set of ploughs of three sizes, marked for distinction X — XX, and XXX,
suitable for ordinary, deep, and extra deep ploughing. Tho improvements
consist in a greater clegiince of design, more equal proportions, and the
cuttin gand moving parts known as the share and furrow-turner being
formed upon exact geometrical principles. The curve being regular and
taper, the power required to work tho implement is cousidei-ably lessened ;
and the furrow slice travelling at an uniform rate from its being tii'st cut
until left in its final position, tlie ftirrows are laid more even, and in the
best form for the reception of the seed. A novel method is introduced
of fixing the shares to lever necks of wnmght iron, the raising or lowering
of which gives the point greater or less inclination as the state of the land
may require. The action and fixing df tliis lever neck is most simple,
and altogether new. The centre pin, upon wliich the lever works, is of
steel, and fixed to the neck; the lever wlien raised or lowered (which can
be done instantly) is secured in a series of grooves by a screw-nut at tho
end of it : the iron being thus brought into a state of tension, ensures
firmness, as well as increases the strength. Another feature in tlieso
ploughs is a new mode of fixing tlic wheels and making the axles. The
holdfasts', or clamps, securing the wheels, are made to slide through a
mortise formed in the beam, by which the width may be altered with
greater facility, as well as dispensing with the old sliding axle, which was
an obstacle in deep ploughing, and objectionable upon dirty land on account
of the soil accumulating round it ; the wheels, by tlie method now adojited,
are brought opposite to each other, and the land-wheel may be ex-
panded as well as the furrow-wheel. The axles are similar to a patent
axle — an essential improvement, as no grit can get in nor any grease escape ;
the wheels, therefore, must wear much longer, aud the friction is consider-
ably reduced. A most simple method of adjusting the co\ilter is adopted,
by which any required position is instantly obtained, thus preventing much
loss of time, which was the case upon tho old plan of fastening by wedges.
The draught, as will be seen from the illustration, is from the ueaiest point
to the centre of resistance, thereby removing o great portion of strain on
the beam.

Every part is so arranged, that a ploughman can remove or replace the
irons, subject to wear or breaking in the field, without the assistance of a
mechanic ; and they can be worked either with or without wheels, or with
one, as required, and each plough is furnished with a set of furrow-turners
of various sizes, more or less curved.

WESTRUFS PATENT CONICAL FLOUR MILL.

In presenting our readers with the subjoined plan of We?trup's Patent
Conical Flour Mill, we think it necessary to remark, that for the last three
centuries our best mechanical millwrights aud engineers have been seeking
some better method of gi-inding wheat than by tho use of the antiquated
horizontal mill-stones. These stones are most of them from four to five
feet in diameter ; and wheat jiassing between them, in the operation of
being ground into meal, is subject to such an amount of heat by pressure
and friction, as to extract from it by evaporation a very consider.able
portion of its nutritious qualities: the stones being horizontal, the delivery
of tlie meal from them after grinding can only be effected by the extreme
velocity with which tlie upper stone revolves. Under the disadvantageous
circumstances in which ovu- older millers have woi'ked for so many yeara,
we cannot but hail an invention, as effective as it is simple, w'hich com-
pletely provides against tho evils which the old system is subject to. The
improvement we refer to is tho adoption of conical stones in lieu of
horizontal ones, with a working surface of only eight inches instead of two
feet. By the first pair of stones tlie wlioat is broken and delivered in a
state of half-ground meal, unheated ; aud, by the natural laws of gravit3^,
the flour is instantly passed through a wire cylinder, fixed beneatli, by tho
aid of brushes fixed upon tho same shaft at the stones. Tho flour being
thus instantly separated from the unground meal, the latter passes down
to the second pair of stones, also fixed upon the same shaft, and the
grinding is then completed. Moreover, we cannot refrain from expressing
our admiration of the concise and beautiful adjustment of the stones, as
being on a good sound principle. The lower, or itinning stones, are keyed
upon the shaft, whilst the upp-r or stationary stones drop into a turned
rmg, and necessarily rise and fall upon four inclined planes, and are capable
of regulation to the utmost nicety, thorel)y wholly lelieving the wheat
from any weight or undue pressure during tlce operation of grinding,
whilst the weight upon the old system is equal to three-quarters of a ton.
Another feature of paramount importance is. that tlie conical mill can be
driven by less power than is required to drive the horizontal ones, the
former producing double the quantity of work in the same period of time.
We have perused certificates from several respectable baiters who have
used tho flower produced by this method, whicli state that a sack of flower
manufactured by the conical mill will produce from two to three 4-lb.
loaves more than that wliicU is made by any other mode of manufacture
yet introduced, and they attribute this increase to the greater quantity of
gluten and nutritious qualities retamed in the flour from its being so much

less heated, the wheat passing over such a small surface of stone. These
data, which have been most satisfactorily established, induced us to calculate
the advantages that might be derived were this improved method of manu-
facture to be generally adopted. Taking the population of London to be
2.500,000, aud inferring that each person consumes annuall}', according to
the last statistics, the produce of a quarter of wheat, which is about 382 lb.
of flour, and tliat this mode of grinding will produce three 4-lb. loaves
more to the sack than the old method, there will be for London alone a
gain of 10,232,142 4-lb. loaves from tlie same cpiantity of wheat. Again,
takmg the population of England at 20,000,000, and valuing the 4-lb. loaf
at sixpence, and calculating upon the increase of tliree loaves to the sack,
there will be a gain to the countiy at large of the enormous amount of
2,046,428t per annum — a sum about equal to half the Income-tax as at
present levied.

Tliis mill has been exhibited before her Majesty and his Royal Highness
Prince Alliert, in a private apartment in the Exhibition. The side cuts
represent the safety lever, seen from above and at the side ; d is the lever,
actmg through the pieces a and/ on the roller c e; e is a tightening screw.

MACHINES AND MECHANICAL CONTRIVANCES.

TTNDER tliis head wc shall notice from time to time, citlier in groups, or
individual instances, the principal mechanical appliances exhibited in the
Crystal Palace. In pursuing our labours, we shall not attempt to follow the
Official Catalogue, in the classification of machinery into half a dozen sub-
divisions, beginning with "machinery for direct use ;" considering that so
doing would only tend to confusion and mystification, rather than any
practical good result as regards that most important point, facility of
reference. We consider the terms " machines" aud " machinei'y" to be well
understood, aud so comprehensive as to include every engine or implement,
which convey.s, in a modified form, power, whether animal, or ai'tificially
produced, applied to it.

NARMVTirS STTIAM HAMMER.

AN ILLUSTriATKl) CYCLOP^IDIA OF THE GRKAT KXHIBITIOX OF IBni.

Il n;ii.V 1)0 |ii'iipur U> inM, in om' l.ruutiii»nt of hi-khu'o rii'I tlii; UHcfiil nrts,
tliutlpuiiiliiiK.il"'' oiiK'murriut,'. iiU'l pliiliw"|'lii<'nl iuftti'iimnnti will form eli«-
tiiK't liuiiiU. Ah'i'ioHltiu'ul iMipliimiitH 1111(1 coiiti'ivmiciK will ttUo be troatocl
in a chuju liy tliclii»i,-lvoa.

NASMYTH'S STEAM HAMMER.

Pkuiui'.s llioic is not on reconl .in inTcntion wliioh haa Introdnceil it.^clf
into Kucli cxton.ilvo uso in eo short .a tiuio as NiiKniyth's cxtraordiimi-y [
Btoam liammer. One of those powerful engines, of the size most in use, in i
exhibited in the fiouthcni division of the Maehinei'y department of the
Great Exhibition, not liir from the Britannia liydruulie pivss; but it is
nmeh to be i'ej;ivtted that thi.s most useful engine is not shown at work,
neither is there any aeeount of it in the ofiicial and illustnitcd Catalogue.
Hineo IX-I'i, ill whieli year Mr. James Nnsmytli took out his patent, not
fewer than 380 of these powerful and manageable machines have been
eonsti'uotcd and distributed in all quarters of the globe. In many of the
large engineering eatablishnicnts around Lomloii, wo find even three and four
called into requisition; and wo iidvisc those of our Jjondon re.aders who
have an opportunity of visiting any of the respective establishments of
Messrs. MiuidKlay and Kield, Lambeth (who have three liammers of the
ivspcetive weights of 30, 15, and 5 ewt., for ditlerent kinds of work) ; Penii
and Son, llreeiiwieh; Blyth and Co., ami Seaward and Co., Limehouse;
Miller and llavenhill, Blackwall ; and last, though most important of all,
the highly interesting and extensive iron ship-building establishment of
Messrs. J. C. Mare and Co., at the Orchard House, Blackwall. to lose no
time in seeing tbo extraordinary operations performed through the instru-
mentality of the steam hammer, requiring for itself the attendaneo of quo
person only. The accompanying Engiviving rei)rescnts an elevation of the
hammer, wliicli for this, tlie most useful size, weighs only 30 cwt. ; but the
most gigantic maeliine of the kind which has yet been turaed out is that
at Messrs. Mare's large works, having a hammer of tj tons weight, with a
stroke of li feet. On a recent visit to this establishment, we found cue of
those ]ionderous and apparently luiwieldy paddle-wheel shafts for a pair of
marine engines, building by the celebrated firm of Maudslay and Field ;
this shaft, whicli had been entirely formed by the giant hammer "Thor,"
occupied upwards of three weeks from its commencement to its completion :
it is of the extraordinary weight of 10 J tons, and 27 feet 9 inches in
length ; yet, by aid of a powerful crane, the operation of welding and
forging this largo mass is rendered as simple and easy as that of a horse-
shoe in the hands of a country smith. Messrs. Mare and Co. have also three
other Nasmyth hammers, each decreasing in power to suit various kinds
of work. Referring to the hammer contributed to the World's Fair, wo
find the anvil, which is chiefly buried below the floor, weighs eight tons ;
the hammer itself, already meutioi^ed, and which is suspended from the
piston rod, I3 ton : the piston wdiich works in the cylinder, placed at top of the
machine, is of 16 inches diameter; and the extreme fall of the hammer, or
what in steam-engines is usually called the stroke, is equal to ii inches.
The ingress steam pipe i.s of two inches diameter, the jiressuro of steam
usuallv employed beuig equal to 40 lb. on the square inch. Tlio hammer
being on the self-acting principle, every degree of blow, from that of merely
cracking an egg-shell to that of a dead pressure of 500 tous, is attainable.
The whole width of the frame at the level of the floor is 11 foot; and the
space between the legs iu which the top of the anvil is placed is 7 feet ;
the height of the machine being about 15 feet. The frame is bolted down
to large iron plates let in flush with the floor ; but if the hammer at the
Exhibition had been intended to have been shown in operation, a much
stronger foundation would have beeu required. By admitting the steam
under the piston, the hammer is elevated to the desired height ; and by
its own gravity the hammer falls : but the fall may be instantly eased, if
desirable, by the admission of steam, aeoordiiig to the particular kind of
blow required. In ordinary work, as many as seventy _blows are given ill
a minute.

In the former part of this notice we meutioned the large engineering
establishments iu and around the metropolis, at wdiicli the stenm hammer
may daily be seen fulfilling its appointed duties'; but at all the principal
anchor-makers, at all the large engine builders, and at the principal
railway manufacturing establi-shments in the kingdom, the making up of
iron, either from scraps, old rails, hoops, or from the pile, is also eS'ected
by means of the Nasmyth hammer.

From a statement of iron made by the use of this machine at the North-
Western Company's manufacturing establishment at Crewe, in six months
ending June, 1851, we find that upwards of 17'i tons of iron, in the shape
of tires, axles, &c., including a shaft for a stationary engine, was made ; and
that, after deducting the cost of wages, scrap iron, and coals, there is a clear
profit of upwards of 2300?. Nothing can be mora convincing of the utility
of this engine than the above fact. Before the introduction of this adjunct
to the smithy, the forging of the large marine engine shafts was not only a
tedious but an uncertain process ; and many an accident wdiich has occurred
to the ocean steamers might have been tr.aced to the imperfect forging of
the iron ; for, without blows of sufficient energy, it is impossible to expel
the scoriic from between the bundles of iron rods, which, as in the United
States, they attempted to weld together to form their main shafts.

It is quite impossible to say to what uses Nasmyth's last invention will
hereafter lie applied. At the present time, however, in addition to the
formidable kind of work for which it has hitherto chiefly beeu employed.

its .iiiplication to the Ktuinping out of dinh-covcri), and the inoul.img and
fi.irming of Bilver jilate, is now in [irogreHH.

It is curioiiH enongh, in looking over the specificntion of Jamcx Watt, to
discover that lie had thou(;lit of nning n hammer In connexion with the
power of ntcnui, but had never worke<l (mt the really uBcful mode of
a|iplying the liammer, viz. that of attaching it to the pieton-rwl lt«clf.
This iinportimt Htei> wiu left for the gtniu.i of one of our own timcn prac-
tically to carry it out. It Is in Wati'.i patent of April 28, 17S4, that we
find the following; —

" .My fifth new improvement eonsints in applying the power of steam or
fire engines to the moving of heavy IiainmerB, or htampcrs, for forging or
stamping iron, coiqier, and other metals or uiatteiii, without the interven-
tion of rotative motions or wheels, by fixing the hammer or stamper to be
so worked either directly to the piston or piston rod of the engine, or upon
or to the working beam of the engine, or by fixing the hammer or stamper
ujion a secondary lever or helve, and connecting the said lever or helva,
by means of a strap or of a strong rod, to or with the working beam of the
engine, or to or with its piston or piston-rod.

BIDDKLL'S PATENT SELF-REGULATINQ GAS-BURNEU.

The difficulty of maintaining a uniform flame in tho ordinary gas-burner
is well known, not only to tlie manufacturer of burners, but also to the
consumer of gas. To remedy so glaring a defect in artificial
lighting, has long been a desideratum ; and it wa^ left for
Mr.,BiddelI, of Ipswich, to accomplish so great and valuable
an improvement ; and the mode in which he has accom-
plished this is by the most philosophical means.

The inventor had in view, when he first proposed to
remedy tho defect already alluded to, the compensation
pendulum of a clock, whose true length is preserved,
notwithstanding the alternation of heat and cold to wdiich
it is continually subjected.

Thus Mr. Biddell introduces into the centre of the
burner a vertical compound rod of about ^ inch diameter,
consisting of brass and steel, the cylindrical ca.se being of
brass, and the core within of steel. By the expansion
and contraction of thi.s rod which is surrounded by the
flame, a small lever and simple valve, in connexion with
the bottom of the rod, is acted upon so delicately that the exact amount
of gaa requh'ed to preserve uniformity of flame is regidarly preserved.

l-'i

CHAUCER AND THE EXHIBITION.

CHAUCEn. it would seem, possessed a prophetic faculty in his prefij^uration
of this Palace of Glass. The passages we quote occur in the *• House of
Fame," iu the iutroductiou to which tho poet describes it as a vision and
speculates upon the causes of dreams, affirming his inability to decide
whether —

" BiJii'its have the nii;jrht
To make folks dreron o'night;
(Ir if the soul of propex" kind
lie so perfect as men find
That it wotc what is to ccnnc."

"As I Blept/' he goes on to say —

"I dreamt I waa
"Within a temple made of fflass,
In which there were more images
Oi f/old standing in sundry stages,
In more rich tahernaclea
And with ^ewti^s more plnnacloK,
And more curious porti-ailu res,
And quaint manner of figures
Of gold work than I saw ever.

Then saw I stand on either side,
Straight down to the doors wide
From the dais many a pillar
0/vittal that shone out full clcAr.

• • » •
Then gan I look about and see
Tliat there came ent'ring in the hall
A right great company withal,
And thot of sundry regiotis

Of all kinds of conditions

That divell in earth beneath the moon,

Poor and rich.

• • • »
Such a great amgregation

0/ folks as I saw roam ahoxit.
Some within and some without,

Was never seen nor shall he no more /"

So palpable a coincidence ia, to say the least of it, verj' curious.

Lead Mines oh the San Saba. — The JLni.'iton (Texas) Teleffrapkvaeutions
haviuji seen some very valuable specimens of lead ore, which were brought
from San Saba. There are immense quantities of it. and himdreds of tons
may be obtained witli little labour. This ore eoutains a large portion of
silver, and it is quite probable that the old Spanish miues which were
worked for silver near the old fort on the San Saba resemble this. Tho
settlements ai'e rapidly extending towards the region where this ore is
found.

The American department has received an important accession of
strength in tho shape of some specimens of Brussels cai-pet, woven upon
power looms. Although various attempts have been made to adapt the
power loom to cai'pet weaving in this country, there is not, we believe, any
machinery perfected for that object. Our American brethren have, there-
fore, gained another .<itep ahead of us. and liave won another laurel on this
well-contested field of the industrial arts.

AusTHALiAK Gold. — The lirr^t specimen of Australian gold arrived on
Thursday, vid Singapore, and was exhibited in the Jerusalem Coffee-house.
It seems of good quality. The gold ore in the Exhibition is from South
Australia.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS.

COLOSSAL STATUE OF THE QUEEN, IN ZINC.
This statue, which represents our gi-acious Sovereign seated upon the
throne, arrayed in all the attributes of royalty, is an appropriate coi. nent
from the Vieille Montague Zinc Company, of France and Belgiur.,, lo this
country, in commemoration of the Great Exhibition of all Nations. Its
production also affords an instance of extraordinary energy, having; been,
we are informed, " commenced and brought to its present state within the
short space of three mouths." The statue stands, mth the pedestal, 21 feet
hi^h. The design and modelling are from the hands of M. Dantan, aine,
of Paris ; the etchings of the pedestal by M. Lenormand, architect, and
produced by M. Hardouiu. The statue was cast under the immediate
inspection of M. Victor Paillai'd. Independently of all consideration as
a work of portraiture, this is a remarkable production, and deserves
attention.

Trial of Bazlet, 'White, & Sons' Cement.-- During 'Saturday, and
again on Monday afternoon, the beam of
hollow bricks and Portland cement, con-
structed by Messi*3. Bazley, ^Miite, & Sons,
at the western extremity of the building,
underwent a trial of strength, which
attracted a good deal of attention. Tlus
brick beam was identical in size with that
of common bricks and Roman cement
constructed at Nine Elms in 1836, and
which, after standing eighteen months, was
broken down by a weight of 50,652 lbs.
Its dimensions were 21 feet i inches
bearing between the piers, 2 feet 3 inches
in thickness at the bottom of the beam,
and 1 foot 6 inches, at the top, the height
being i feet 2 inches. The layers of
hollow bricks, besides being joined with
Portland cement, were held together by
thin bands of iron passing through them,
and the whole has remained standing
since the opening of the Exhibition, with
an announcement attached that it would
be weighted and broken before the close.
On Saturday the supply of pig ii-on pro-
vided for this purpose failed, and the
experiment was renewed, on Monday, iu

the presence of Dr.

Ansted, Mr. Godwin,
General Pasley, and
others interested.
When the load placed
on the beam had been
increased to 62,800 lbs.,
a crack was observed
running right up the
centre, and two others
at equal distances on
either side converging
towards the centre as
they extended upwards.
Then the abutments
were thrown out of the
perpendicular, one to
the extent of a foot, the
other an inch and a
half. Finally the beam
broke right in half, the
experiment terminated
in the most satisfactoiy
manner for the reputa-
tion of hollow brick
consti-uctions and Poi-t-
land cement. It may be
stated as a cmious fact
in connection with this
supposed new species
of building material,
that the use of hollow
bricks was well known
to the Romans, and that
in Tunis, at the present
time, they are in con-
etant requisition. It
was originally intended
by the Bey to send over
gpeeimens, but the inte-
rest of such a contri-
bution was at the last
moment accidentally
overlooked.

?r;/;if«:g^l^ssssaeBBei^!^T®*>5&g»5yS5S!s ' h

COL055,\L BT.iTUE OF THE OUEEN, IN ZINC.

Visitors to the Great Exhibition. — The shortening days abridge
gradually the time during which the building remains open, and now,
instead of closing at six o'clock, spectators are rung out ten minutes before
sunset. Yet the interest continues unabated, and the desire of the public
to visit this storehouse of the world's productions is no longer a movement
of curiosity, but an impxdse spreading through the length and breadth
of the land, and dramng people together from the remotest portions of the
kingdom. It may be mentioned, as a curious illustration of the desire
felt amon,' the humbler classes'in the provinces to see the Exhibition, that
a poor liliwoman, from the parish of Paul, in Cornwall, named Maiy
Caliuack, aged 84, walked to Loudon, a distance of 350 miles, for the
purpose, occupying in the performance of this pedestrian feat no less than
five weeks.

Preservation op the Bcilding. — A'scheme for presei-ving the Building
is said to be .about to be propounded, in which its mainten.ance, indepen-
dently of either Royal Commission or Government, is to be shown to be
feasible. This, supposing the Woods and Forests are willing, will be a gi'cat

point 'gained, since no public grant seems
at all likely to be obtainable, and as to the
surplus, that is a se.iled source so far as
the general question is concerned. As
regards the appropriation of this surplus,
the Mayor of Birmingham (Mr. Lucy),
whose activity on behalf of the Exhibition
is so well known and so highly appreciated,
has brought before his fellow-townsmen
a proposition in the form of a memorial
to the Prmce and the Royal Commission,
aud calls attention to the Conserviitory of
Arts and Manufactures aud the Central
School of Arts and Ma'.iufactures of Paris,
as offering examples for similar institu-
tions in this country ; .lud proposing that
there should be founded with the surplus
proceeds of the Exhibition, as being
stnctly within the terms of the pledge
gi%eu a Great Central College of Arts
iiid Manufactures in London," as also "a
Mu c m of Arts aud Manufactures;" and
th t pio\incial schools having the same
object m view (such as Schools of Design)
should have connection with the Central
College, and be carried on under the
same system ; and, in
order that the public
may be satisfied >\'ith
the administration of
these provincial esta-
blishments, and have a
voice in the general
system of education,
which is of such im-
portance to our com-
mercial prosperity, it is
suggested, "that when
such provincial schools
may be founded in
boroughs, the Mayors
should be ex officio
members of the Gene-
ral Board of Metropo-
litan Dii-ectiou." This
memorial has been re-
ceived in Birmingham
with great unanimity,
and a hearty approval
given to its suggestions,
aud it is now in the
course of signature.
Here, then, we have a
definite proposition at
last, whereon to open
the question, " What is
to be done with the
surplus proceeds of the
Great Exhibition V

The question as to
the removal of the mass
of goods ■ now in the
building is beginning to
.attract attention. The
pacldng ' up of great
numbers of the articles
will be found to be a
delicate task, and one
which will not be easily
got through.

'^^^^

>^^\^

.^s^>

^MMiIiMco^iMSj-

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPyEDIA' OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

,/ I

No. 2, October 11, 1851.

THB TRTSTAT, FOUXTAIN IH TTIT. TBANSEPT LOOCTXCI KORTR.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS j

MINES AND METALLURGY,

IRON ORES AND MANUFACTOEE.

JROy, its vscs and properties. — Of all substances in nature that are
available for the purposes of man, and have assisted in advancing liim to
that high position in which he is enabled to command and guide mechanical
force to an extent almost unlimited, there is not one that can be regarded
as more impoi-tant than iron. 'Without tliis metal the stores of mineral
fuel must have remained unemployed, or at least must have been of com-
paratively little value : without it, the other metals, however valuable and
useful, could hardly have been obtained for use ; without it. the earth
itself could hardly be made to yield, at least in cold aud temperate climates,
those abundant returns of food which support millions of human beiugs
in health and comfort ; and without it there could have been no such
systems of communication between distant lands connected only by the
ocean, as are now found to be true sources of commercial wealth, and of
the advantages of which we Englishmen have the best knowledge of any
people in tlie world. Gold and sOver without iron are mere toys for
children aud savages; precious stoneis without iron remain encrusted
with the matrix, which prevents their beauty from being seen ; various
earths and metals now of enormous value would be unknown and un-
attainable without the iron implements by wliieh they are produced ; and
steam, that source of all power, that giant by whose services the most
impossible things are eflected, would sleep at rest, or, if employed, would
be occupied in the merest trifles, if it were not that its forces are con-
centrated, and its powers directed by the iron prison by which it is confiued,
and the arms by which it works. Look where we will, in the vast forest
of human constructions, exposed witliin the walls of the C'ry.stal Palace,
we .shall every where see contrivances in which iron holds a prominent
pai-t, from the pillars and girders that support the Building itself, to the
nail and the pin that connect the different parts of tlie smallest object
exhibited within it. AVe propose, therefore, to consider the various sources
from whicli iron is obtained, the mode of obtaining the metal, the method.'j
adopted for preparing it for use.i of various kinds, and the applicatioiis
commonly made.

Perhaps it may be well, however, first of all to mention the chief pro-
perties that give a value to this metal. The first of these Is its hardue-ss,
which is always considerable, but may be varied by different modas of
treatment, and in one state (that of steel> may become so great as to cut
all but the very hardest substances in nature. Owing to its hardnes.s,
iron is w-ell adapted for making all kinds of tools and implements, and
the u.se of it is now so extensive in this respect that hardly any limit can
be put to its employment. Next to hardues,s, iron is remarkable for its
tenacity, in which, when pure, no metal surpasses it. A wire, l-12th of
an inih in diameter, will support a weight of a quarter of a ton w^ithout
breaking. It is neeille.?s to enlarge on the advantages of such a pro-
perty, and tlie ap))lication of iron wire in the manufacture of ropes and
chains are examples of this power of tenacity, which will occur to
every one.

The next rem,-u-kable property of iron is its malleability, which is
gi-eatest at a high tomjierature, and in consequence of wliich it may be
hammered into almost any shape, and rendered available for innumerable
im[ioi-tant >ises. Every one is aware of the facility with which the l>lack-
Rinith at his forgo v.ill mould a piece of red-hot iron into the required
form ; nd those who have visited any large manufactory in which iron
is worked will know of yet fui-ther operations of a far more astoni.shing
kind.

On the further application of heat, iron exhibits other properties equally
remarkable and useful. It can be fu.sed when nearly pure, but requires for
that purpose the very highest degree of heat producible by a strong blast.
Athough thus difficult of fusion, however, there is no difficulty in uniting
two piece.5 at a far lower temperature, for this metal is capable of " wokl-
iug," a term giveu to the processes of unitmg two surfaces by a kind of
cement;ttioi», obtained when both surfaces are at a liigh heat and very
clean, and are theu hanuuered together. Few metals, and no other .sub-
stances kuowii, exhibit thi« jiroperty, but its vijue is too manifest to need
further remark.

lu MaMifaclwre. — Although iron in its pure state is tough, almost infu-
BLble, m.alh-nble, and admirably adaptcil for various pur^ioscs iu which
great strength aud ten.acity are needcil, there are yet other uses in which a
more fluid condition is desirable, and others ag.oin where a far greater
degree of hardncfis is wanted. Both these are obtaiuable, however, by a
very slight admixture of a substance so common as charcoal (carbon),
wliich ui different proportions render.9 the iron either so easdy fused as to
bo readily cast into moulds, or so intensely hard as to form steel. In
tlie ordiuarj- method of reducing the metal from tlie ore, a number of
impurities remain, the proportion of iron not exceeding from 91 to 95 per
cent., although of the remainder not more th.an fi'om three to four per cent

are carbon, except in very unusmxl cases. Tliis small percentage suffices,
however, to alter the chai'acter of the product so far as to give a peculiar
granular texture, sometimes aimo.st crystalline. The metal is also then
more brittle, lighter, aud more fu.sible than malleable iron. At a red heat,
when the iron is made with charcoal, cast iron is so soft that it may be cut
with a saw, aud iu tliis state by admixture with a small ciuautity of other
substances, it may be reudered far more fu.?ible.

When iron, cast into pigs with tlie impurities already alluded to, is subse-
quently melted and exposed for some time, m a fluid state, to the air, it
parts with the gi-eatcr portion of such foreign substances, becoming at length
less fluid and much more pure. When in this state, if it is removed from the
furnace, exposed first to the violent blows of a heav^- hammer, and after-
wards passed through heavy rollers, it is brought into the state of ^^TOught
or bar u-on. The purest kinds of WTought irou still contain a certain por-
tion of carbon (not exceedmg five pai-ts in a thousand, and often not exceed-
ing two.) but in this .state the metal is tough, solid, better adapted than cast
iron where durability and strength are needed, aud havmg a very distinct
texture. Soft bar iron is more free from carbon than hard, but no addi-
tional hardness is produced by rapid cooling after exposure to a high heat,
as is the case both with cast iron and steel.

AVlien pig iron, containing little besides cai-bon, and, perhaps, manganese,
is first refined by exposure to the blast under charcoal, and then made into
flat bars, and these Ijars cut into lengths and welded together into bimdles,
they become what is called shear steel. This, again, when exposed for a
period of from five to eight days, at a red heat, iu pots filled with charcoal
powder, becomes altered by the absorption of carbon, which penetrates the
iron, aud when it meets with any oxidised portions produces blisters form-
ing thus blistered steel. This fused under pounded glass, with or without
carbon, and then cast mto ingots, becomes cast steel. In this last state, it is
fit for use in the arts, and is somewhat whiter than iron, and has a distinct
fracture ; when made red hot and slowly cooled, it becomes soft, but when
i*e-heated and suddenly cooled, it may be brouglit to almost any degree of
hardness, being then also very elastic, more or less brittle according to cir-
cumstances, and capable of use for a variety of important purposes. The
nature of the resulting steel is almost entirely aflected by the temperature
to which it is raised before cooling, and by the mode of cooling ; and as the
temperature is marked by the colour which the metal assumes while re-
heating, this is commonly referred to as an indication of the temper. The
order of colours is, straw yellow, deep yellow, purple, violet, dark blue, and
light blue.

Irun Ores — Sources of. — The sources from which iron is obtained
vary much iu different countries ; but the common ores are oxides and
carbonates, of wliich there are several varieties. The richest is the magnetic
iron oi'e, containing upwards of 71 j per cent, iron, and either itself magnetio
or readily attracted by the magnet. It is of iron-black colour, brittle, aud
often crystalline. Little of this ore is found iu England, but large quan-
tities occur iu Scanduiavia, Russia, and India, which are all celebrated for
the quality of the steel luauufacted from their iron ; and it is abundant,
also, in North America. Mexico), aud Brazil. The ores of this kind are
reduced generally with charcoal, and on rather a small scale, and are easily
brought into the state of pig, having few earthy impurities mixed with
them. All the finest steel is made from magnetic ores ; aud fine samples
of the ores themselves, aud the pig and bar iron manufactured from theui,
are exhibited in the Ru.s.siau and Scandinavian divisions. From India,
also, besides a large series of ores, there is exhibited a case containing the
various conditions of the ii'on, including the steel in various states known
as v;ool3 steel, and exhibited by the Indian Ir<:tn and Steel Comjiany. The
large and highly-important series of Sheffield goods on the British si'le
must also be mcutioned here as presenting the bewt aud most valuable
ilhtstration of the products obtaiiied from the magnetic ores. Amongst
the Shelfield goods are also one or two model.s — one m particular, of large
size aud iu great detail, illustrating the whole of the processes adopted in
converting irou into steel, and bring this very remarkable compound of
iron and carbon into a state available for the mauufacturei'. We refer to
the model of the Cyclops Works iu Class 22, No. 109 A, which is accom-
}tanied by a series of articles in .steel of great interest. No one can have
examined the articles exhibited in tlie Shetficld court without being per-
fectly satisfied of the high state of perfection which the manufacture of
steel has attained in this country, and the importance of having the best
material foi' such admu'able workmanship. There is generally understood
to be a gi'eater amount of elasticity, aud a susceptibility of finer temper iu
the steel made from Imlian iron than that from Sweden; and it has been
supposed by very eminent chemists that this owing to the presence of a
small quantity of aluminum ; but it must as yet be con.sidered doubtful
whether this is es.sential or accidental.

Before concludmg the notice of the magnetic ores, we should direct
attention to those obtained in British North America, among.st which are
some fine specUueus indicating a source of wealth which will not, we are
sure, be neglected.

Next to the magnetic ores, the richest material from which iron can be
obtained consists of the peroxide kuowu to mineralogists as the specular
iron ore, micaceous iron ore, red htcmatite, and oligist respectively. This
ore is also sometimes called iron-glance. It exists in two forms — the one
earthy, and the other cry.stalline aud metalliferous ; but both ai'c equally
rich, and yield, when pure, about 69^ per cent, of metallic iron. These ii
ore.s, like the former, are not those generally found and used in our own
country, although they exist there in considerable abvmdance, and are

AN ILLTISTHATED rYf'LOP.EDTA OF THE fJREAT TIXIIIBITION OF 1851.

even used extcnuivuly to uiix with and hrinK to a ounvunicnt average <iomo
of the poorer oroa. The uioro lirilliaiit and iiictal-liko Hpeciiiiens chiefly
aboitnii in ICllia, and are oftc-n called Kllia ores ; but these and otlier less
glittering' fornw also occur in almost every district where iron is found in
loiueral veins. They are worked in small f'liniaces almost as easily as the
magnetii: kinds, luit are nowhere so valtiahlu lor the manufacturi! of steel,
althnu>;li, like the former, they are smelted with charcoal only. The
lieltjian ores, and those from Spain, may he (inuted as examples of these,
and the admirabli^ ipi.iJity of tlie iron exliibite<l, and of the >;oods nianu-
lactured of such iron, shows cleai'ly that if it cannot vie with that made
iu Kngliuiil in the matter of cost, it may yet take a very high place fir
toughness and durability. It is cliiedy the earthy varieties ^llfumatites)
that are useii in England, and of tliese many specimens, very remarkable
for size and beauty, both from Cornwall ami Lam^asliirc, have been exhibited
l)y various jiersons, ami .amongst the rest by IMr. Thomas Ainsworth, of
Cleator near Whitehaven, and Jlessrs. Harrison, Ainslie. and Co. of New-
hvud Furnace, Ulvcrstou. In both these cases the ores contain from 60 t<j
05 per cent, of iron, ami are fonnd immeiliately adjacent to the poorer
ores common iu lOngland, and also to the coal, so that tliey arc brouglit
into immediate use. The cuiantlty that caTi bo supplied is very Large; but
there are at jirBsent, we believe, only three furnaces iu bla.st. The iron is
considered to be of very good quality.

In some parts of the world largo quantities of hydrous oxide of iron
arc obtained in a state very well adapted for the manufacture of iron.
iSucli, for example, M the liog iron in'cs, of which there are magni-
ficent specimens from Canada, said to produce excellent metal. In its
pure state, this hydrous oxide woidd not yield more than riS per cent, of
iron, and from 12 to 18 per cent, w.iter; b>it it is rarely found in large
quantities having ;uiytliiug like tliis value. The technical name for the ore
iu question, ;is a group, is hi'uwn hivmatiU', aud they uiay be regarded as
averaging 20 to 40 per cent, of iron. Large qiuantities occur in the
northernmost, counties of England, in distinct and regular- bed.s, associated
with the lead veins of that district.

Clmj/ron Slonc'i. — But the ores of chief importance to Engl.and, and
tho>e supplying Vjy far the largest proiwrtion of all tlie iron manufactured
in the world, are neither the richest in quality, nor tho=e deposited iu the
thickest m.xsses, but anotlier series, far less likely, .at the fir.st glance, to
attract attention, .and requiring methods to reduce them of a more com-
plicated kind than the simple forges hitherto needed. M'e allude to the
claij iron-stones, as they .are called, which are widely distributed with the
coal, and near the limestone, in South Wales, North Wales, Shropshire,
Staffordsliire, Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and Northumberliind, and the valley
of the Clyde. Those arc the true materials of England's greatness, and
these, accordingly, hiive long been anxiously sought after, and most care-
fully worked. From these sources upwards of twti millions and a quartet
of tons of iron are .annually produced ; of which South Wales fumi-she.?
700,000 tons, South Staffordsliire (including part of Worcestershire) 600.000,
and Scotland 600,000 tons. Of the ores from these severiil di.stricts, there
is one large and most valuable series of about 500 specimens, very carefully
selected .and exhibited by Jlr. S. Blackwell, of Dudley — a gentleman who
deserves the utmost credit for having, at gi'eat expense of time aud labotir,
brought together these materials, and arranged them as a noble illu,stratiou
of what nature ha.s done for the British Islands iu reference to iron.

All the clay iron-stones par-t.ake of a general character, although they
differ a little iu appearance, and much in relative value. They are nodules,
consisting of an impure carbonate and oxide of iron, mixed with clay, aud
apparently separated from a more genenally diifused ferruginous condition,
in a large series of deposited rocks, including much clay and much vege-
t.ible matter. They occur in bands generally of no grciit thickness (often
only a few inches), and not far from thicker bauds of coal, with which they
are worked. The quality of the iron made from them varies a good deal —
jiartly, it may be, from the condition of the ores, but chiefly from the fuel
with which the ores .are smelted and refined.

The manufacture of iron fi'om these poor ores is conducted on a very
large scale, in furnaces constructed <at great cost, aud kept constantly at
work for a long time. Described in their simplest form, these furnaces
consist of a receptacle at the bottom for the fused iron to collect in, and
fi'om "which it can be drawn off from time to time ; a chamber to receive
and fuse the mixture of ore-flux and fuel j.iut in from the top, aud a blast
to produce intense heat. The chamber is generally liigh, and partly chimney-
shaped ; the blast is conducted by pipes from a machine where it is produced,
and there are means of dramng off not only the metal, but the slag or
scum that forms on the top of the fusing ma-ss. The furnace being already
heated, a due mixture of material, consisting of the ore (consisting of car-
bonate and oxide of iron, with alumina and silica^ limestone, and coal or
coke, are thrown iu from the top; the alumina .and silica of the ore then
combine with the lime, forming a kind of glass under the influence of the
burning fuel, acted on by a powerful blast, sometimes of hot air, and the
iron is set free, .and sinks in a fluid state to the bottom. . The flo.ating .slag
m.ay be drawn oft" from time to time, aud the charge of ore fiux and fuel
repeated till a suflFicient quantity of metal is collected. The charge is
added, and the metal dr.awn off generally at regular intervals, and the
re.sult is the production of pig iron. The further processe.s have been
already alluded to.

Very fine specimens of pig iron and b.ar iron are exhibited both in Cla-ss
land Clxss 22. Among the latter, the Low-moor Works, near Bradford,
'V ovkshiro (Messrs. Hinrf, Dawson, and Hardy), present a sei-ies extremoly

remarkable (or tlioir variety and ifrcnl oiccllcncc, some «pccimon» of rivet
iron, knotted colil with two or three knolH, mid bcut at one end. nhowini;
very Htrikingly the tenacity of iron in a wrouglit Htato. This is Hhown still
further by n piece of chain iron, originally •! foot 5 inchon long and It incU
(liarttotcr, Btniincd and broken by a weight of 34 tons, but which, beforo
being broken, wim dr.iwn out an much an loj inches, and wa« rc<luct'd t'j a
diameter of jj inch. Other fine examples of good bar iron, whiijled to
various |iiirpoKes, are exhibited by the Kbbw Vale Company, .South Waloii
(Cliiw) 1, No. 412), and by Messrn. Bird and Co. (No. 41 li. who nhow
adniirublo upociinens of Staffordshire iron. The ]iroduet8 of tli* .Scotch
iron and coal fields arc presented by the Monklaiid Iron and Steel CoKqisny
(42fti ; and, before leaving this part of the subject, wo must luentioxi
Mr. .Stirling's patcntol method of mixing together malleable and ciuit iron,
and also of mixing other metals (cliiefly zinc) with iron to produce greater
strength in the comjiound. Ireland, also, ha-s not been uiircpreBcnto<J.
Tlic Biiccimens exhibitxid from Arigna by Dr. Mooro (No. 408), are interest-
iiig, a.s rnado from charred peat. The quality appears good, but the cconomj
of the optT.ition is still doubtful. The ores are rich, yielding as much a«
10 per cent, of iron. Coal exists in the neighbourhood, but it is not of
excellent kind, iind the cost of the ton of iron manufactured in this locality
must bo reckoned as Jiot much ondur it,, a prico far too high to iiromuie
much success af present.

The manufacture fif iron on a largo scale has been already deicribed in
speaking of the management of the abundant British ores.

There arc many differences of detail in the methods employwl on tlio
Continent, and even in jiarticular di.stricts in our own country, but tiio
above genenJ account will cnalde the reader to understand something of
the labour and dilficulty. as well as cost, required to produce a nLiterial
which is, however, as we all know, supplied at a jirico which brings it
within the daily use of every person for the very c<'nmioncst purjios^s.

It may give an iilea of the magnitude of the work to mention that there
arc now 185 blast furnaces for the m.anufacture of iron in iiouth Wales, 143
of them licing actually at work, and producing, on an average, lOO tons of
iron per week ; that in .Shropshire, and ifs neighbourhood, there .are 28 ; in
.Staffordshire, 108; and iu tho more nortliern counties, 4(5 — such furnaces
making in all 10;! iu bliv^t, in addition to the 143 in Wales. Scotland adds
its sh.are to the list, aud the gener.al result is, that the enormous quantity
of 2.250.000 tons of iron are now annu.'vlly manufactured in the British
ishuid.?. being .at the r.atc of two cwt. a-year for every man, .toman, and
child of the whole population. As no le.53 than three tons of coal are
required to produce each ton of iron, this manufacture also requires a. con-
sumption of 7.500,000 tons of fuel, without including that employed m tlic
further operations of iron-makuig, and the incidontal uses of coal in various
w.ays.

THE CRYSTAL FOUNTAIN. (See most Paob.)

H.iD this Exhibition {.ikon place seven yta-s ago, the examples of glass
manufacture on the Briti-di side would have been so ridiculous a.s to have
provoked contempt. Happily, the removal of that fiscal restriction which
paralysed our ghiss trade for so many genei'atious, preventing, as it did, all
improvement, and creating a monopoly where freedom alone could be
expected to be successful, has enabled us to make such strides in this im-
portant manufacture as to place us in a position to become, at least, equal
to our continental neighbours in the production of ornamental glass, whilst
it i.s confessed that we arc .alre.ady superior to them in the manufacture of
the more useful kinds. The Crj'stal Pal.ace itself is .an example of this;
aad Csler's Glass Fountain is fitly placed iu the centre at the intersection
of the nave with the transept. Tho ba-sin of concrete in whic'i the fountain
itself is placed is some 24 feet in diameter, and affords a goodly surface for
the falling spray. The structure of ghiss stands 27 feet high, and is formed
of columns of glass raised in tier.s, the main tier supporting a b.asin from
which jets of water can bo made to project, in addition to the main jet at
tho top. As the .stnicture rises it tapers upwiU'd in good proportion, the
whole being fii-m and compact in apiiearauee, and presenting almost a
solidity of aspect unusual with glass structures. A central shaft with a
slightly "lipped" orifice finishes the whole, aud from this the water issues
in a broad well-spread jet, forming iu its descent a lUydike flower before
separating into a spr,ay, which in the sun-light glittei-s and sparkles in
harmony with the fountain itself. Altogether this is an uuique aud magni-
ficent work, and many difSculties of construction have been overcome
before the structure presented itself in its present form. Tho principal
shaft is strengthened by means of a rod of iron passing through it, but
concealed from observation by the refr.actiug properties of the fans. Up-
wards of four tons of cry.stal glass was used in the construction of this
fountain. The principal dish Is upwards of S feet m diameter, and weighed
previous to cutting ueai-ly a ton. The shafts round the bai-e weighed nearly
50 lbs. each previous to cutting.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

FOREIGN AND COLONIAL
DEPARTMENTS. No. 2.

THE CANADIAN COURT.
A HUNDRED years ago, supposing a great

international and industrial exhibition
to have been possible at that time, Canada
would have furnished a very different as-
sortment from that with which she has pre-
sented us. Then we should have had a
rude and miscellaneous lot of native manu-
factures and native finery, something after
the fashion of that actually collected in the
Tunis bay (which we shall describe here-
after)— a wigwam, some wooden or horn
spoons, rough earthen pots, a few em-
bi'oidered mocassins, a few tomahawks, and
a dozen or so of scalps and other military
trophies ; but nothing indicative of the
natural resources of this vast and almost
virgin tract of territory, nothing that spoke
of the honest industi'y or intelligent enter-
pi-ise of its inhabitants. Very different
from this, however, is now the case. Civi-
lisation has begun its useful work in the
far west ; European industry has planted
the spade there, and some of the fruits
are now before us — speakmg much and
creditably for the past, but speaking still
more cliceringly of what is yet to come.

We have not yet had possession of
Canada for a hundred years. It is set
down amongst the discoveries of Sebastian
Cabot in 1497. The French, it is asserted,
made a map of a portion of the coast in
1508; in 1525, the country was formally
taken possession of in the name of the King
of France; in 1635, Carlier explored its
great river, and named it the St. Lawrence,
from having on that saint's day first sailed
upon its waters. The first settlement was
at Quebec in 1608, and the country re-
mained in possession of the French until
the capture of that city by General Wolf,
in 1759 ; and by the treaty of Paris, in
1763, the whole ten-itory, comprising an
area of about three times as large as Great
Britain and Ireland, was ceded to England.

In Canada emigration has been going on
thither ever since, but still there are vast
regions of the best land still uncultivated
and covered with forests. In ISli the occu-
pied land in the East or Lower Canada
amounted to 7.540,450 acres, of which
3,083,950 are cultivated, and 4,456,400 still
unreclaimed. The gi-eat plain between
Lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario, comprising
about 20,000 square miles, and the best
grain counti-y of any in the northern parts
of America, is still for the most part covered
with lofty forests.

The Canadian contributions at the Great
Exhibition are not so showy certainly as
those from tlic Ea?^ Indies, sent in by the
East India Company, and which happen to
be located in the adjoining and opposite
compartments, but they arc more valuable
as evidences of social wealth and social
advancement. They are the spoils of peace,
not of war, the industrial begiunings of a
junior branch of the great civilising family
of the universe, not the gaudy remains of
an effete barbarism, which lias been de-
molished, but not yet replaced by anything
better. The Canadians send us abundant
samples of natural wealth drawn from the
bowels of the earth — specimens of u-on,
copper, and silver ore, besides a case of
native gold obtained from the gravel on the
south-east side of the prolongation of the
( Continued on patje 22.)

AN ll;Li;STnATEl) CVCLOIMIDIA OF TIIK GKEAT EXMIJUTION OF IHJl.

I'AIMEK MACHJi
JKWEL CASE.

BY JENNINOS AND CO*

The nianufacturo ot
I'npior Maciic Iiiw been
brouglit to tt liigli state of
perfection by Messrs.
Joiiningu and Bettridga,
of Binuingbam, wlio ex-
hibit ita n]i]>licatiou to a
great variety of artiolos
of use and luxury. The
jewel casket before us,
wbicli is from tbo design
of Mr. VV. U. Fitzcooke,
is a favourable specimen ;
elegant in shape, and the
ornaments gi-aceful in
choi'acter, and suitable to
tlio occasion.

PAPIRR MACIIE JEWEL-CASK. JEKNINi.'^ AM; v.iri

There are two tortu of
Papier Mfttlif — one in
which the paper in beat
up into a pulp, and then
moulded to the form
required ; tbo other in
which Bucccssivo layers
of paper, wetted, are
placed under a strong
]>rc»8ure, which elightly
alters the form. Tho
latter is the method
adopted in the caao of
tea-trays and other worlci
of flat sui-facesaud him pie
Btructure ; tho former is
used in the case of more
intricate objects, an arti-
cles of furniture, ic.

PlLVEIt SAr.T-CKLLAnS

sents Sir Roger de Coverley having his fortune told by gipsies,
Addison standing behind, reclining against a tree. The group is
vei-y satisfactorily composed, and the workmanship is of an
excellent order; 'but we object, as a rule, to all story-subjects
in ornamental plate,
and particularly to
story-subjects which
are purely inven-
tional ; aud, to say
the truth, neither
very stiikiug in their
incidents, nor ot
very great notoriety.
Allegorical and con-
ventional subjects
ai'C all very well, if in-
cluding appropriate
objects of decora-
tion ; but an old
gentleman having
his fortune told, and
another looking on,
is but a dull episode
for the dessert table.
The Silver Sail-
Cellars, by Morel,
are very beautiful
little affaii-s, in the
Louis Quatorze style.
They represent i-us-
tic childi-en, quite of
the Watteau order,

ORNAMENTAL SILVER.

The articles in decorative plate, both of British and
Foreign manufacture, displayed in the Great Exhibition,
will come in for a large share of our attention. There
are many principles involved in their production, both as
regards taste of design and the skill and finish of its
working out, which are highly interesting in connection
with tho history and prospects of Art. These are points
which we shall enter more fully upon in the course of
our observations on " the Arts of Design and Decoration."
In our occasional notices of particular objects, we shall
only incidentally refer to such points of criticism as
appear to be illustrated in a striking manner by
them. Tho Silver Centre Piece, by J. Angell, repre-

BV MOr.EL.

bearing baskets, and dancing lightly under
their burthens. Each of these figures have
been individually modelled, and finished ivitli
repowjse method, a style
which has been
aliandonedeversince
the sixteenth cen-
tury, until its recent
revival by enter-
prising artista of our
own day.

■In tho repousse
method every fea-
ture and lineament
is tlie result of the
inspii-ation and ac^cu-
rate handling of tho
artist at the moment
of execution ; and
exact repetitions are
impossible. This is
conducive to the cul-
ture of art ," though
of course contrary
to the economic
pirinciples of mere
manufacture. In ar-
ticles of viriii, how-
ever, ai-t should be
considered as su-
preme, just as in
manufactures econo-
my ia evei-ything.

CEirtRE flECE, SIIS EOCEr, Dfi COVtIILEV, 1;V J. i^\LLL

THE CPxYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

Green Mountains; specimens of niagnesitorock,of stones of fine qualityfor the
purpose of litliography, of agates, soap-stones, gypsum, sl.ates, and serpentines.
Of timber there is a large assortment, the major part forming a large pile or
trophy in the midst of the main avenue, and which we shall speak of in
detail presently. Of agricultural products we have numerous samples, the
Canadian exhibitors evidently attaching a duo importance to this branch of
their nadonal wealth : barrels filled with corn, Indian meal, barley, oats,
peas, beans, flax, potatoes preserved for sea voyage ; with Siberian oil-seed,
hemp, hops, and sugar from the maple tree, all show the varied richness of
a tmd which, put to good account, might effectually relieve the distress of
ihe older communities of the world.

Lastly, in unmanufactured, or but partially manufactured, products,
there are specimens of moose liide and leather, moose-deer's head and
horns, cilf-skin, porpoise-skin, &c.

In addition to these resources of natural wealth, the Canadian colonists
are farourably represented as regards their skill of handicraft — particularly
as relates to furniture and articles of domestic and general use. Of furni-
ture there are several most creditable specimens — substantial in make,
whilst aiming at some trick of style in decoration, which, although of course
not claiming to compete with the more finished and artistic articles of
liixe produced in Lonvlon, Vienna, and Paris, show an aptness of handling,
which a little study of improved models, abundant opportunities for which
the present Exhibition affords, will doubtless, in future, direct more happily.
Amongst the articles of furniture desei-ring of especial mention, from the
loyal associations connected with them, ai'e half-a-dozen chaii-s, the scats
and back worked in worsted and silk by the ladies of Jlontreal, " for
England's Queen." There are also a handsome pianoforte and some other
musical instruments, showing that Saxon industry in Canada does not
intend to restrict itself for the future to mere articles of utiUty.

In the midst of the room arc some very stylish sleighs, with harness and
sleigh-robes complete ; and a fire-engine of unusually large proportions,
and remarkably elegant design and workmanship, capable of tlirowing two
streams of water ]5(i feet high, or a single stream 210 feet high. There is
attached to it a box containing neces.sary tools, and with a seat for the
nccommodatiou of the firemen, but this adds greatly to tije length, and
although a useful contrivance for the comparatively open thoroughfares of
Montreal, would hardly do for the crowded London streets.

Amongst other matters which the visitor will remark in this collection,
are some interesting models, including one of a wonden bridge, having an
arch of 250 feet span ; a Canadian trading c;uioe, made of course of bark —
a remarkably fine specimen of this class of boat ; ship-buildiug crooks and
futtocks ; siiecimeus of cordage ; various tools and articles of cutlery ;
samples of carjietiug, blankets, and grey cloth ; fine cloths and satinettes ;
patent leather ti-uuks, bound with brass ribs, and remarkably substantial ;
cooking and p^udour stoves ; a church bell, made from the copper of Lake
Huron ; some excellent printing types ; a new description of copying-press ;
snow-shoes and mocassins ; and even some articles of jewellery and Some
specmieus of artificial teeth.

We shall give a. view of the Canadian '■ Trophy of Timber," with some
observations on the Timber trade, in our next

INAUGUKATION OF THE CRYSTAL PALACE.

The large illustration across pages 2i and 25 represents the entrance of
her Majesty oud-the Prince Consort, accompanied by the Prince of Wales
and the Princess Roy.al, and their attendants, for the Inauguration of the
Great Exhibition on the 1st of May. Few who were present can forget
that scene. After her Majesty had left the robiug-room a flourish of
trumpets announced her approach, when the bronzed gates leading into
the transept were flmig open, and the full ci-ash of chorus, band, and organ
burst into " God save the Queen," only to bo drowned by the acclamations
which simultaneously arose from floor and palleries, from nave and aisle.?,
as the Royal procession advanced to the splendid dais prepared for them.
Following the Lord Chamberlain, and a group of the principal officers of
the household, all of them walking backwarth--, and ushering in her Majesty,
came the Queen, leaning upon the arm of Prmce Albert, and holding the
Prince of Wales by the hand ; the Prince Consort conducting, in like
manner, the Princess Royal. Following the Royal group was a glittering
line of lords and laiiies — the uniforms and Court dresses of the gentlemen
contrasting with the toilettes of the maids of honour and ladies in waiting.
Close to her Majesty walked the Prince of Prussia, with the Duchess of
Kent on his arm ; then followed a long Ime of officers of the Court, &c

ARTS OF DESIGN AND DECORATION.

MocEL OF THE Falls OF NiAGAEA. — Among the various models to be
found in several parts of the Great Exhibition, is one of the Falls of
Kiagara, which ha.5 doservecUy attracted a large share of attention. This
model has been transferred by Mr. Catlin from his collection of American-
Indian productions, and faithfully represents the " Horse-shoo " and
American FalU (the former descending 150 feet, and the latter 163 feet),
the various mills, hotels, residences, roads', and Goat Island, extending to
15 acres, embraces an extent of countrj' equal to nearly a Houare mile ; and
being constructed to a scale of ao feet to an itich, every object is very dis-
tinctly shown. The amount of water descending over the two falls is said
to be equal to 1,715,000 tons per muiute, and which is chiefly derived from
the drainage of Lake Superior, Lake of the Woods, Lake Michigan, Lake
Huron, Lake St. Clair, and Lake Erie.

PRESENT STATE AND PROSPECTS OF DECORATIVE ART.
1'HE ornamentation of works of utility is a subject which, after very long

and almost total neglect, is beginning to engage the attention as well of
producers as of those who employ them, and which it may be interesting
to consider in reference to the examples presented in the Great National
Exposition. The subject is a very wide and a very inviting one : we .shall
endeavoxir, however, to restrict our ob.servations within the limits of the
practical bearings of it. Yet, in doing so, we must not omit to point out
wh.at we conceive to bft the legitimate province over which such an inquiry
might extend, as it involves a necessary relationship, in an a;sthetic point
of view, of several branches of art hitherto having little connexion w ith one
anotlier, but which, nevertheless, have strictly common interests, in this
at least — that for success they must conform themselves to the prevailing
taste or prejudices of the age. The I'ule is imperative — there is no escape
from it ; and though fine art may pretend to turn its back upon useful art
it is difficult to say where the province of the one begins and that of the
other ends ; whilst it is positively certain that where fine art has " no con-
nexion " with useful art. like other fine people amongst a non-productive
community, its resources become sapped, and, it dwindles to decay. What^
is architecture but building u2:)ou principles of taste in which the eye is
consulted ] the same " taste"' which prescribes the form of a hat and the
fashion of a sleeve? The chain which connects all the handicrafts employed
in the various intermediate matters of social requirement may be a long
one, at some points a slight one, but still it is an unbroken one, and will
make itself felt sooner or later. As between architecture and internal
decoration and furniture the links are very palpable in the recent adoption
of raeditcval models ; where the wood carver and the upholsterer very quickly
followed upon tlie heels of the builder, and where the artificers in silver,
and brass, and potter's clay, and now the book-printer and bookbinder (to
say nothing of the writer of book.s) and the embroiderer of silks and
woollens, and the whole host of those who minister to the need and fancy
of othei'S, are with very gi'eat precision following upon the footsteps of one
another, or, rather, walking hand in hand over the same path. How long
it may be before the tailor and hatter join in the march, and turn us out
into ye street off £ondee, "a fine old English gentleman" after the fashion of
his forefathers in the thirteenth century, we do not pretend to gues.s.

There should be a nice and critical scrutiny of the principles of art
evinced in every class of works from the highest to the loweot, if we would
hope to educate or guide the public taste in these niatters. There is no
doing things by halves, and fortunately so, as we think ; for the same course
of culture which brings t!ie judgment to correct appreciation of excellence
and beauty in the structure of a palace, will apply equally to the fashion
of a dress, and the ornamentation of the material of which it is composed.
The same principles of harmony, the same rules of propriety, the same
submission to the dictates of common sense and common fitness which
regulate the one. regulate the other also. And surely not without justice,
surely not ignobly, is art, high art, employed, if whilst it builds and
decorates temples for man's resort, it decorates man also — if, whilst it
paints the portraits of om* wives and daughters in the most becoming
costume, it gives some hint how we m.ay have the originals as advan-
tageously " treated" in that respect when at home.

This brings us at once to a consideration of what has been done towards
this art-culture — what has been done towards the accomplishment of this
only profitable "Art- Union" — we mean the association of decorative art
with art purely useful. AVe should observe that (speaking of modern
times) it Ls only very recently that tlie idea of such an association entered
into the minds of men : fine art always before that sticking to its picture-
frame ; useful art to the stockmg-franie and the loom. And now that they
have consented, as it were, to a conference, with a view to establishing a
commercial league, it is not without eou^iderable misgivings, and reserve,
and jealousy, resulting from an imperfect understanding of their relative
right positions and their common interests, that they go on, or stand still
over the matter. The great dirficnlty at present, as it appears to us,
required to be settled, is, wh»re art ends, and w here handicraft begins —the
middle gi-ound upon which head and hand work together. In a cabinet
picture for the annual exhibition, and in the manufacture of a coarse calico,
there is no room for doubt upon this point ; it is where the picture and the
calico require to be combined. So, in the building of your house, the R.A.
is your mau to superintend, and take his percentage of commission ; but
when it comes to the carpeting and furnishing, upon which, as much as
upon the actual disposition of the stone-work, the comforts and " effect" of
your new mansion depend, he leaves you to the upholsterer and the carpet
manufacturer. He will not take commission out of wood-work and
woollens. Yet it was not always so — it is not so to the full extent now
abroad ; and when we all know our own interests better, it \rill not be so
with us. The advantages of a co-operative association of ai't and handicraft
will neither be one-sided nor short-lived, Art will educate and reclaim a

OPEHIKG 01' THE GKEAT EiHlBlTIUN, MAY 1, Itii.— EjS'rilAhXK Ui' Ulilt MAJliSTV, nU^'CIi ALiilillT, AiM) TUE liU\AL i.UllL^.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

LITERATURE OF THE EXHIBITION.

The Exhibition of 1851, &c. By Charles Badbage, Es^., 8vo. Pp. 231.

Mui'i-ay.
THIS work is illustrative of the uuparalk-led Exhibition, and its unpn-
ralleled Ciyfltal Palace repositorj', and treats not only the immediate sub-
ject coDiprehensively and scientifically, but also discusses, in no forbearing
temper, the conduct of Government and the evils of party iu other respect*.
The fame of Mr. Babbage, as a mathematician, is too well known to need
" exposition" (as he j)refers to iise tluit French word instead of the usual
English "Exhibition"); and Ins mifui-timate differences with the Govern-
ment concerning his calculating machines, and disputes with several of his
contemporaries in the pursuit of science, are also fiuniliar to the scientific
public, and we shall, therefore, in reviewing his book, not fuUow liim in
any references to those subjects, which though mostly topics of much public
interest, may be dismissed with bare enumeration in a notice which we
would rather confine to the direct illustration of the actual Exhibition and
its prospective results.

The philusophical mind and great intelligence of the writer are displayed,
for our purpose, much more satisfactorily in his views of the principles of
interchange, and of the rules by which judges and jurors ought to be
f^iided; and his statistical facts and reasoning upon them, and their
presence or absence in as far a'^ the conduct of the Exliibition has been
carried, and its futm-e management :md effects, are implicated. The grand
principle enunciated upon the inquiry into the interchange of commoditiea,
that the errors which have heretofore beset that difficult question, ia, that
the/ri'€ and wilimifed exchunpe of commniiities between nations coiUributfS to
the advantage and the wealth of all ; that thin benefit arises from no sacrifice
of one nation for the profit of another ; and that the genu of the productive
powers of man is by these means, without any increa=!ed labour, largely
augmented throughout the world ; that tliis increment is won paitly by tho
suppression of ignonince and fi-aud. and partly by the imited effects of
industiT. of skill, and of science, iu compelling Nature to adminLster to the
wants of man.

The tendency of the World's Fair to'extend and cultivate these principles
and relations is, ounsequently, highly applauded by Mr. Babbage ; but he
(bsapproves of some of the measures adopted for establishing them, and
a^pecially the rejection by the Commissioners of the proposal to mark the
prices of the articles exhibited, which he cou^idere to be the leading fault in
the whole scheme. Upon this most practical point he observes —

"This consequence of the absence of price is injurious both to ai't and to
artists : it occasionally removes from the field of competition the best
judges of real merit. It is true that in several professions a certitii
delicacy ra^pecting money matters exists which is wanting in others.
Medical men. and artists are peculiarly aubJcLt to its influence ; but it is
not reported of any lawyer that he ever refused a fee ; and it is recorded j
of some Sdcretaiy of the Admiralty, that he claimed a quarter of a year's
war siilu)!/, on account of two days' interruption of peace by the combat of
Algiers.

" § Another result of prices not being mai-kod upon objects is, that the
public are unable to form any just estimate of their commercial value;
consequently, no proper public opinion ai-L'teB to assist the juries in their
decisions. This is a matter of considemble importance ; the duty of a
juror at an exposition is quite different from that of a juror in a legal
question. It is the busiuef* of the industrial juror to avail himself of the
knowledge and the observations of iJl around him. Much of what he thus
hears he may be able himself to verify by eiamination or experiment, and
thus public opinion will be more matured, and the dedaions of the juries
have greater weight.

" § Slany of the quaKti^ of the articles exhibited can only be a'*certainod
by use, or even by their destruction. In such ca&es a single sample would
often be purchased if it had ite price affixed to it.

'• Another class, small indewi in number, but important from its func-
tions suffers the greatest inconvenience from the absence of price. Tboiie
engaged in studying the commercial autl economical relations of various
inunufactures, either for the gratification of their own tastes or for the
instruction of the public, are entirely deprived of the most important
element of their reaaonings.

" If crer;/ atiicU had its price affixed, many relations would strike the eye
of an eipL'rienced obeerver which might lead him to further inquiries, and
probably to the most interesting results. But it is quite impossible for
him to write to any considerable portion of 15,000 expositors for their list
of prices, or even to go round and ask for it in the Imilding itaelt Price
in many cases offers at once a verification of the truth of other statements.
Thus, to a person conversant ■with the subjects, the low price of an article
might prove that it had been manufactured in some mode entirely different
from that usually j>ractised. This would lead to an examination of it, in
order to discover the improverl process. The price of an article compared
\rith its weight might prove that the met-d of which it is maile could not be
genuine. The piice of a woven fabric added to a knowledge of its breadth
and bub&tance, even without its weight, might in many cases effectually
disprove the statement of its being entirely made of wool, or hair or flax
or silk, as the case mig^t be. ' '

" The exchange of commodities between those to whom such exchanges
may be desirable, being the great and ultimate object of tho Exposition,
every circumstance that can give pubhcity to the tilings exhibited should
be most carefully attended to. Tho price in money is the most im-
portant element in every bargain ; to omit it, is not less absurd than to
represent a tragedy without its hero, or to paint a portrait without n nose.
" It commits a double error ; for it withholds the only test by which tlie
comparative value of things can be known, and it puts aside the greatest of
nil interests, that of the consumer, in order to favour a small and particular
claw — the middle-men.

" Tlie composition of that commission muntbo most extraordinary, where
an error so contrary to the principles and so fatal to the objects of tho
Exposition, could have been committed. It is not too late to apply at
least a partial remedy to the evil, and it is scarcely credible that those
with whom it rests can remain unconscious of the mistake into which they
have been led."

The style and feelings of the author may be gathered from this extract,
05 well as his cosmopolitan manner of looking round upon the collaterals
which are linked, however slightly, with his main arg\iment, Which, in
this case, is to show, that, by their rules in this matter, the Commissionera
"riolato the very foundations of thosa principles on which the whole ad-
vantange of the Exposition rests."

Adjudication of prizes. — Leaving the topic, i,e. of tho utility, yet largely
practicable, of affixing prices and even of facilitating sales, which is also
recommended, we quote some observations on the adju(licati<m of the
prizes, which are full of sound sense and instruction, and wliieh, at the
present moment, ■will be read with great interest —

'* A clear statement of the princijilea on which each jury is to award
prizes should be placed before them. These principles ought to be well
discussed, and in that discussion manufacturers should be invited to take
a part.

*' The first object of the jury should he to lay do^vn rules by which these
principles are to be carried out. Each class of the subjects to be rewai'dcd
will have its own ndes. They will generally be few in number, imd capable
of being expressed in few woi'ds ; some of these are suggested below, but
merely by way of example.

" One of the most general rules will indicate the means by which the jury
can ascertain the fact, that the material of the manufacture under considera-
tion is truly the substance it is represented to be. For instance, some
woven fabric is examineth professing to bo made entirelj' of wool or wholly
of flax. It may be quite true that es|icrienced manufacturers nnJ dealers
are able to detect any adulteration of either material by admixture with the
other. But statements of facts made on authority, never possess the same
weight with the public as those which are accompanied by information
enabling any individual among the public to verify the fact for himself.
The foiTu of the fibre as shown by tho microscope is one test. A moi'o
simple one is to bum some fibres in the flame of a candle. Every fibre
which, when thus treated, produces the smell of burnt feathers, is animal
matter of some kind, as wool, silk, horse hair, &c. The burnt fibres of
hemp, flax, cotton, and other vegetable matters, have a totally different
scent ; a fact of whicli any one may readily a.'-surc himself by making the
cxpeiiment It may, perhaps, be necessary in some ciises to wash the
fabric under eiaraiuation, lest, in what is tcraied the 'getting up for the
market,' some onimal matter or size might mislead. But the jury ought
to be acquainted with all such difficulties, and they should state the method
they took for investigating them.

" The microscope is of great use in detection of adulterations in most
vegetable sub-stances.

"Every object produced is subject to certain defects, and possessed of
certain excellencies : these should be clearly enumenited. 'Wheuever such
statements are expressed by numbers, the" information will be more satis-
factory. Tlius. in cutting tools, as applied to various metals, it is very
impoitimt that the angle at which the tool is applied should be stated : it
is also necessary to state the angle which the edge of the tool receiving the
sharing cut off makes with the surface cut. The velocity of tlie tool
in cuttiug should be stated, also the names of the fluids, if any, used in
cutting.

"The durability of woven fabrics, as well as of a great variety of other
manufactured articles, is a most essential quality, on which, combined with
the price, their chief value to the customer depends. It is very desirable
that the jury shonld find satisfactory means of testing this most important
character, which is not disceraible even by the most curious and instructed
spectator.

" The knowledge of the weight reqnii'cd for tearing asunder any woven
fabric, as a ribbon, a staylace, Upe, &c., together with the breaking weight
of their individual threads, and the number of these threails iu an inch,
may in some cases be very valuable, especially iu coarse tii-ticlcs. such as
sail-cloth, sacking, &c. In other cases, the articles may be submitted to
twenty or thirty wa^nhings and dryings, during which time it may repeatedly
be examined. The greatest change will most frequently occur on the first
washing, which removes the dressing.

" In many articles the durability of different parts varies considerably. In
some cases one part will wear out, if replaced, many times before the
remainder of the article is at all injured by use. In all such cases, the jury
should adopt such rules as the following ;— Examine the durability of each
part, and also the difficulty and the expense of replacing it when injured.
Examine; also, for the same purpose, what parta are most exposed to injury

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOP/EDIA OP THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

larger field in the public mind; will, so to say, create a ta=te to which it
will afterwards profitably mmister ; — handicraft will, by means of improved
and novel designs thus placed at its disposal, be enabled to compete vnih
the markets of the world, from a bold and independent gi-ound, which it
does not occupy at present; — finally, the artificere employed in this joint
production will have constant opportunities of developing their inventive
talents, and of advancing their position beyond that of mere live mecha-
nism ; and England, instead of being for ever a mere nation of shopkeepers,
may become the luH^producer of the world, and the founder of a new school
worthy of bearing its name.

For want Q(f this application of inventive and original taste to hmidicraft,
the latter, left unaided and iu the dark, has bad, through a series of gene-
rations, to resort to mere copying of favourite models of former periods —
models more or less meritorious in themselves, but whose merit consisted
mainly in their originality, and their general conformableness to the pre-
vailing tastes, and tho prevailing fa-^hious in other matters, of the time in
which they were produced- Thus have We con.qtant boastings of pure
cinque cento, pure R'-naismnce, pure Elizabethan, pure Louis Quatorze, and
most abundantly of all puro rococo, as though these were passports to
honour and favour , instead of 'simple confessions of bankruptcy in idea,
and almost hopeless extinction of inventive faculty.

It is now fifteen years since not only the public, but the Government,
began to aw.ake to a full appreciation of the miserable state of darkness
in which the country lay in respect to all that related to the ornamental
part of manufacture — a circumstance which it was proved militated very
seriously against the commercial prosperity which we are otherwise entitleil
to enjoy ; and seeing the hopelessness of a spontaneous movement on the
part of high art in aid of its humbler brother, it was resolved to establish
Schools of Design, with a view to affording elementary instruction in the
arts applicable to the decoration of manufactures, &c. The establishment
of the Government School was quickly followed by that of others, some
subsidiary, others independent, in various parts of the country. What the
result of these efforts has been, may be gathered by those who take interest
in the advancement of their kind, by inspecting the exhibitions of works of
students which annually take place ; for, as yet, we are sorry to say, there
has been little direct effect upon actual manufactured productions.

In simple truth, the school of design system, considered in reference to
what was expected from it and what has been done for it, has proved a |
failure. The cause of this failure has been much and angrily discussed by
several parties who have been more or less mixed up or interested in the
scheme ; but, upon a calm revision of the whole case, we think it may be i
summed up in very few words : Jirst, the schools of design have been too
limited iu the field over which their influence was proposed to extend, being
restricted chiefly to the manufactures in whlcli patterns are artiricially
multiplied, and not touching the higher branches of decorative production, ,
such as architectural de.sign, wood-caning, room-fumiahin?. Ac, to which |
textile manufactures are but tributary ; secondly, the instruction has for the
iao.st part been limited to mere copying, whether by drawing or modelling, :
of actual objects, whether natural or manufiietured, no attempt having been
made to inculcate the principles of design aa design, much less to encoui-age
the inventive powers and educate the tastes of the pupils : tho consequence is, |
thirdly, that the latter, having been left to their own devices. With their
mere acquired faculty of imitating actual objects, without any sound prin- I
ciples as to the selection and disposition of those objects for decorative [
purposes, having regard to their respective fitness as enibellishmenta of
various classes of productions to which decoration may be applied, have
(with few and trivial exceptions) failed of producing anything which has
proved worthy of practical adoption by our manufacturers ; so that, whilst
they themselves have but little tulvaneed their stations and prospecta by
years of study, the manufacturing taste of the country is just where it was
before the scheme was started, _ !

We have too much reason to apprehend that this unpropltious state of i
things is in part attributable to the very men who would be most benefited
by an oppowte result ; that the textile manufacturers, with whom the con-
coction and plagiary of jiattems haa always been a sort of mystery, have I
viewed with jealousy the attempt to educate pattern drawers by scores in ,
every manufacturing town in the country. They see in all this abundant
means of competition, but none of advancement; and knowing that art, as
involved in design and colour, can only be succesufully applied to mauufac- ,
tures by one who understands the techiiical details of the latter, In whatever
brancli it may happen to be, they have too g[enerally refused to give their I
aid to the general cause by cnlighteuing their students of art in the mys- j
teries of their handicndt. Mr. Thomson, of Clitheroe, in liis evidence before ^
a committee of the House of Commons, indeed, very clearly lays dowii the
views which manufacturers have commonly entertained upon this subject, ,
and we qu>ite a passage from his evidence, the more reatlily as tho com-
mittee in their report particularly refer to this witness, as "a gentleman of ,
great taste and experience in manufactures." Mr Thomson saya : — j

"The manufactiu-ers of England want etlucated designers; and they \
look to your schools for that instruction to our young men which irill train I
the eye to an accurate perception of beauty, and forui, and harmony of |
colour, and the hand to correct the delineation of it, and thus lay the mo.«t
solid foundation for the application of design to that branch of industrial
art in which the student decides afterwards [to engage. In six montha
they will Itaru more technical skill relative to their own art in our work-
shops and manufactories, than you could teach them in six years at
Somerset House, Besides, who .is to teach them ] Are you to have a

master or professor of pattern drawing in 'every department of industry?
for cdico-printiug and its subdivi-sions, furnitures, shawls, dresses^ for silk-
weaving in its subdivisions of rich damask furniture for kings and princes,
dresses for the refined and the vulgar, and a hundred articles of fluctu-
ating fashions in scarfs, shawls, ribbons, &c. i Where wdl fyou find the
universal genius that is to teach all thisi or will you have a master for
each ! You will advertise, and your small salary will bring you hosts of
broken-down pattern -drawers of all sorts, who, though unable to get
employment in a manufactoi-y, or find a sale for their own designs, will yet
boldly un<Ieitake to teach everything in yom- school. Bewai'e how you
excite the doubts and suspicions, and eventually lose the confidence of the
manufacturer themselves, by failing, as you assuredly will do, in the
attempt to do th.it which it is impossible you should ever succeed in."

Although it is two or three years since the above observations were made,
we have reason to believe that they correctly describe the opinions and
views of the great bulk of the manufacturers of this country, at the present
moment, who have not yet got rid of all their apprehensions and misgivings
about pattern-di-awiug and art-movement. If the concourse of genius and
industry attracted to tlie Crystal Palace jdoes no more than rub away a
little of this rust of prej udice, it will have achieved a great and ceilain good
to the whole industrial commuuity of this country.

THE CEREMONIAL OF CLOSING THE EXHIBITION AND
DECLARING THE PRIZES AWARDED.

Toe foUowmg is generally believed to be tho programme of the closing
proceedings on the 11th prox. : — Seats will be provided, up<tn a raised stage
in the centre of the transept, for the accommodation of Prince Albert and
the other royal commisoionei"s, and in the immediate neighbourhood for
those inrited to be present. The principal portion of the business trans-
acted will consist in one of the coimcil of chaLrmen— probably the chairman,
Viscoimt Canning, announcing to the commissioners the awards of the
prizes which the juroi-s have made, and stating tho Kronuds upon which
they have been given. Prince Albert, as president of the commission, will
then, in all probability, on behalf of the royal commissioners, thank the
jurors for the attention which they have bestowed upon the subject: and
he will, no doubt, take that opportunity of alluding to the great success of
tho undertaking — the assistauce which it baa received from all classes of
tlie community— the benefits to art, manufactures, and commerce which
may be expected to flow from the lessons which it has taught — and tho
Services of the foreign, metropolitan, and local commissioners and com-
mittees ; and lost, but not least, the cordial support and assistance rendered
by the exhibitors will be duly acknowledged. It is not intended to admit
the public upon this occasion, as accommodation for witnessing the ceremony
and hearing the addresses could not be prorided for a greater number of
persons than the exhibitora, jurors, foreign and local commissioners, and
members of local committees, whose presence it is intended to request.
The distribution of medals will be a matter of after consideration, as com-
paratively few of those requiring tho names of the owners to be stamped
upon them will be ready for deliveiy by the liJth of October,

The programme of the closing was settled, and circulars are about to he
issued to exhibitors, informing them that the building will be closed on
the nth : that on the 13tli and 14th they will have the privilege of going
there with two friends, and that on the 15th they are mvited to be present
at twelve o'clock at the meeting of the royal commissionei-s. By this
aiTangement the exhibitors will have the farewell view of the Crystal
Palace, and a deference is thus shown to their labours and their sacrifices
in its behiilf, which we are sure they will not be alow to appreciate.

It is understood that Lord Sej-mour hits intimated to the commissionera
that the government would be prepared to sanction tho purchase of a
portion of the valuable collcctioQ of minerals and raw produce, for the
purpose of completing tho collection at Kew. The Ru^ian government
have also given instructions to their commisaioner to purchase a Bimilar
collection for the Museum of St. Petemburg.

The lists of the successful competitors are in hand, but proceed slowly,
as, it being intended that each person's name should appear in full on his
medal, any mistake in the orthography (and that of some of them ia very
cm-ious, as may be supposed), would be fatal to his fame.

The collection of records or memorials of the Exhibition ia going on
most favourably. They are to consist of specimens of raw matcnala.
samples of textile fabrics, and drawings of the machinery and engineermg
inventions. The exhibitors take great interest in this collection, and nio
seudinff in contributions with great liberality and promptitude.

It is stated that numerous and valuable presents havo already been made
by exhibitors to the Royal Commission, for the formation of a permauuut
museum, after the present display in Hydo Park shall have termmated.

The fate of the Crystal Palace appcai-s to be still undecided, but unless
some royal interposition takes place the contractors ^rill, certainly, com-
mence and pull do™ the buUding as soon as the goods lu-e cleared out.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOIM-IDLV OP TIIK CRKAT FA'IIIIUTION OF 185].

or (IcHtruetiuu by acciilcnt. Kxivmiiio, aim), the ivliitivc uxiieiiHO of ]Mittiiig
tlio ivrtiulo ill a working «tato wliou fii'Ht i)Urclia.fed anil brought honiu.
Tlicso nikw will bo bent undurHtoocl by an illnntration. Lot im Hiippoao a
jury to bo cxaniininf; Ibo relative; niorits of BOvoral cotta^o Btovcs for cook-
ing. Of cour.-io, tlic lirxt inqniry will be as to wliiuli aflniits of tbe best |ior-
forniance of tlio oiicrutioiiK of 'bolliiig, slewing, roanting, broiling, baking,
nnjiply of liot water, ironing, &c. Tlic eost of tlio fuel iiuist not only be
given, but al^n its wei;,'lit, because the price of fuel v.arie« in dilferont
locaIitiet4. The capability of u«ing diffbiviit Kort.s of fucl^ in llio Hoveral
stovoM, ainl the amount of fuel so conHumcJ for its equivalent of coal,
Hhoulil also be stated. These and other conipaivativo impiiries having been
made, the dmubility of that jjart of the stove wliieh is subjected to the
direct action of the burning fuel iiiu-st be examined. It will be made either
of iron or of earthenware : and the relative merit of the various stoves will,
as far as this ]ioint is concerned, consist in the facility and economy with
which such jiarts can be removed, auJ'the corresponding new parts be pur-
cl.a.sod and replaced in their proper position. It is always desirable for tlie
consumer, that the vendors of such articles should keep a stock of the parts
liable to wear out, and that the latter should undertake to replace them at
a fixed price. Those parts of the stove which project so as to be liable to
accidental blows, and those which are from their more constant use much
exposed to accident, as the hinges and tlie latches of doors, should then be
examined. Those, if of cast iron or otlicr brittle material, and constituting
part of tlio substance of tho door, should bo sufficiently strong to resist
fracture : if they are attached to it by rivets or otherwise, they will be
■lighter and strongi^r when made of wrought iron. The last inquiry is into
the ex])en3e for fixing the stove for use. It may be set in brickwork, within
the chimney, in which case it will require a bricklayer .and a largo m.a.ss of
materials in tin; .shape of brick.s and mortar, and possibly of stone. Or it
may stand on its own baj3e containing its own ash pit, imd by means of a
small iron jiipe the smoke may bo conveyed into a flue. In this case,
almost any workman, with hammer and chisel and a small quantity of
mortar or cemont, can fix it ready for use. Again, the stop-cock for the
water-cistern may be either hard-soldered, riveted, or screwed in. If the
latter, it can easily be unscrewed or rc-gi-ound when necessary. The same
remark applies to the leaden supply-pipe ; it m.ay be connected by solder-
ing, or by a union joint. In the former case these parts will require the
aid not only of the tinuKin or coppersmith, but ;dso of tlie plumber.

"The cxiieuso of repairing a machine does. not in all cases depend on the
cost of the part repluccil, or even on the actual cost of replacuig that part
alone. It often happened in the eai-lier days of locomotive engines, that
the expense uf some small repiu-atiou necessary to keep the machine in good
working order did not amount to ten shillings ; whilst ' the expen.se of
removing and replacing other parts, without which the workman could not
get at the defective part, amounted to fifty or eighty shillings, or even to
a still larger sum. Thus, facility of getting at all the parts of an engine for
the purposes of repair, or even of examination, is one of the advantages
which the broad possesses over the narrow gauge.

" In many articles exposed to great or suddeil force, and to much weai' or
tear, it is very desirable, that, if any breakage occur, it should happen at that
point where the eonsequeuces would be the least dangerous to the persons
using it, and the repai'ation of it least expensive.

" During a series of experimeuts made by the author, in 1839, on the
Great Western Railway, it was necessary, amongst a variety of other om-ves,
to cause a pen to draw upon long rolls of paper the curve described by tho
centre of a carriage, projected on the plane of the road. When everything
is in proper order, this line ought to be parallel to, and in the middle
between the two rails. But it is well known, that, instead of answering
these conditions, it often describes a serpentine curve, arising from that
snake-like motion of a train wliich the cai-riages acquire by rolling alter-
nately towards each rail, until they are checked by the flanges pressing
against it. To accomplish the drawing of l;he line above mentioned, it was
necessary to have depending from the carriage a very stout jointed wooden
arm, terminating iu an iron shoe with a steel projection. This shoe wa?, by
a powerful spring, pressed close to the rail in the middle point between the
two side wheels of the carriage, and by a communication with the pen the
required curve was described. But such an appai-atus was exposed to very
rough work, and. iu fact, was generally broken three or four times during
each experimental journey. If the broken part had fallen between the wheel
and the rail, it might have caused a serious accident. To prevent this the
following precautious were taken : — The wooden arm was strengthened
with tliiu strips of iron, except at one part about an inch long. At this
part a small notch was cut with a .saw. The lower portion had a strong
iron eye fixed into it. which was connected loosely to a hook by a rope
passing through a hole in the middle of the cairiage. Whenever the
apparatus broke, it was always at the notch. The position of the loose rope
holding the broken part was such, that the tendency was immediately to
di'ag it into the middle of the road, under the centre of the carriage. This
at once removed it from interference with the wheels. The pen describing
the curve soon g.ave notice, by ceasing to move laterally, that the arm was
broken; on which one of the assistants immediately took hold of the loose
rope, and pulling the broken fragment close up to the bottom of the
carriage, prevented the possibility of any fiuiher danger.

" If each jury were to explahi concisely the means employed by them to
examine the qualities of each class of objects submitted to them, much
y.\luable information would x-esult. A collection of these rules for the
J udgment or yerihcation of articles, if reduced into order, and published

in a small compiws, by a competent [icrsoD, at the cIohc of the Kxjioiiitioii
would bo invaluable to the public. Tlic rcHult would be buneficial t<j all
himcal tnodcMinen, and injurious only to t]\e fraudulmt. Such mcanii, when
put into the hands of the public, would noon enable it to dixtiogiiish the
genuine from the sophisticated articles, and to Hclcct those which in point
of excellence .and dur.ibility are best suited to the means or waiitri of tho
purch.a.ser. The increaseil knowledge of tlic public would be felt by tho
retail dealers, and wouhl make them more unxiouH to obtain excellent and
durable goodn from the niaiiiifacturor.

MACHINERY & MECHANICAL CONTRIVANCES.

THE MACHINERY COURT.
'PHE annexed cngiaving presents a view of a portion of the Machinery Court,
in which are comprised throe of the moatinteresting enginen for the tranji-
ferring and modification of power for the purpose of lifting weights, ic. ;
namely, the great hydraulic press, which was used iu raising the tubes of
the Britannia liridge, manufactured by the Bank Quay Foundry Company,
Warring'ton ; Armstrong's hydraulic macliincry ; and Henderson's patent
Derrick crane.

The principles of hydraulics by which repeated increments of power may
be stored and accumulated, in a rosen'oir of sufficient strength to retain
this aggregation in the form of a certain bulk of water, was first applied to
the hydraulic press, by Mr. Braiuah, in 1790. It has since been applied
to a variety of purpose.s, with signal success, both in lifting of enormou-s
weights, and puttmg enormous pressure upon bales of goods, for the
purpose of diminishing their bulk in packing. Before proceeding to
describe the details of this machinery and its gigantic labom-s, it may be
proper to warn mexperieiiecd readers against a vulgar error which pre-
vails sometimes, that power is made or gained by the use or intervention
of machinei-y. Such is by no means the case : — no more power can be
obtained from luiy machine than what is put into it, whether by manual,
labour, the force of tho elements, or the application of natural phenomen.a,
as the explosion of gunpowder, the evaporation of water, the action of the
electric fluid, &c. All that is obtained is the .storing of small quantities
imtil they become a bulk sufficiently large to be useful for the desired
purpose. Five hundred men by repeated direct efl'orts, or by one simul-
timeous direct effort, could not lift the monument the eighth of an inch ;
but the power of one man continuously applied for a sufficient length
through the medium of an hydi'aulie press, would be able to lift it and
caiTy it across the river. In this process, however, so far from gaining
power, some power is lost in the very working of the machinery, so much
power, in fact, is as it were paid for the use of the engine required. To
use a homely dlustratiou of another ehai-acter. You may accumulate suc-
cessive penny instalments in a savings' bank till they amount to 100/., but you
have to pay something for the accommodation. We i^roceed now to describe

THE GREAT HYDRAULIC PRESS.

The principal parts of this macliinery are an iron cylinder, in which a
piston works, at the bottom of which is a tube opening into it, with a valve
closing downwai'ds. The other end of this tube communicates with a small
forcing pump, by. which water is driven through the said valve, into the
portion of the cylinder beneath the piston ; which is, consequently, gradu-
ally forced up by it. By connecting the iiiston end with a set of chains,
&c., supported from strong cross-beams, any object, however gi'cat its might,
(so that it be not gi'eater than the constructive power of the machinery
itself,) may be raised gi-aduidly but surely.

In the gi-eat hydraulic press now under consideration, the internal
diameter of the cylinder is '2.2 inches, the diameter of ram is 20 inches,
the external diameter of the cylinder is -12 inches, external length 9 feet
14 inch; thickness of metal 10 inches; the cast iron crosshead has
wrought iron links let in at the top, for the pui-pose of strengthening the
part subject to tensile strain : the sides of the jacket also are strengthened
with wrought iron slabs, weigliing oO cwt. each, expanded first by heat and
then fitted on hot, and allowed to contract. To cast the cylinder, it
required 22 tons of fluid metal, the additional quantity beyond its finished
weight being required for the head, or git, which weighed 2.J tons. This head,
or git, was kept iu a fluid state for six hours after the run, by replacing the
materiid after it became stiffi with metal fresh from the furnace, and of the
highest attainable temperature, for the pui-pose of supplying the space in
this immense body of metal below, consequent upon the contraction. In
three days afterwards the cylinder was partly denuded of its outer coat of
sand, when it was foimd red hot : in seven days it was lifted from the pit
in wliich it was cast, and in ten days, or 210 hours, it was sufficiently cool
to be approached by men well inured to heat, for the pm-pose of dressing
the remaining sand off it.

The beams, for supporting the press, consisted of six vertical ribs of
boiler plates, -j^ths thick, united by vertical strips, to preserve them iu

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

form; the 2| inch spaces between ribs were filled with American elm, so
that the vertical rib wa^ a sandwich of elm and iron. The top and bottom
flanges were each formed by twelve wrought iron bai-s, extending the whole
length of beam. The top bar 7 inches wide, the bottom bars 9 inches by
IJ inch; the whole rivetted together. The weight of each girder was 12
tons. I'u order to prevent the crushing at the ends, cast iron plates were
inserted instead of the wood.

The weight actually supported by one pair of beams was 1717 tons, but
they were" capable of sustaining 2000 tons. The length between the
bearing was 17 feet 4 inches. The ram was cast hollow and turned to bed
truly, beneath the crosshead, which was bored to receive it. The crosshead

was guided by two wrought iron rods, 6 inches diameter, fitted in sockets
on the top of the press, and keyed above into a cast iron girder, built in
the masonry.

There were two sets of clamps ; the one placed on the crosshead and
rising with it, was immediately used for lifting the chain and tube, the
under set was fixed on the cast iron girders which support the press, and
was used for securing the chain at the end of each lift, while the press was
lowered, and the upper set of hnks removed : they are in all respects
similar to each other. The wrought-iron clamping cheeks are slotted to
fit closely beneath the slotted shoulder in the head of the links ; they are
withdi-awn or closed_by right and left handed screws, on turning which

JI.^'-ul^■]lIlV cuLiii.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPiEDLV OF Till'] GREAT EXIITBITION OP 1851.

the cheoka rocnlc: from cnch othor. or aro drawn into cIoro contact with
tho chain. To ins\irc a parallel action, tho ncrows aro moved Bimnltaneonsly
by a winch and ^caring ; tiny arc tlnw easily worked hy one man. TIium
at eacli Rtrokc of tho press the tube \va» raised (i feet, tho time ocoipicd
in one lift bcinR iisually from 30 to 45 minutes.

The lifting chain.s were mannfactod by McsarH. Howard and Kavcnhill ;
tho clamps and valvos by Messrs. Ka.ston and Amos. Tho superinteiidcnco
of tho dosiu'ns anil confltruction of this machinery wcro entrusted by
Mr. Robert Stephenson, tho engineer, to Mr. Hilwin Clark.

The greatest weight lifted by tlio press at tho Hritimnia bridge was 114'1
tons; tho quantity of water used for each 6 feet lift 81 .J gallons. "The
pressure iit .3 tons per circular in(^h, equals 3-810 tons per square inch,
which would rai^o a column of water .l-ll miles in lieight ; this pressure
would, therefore, be suflicient to throw water o\'cr tlie highest momitains
of tho globe." This extraordinary fact is derived fnmi Mr. Edwin Clark's
work on tho Britannia and Conway bridges. Tho following additional
extract shows indirectly the vast power of this machine : —

" If it were required that lib. hhould raise the tube, or 2000 tons, then
one arm of the lever must bo 418,000 times a.s long as the other; but if
tho lib. move through tho sp,aco of ono inch, tho tube will bo only lifted
iTuKmit'' part of an inch; and in order to raise tho tube 100 feet, the
pressure of lib. must bo continued through a space of 83,522 miles ; and,
conversely, a prcs.-ure of 2000 tons through a space of 100 feet, would
raise lib. 83,522 miles ; thus tho descent of a clock-weight through a space
of 6 feet overcomes the friction of tho machine, and moves the extremity
of an ordinary seconds-hand through a space of two miles in a week, and
-tho descent of the tube to the water would maintain the going of an ordi-
nary clock for 240.000 years," or the power expended by tlie press in
lifting the tube 100 feet, if applied to au ordinai-y clock, would work it
for a period of 240,000 year.s.

" After the first tube was raised, tho cylinder met with an accident,
described in the following terms by Mr. C'l.ark : —

" In a little more than a fortnight after this operation, the presses were
removed ready for raising tho next tube. They were lowered and raised
ng.oin by means of capstans, with au 8-incli rope : and in this operation
another accident occun-ed with the unlucky press. The cylinder was
lowered from a cat-head at the top of a tower; the rope from tho blocks
led to a capstan on the beach, on which three turns only were taken ; while
the cylinder, weighing 15 tons, was suspended at an elevation of 140 feet
above the water, the rope unexpectedly sm-ged on the capstan, and was
dragged out of the hands of the men who were holding it: the cylinder
descended -n'ith fearful velocity, dragging the rope through the block tackle
and round the capstan, which fortunately became palled by the jerk. As
the velocity increased, the cathead in the tower gave way, and the
cylinder fell on the stone shelf below, fracturing tho masonry, and gliding
off 60 or 60 feet in the Straits. Several men-n-ere injured, and a sailor who
was serving out the coil of rope was dragged round the capstan and killed.
None of the tackle was broken, and the press was easily raised bj the
ropes attached to it, and was found to be uninjured by the fall."

ARMSTRONG'S HYDRAULIC HOISTING MACHINERY.

Nearly opposite to the great hydraulic press, are working models of
Mr. W. G. Armstrong's Hydraulic Hoisting Machines : the principles
illusti-ated by which are, fir.st, ''the transmission of power" from a steam-
engine to distant points, by means of w.ater conveyed in pipes at a high
pressure ; and, secondly, " the accumulation of power " by the intervention
of a reservoir, which enables the continuous action of a small steam-engine
to meet momentary demands of po-n-er greatly exceeding its direct capar
bility. The substitution of steam power for manual labour in docks, for
the purpose of discharging ships, hoisting goods into warehouses, and
opening and shutting lock gates, sluices, and sw-ing bridges, is au object
much to be desired, but cUtBcult of attainment by ordinary means. To
effect these purposes by the direct application of a multiplicity of steam-
engines scattered over the premises would involve an amount of complica-
tion and encumbrance wliich would be quite inadmissible ; and to transmit
the requii'cd power by the common expedient of shafting, is not only
attended with much mechanical difficulty, where the distance is consider-
able, but is incompatible with any system of accumidating power beyond
the extent that may be accomplished by means of a fly-wheel. The
emplojTnent, however, of hydraulic pressure as a medium of transmission
removes these difficulties, and affords the additional advantage of a steadier,
safer, and more controllable action than is attainable by any other means.
The models aro so arranged upon a table as to be worked by a small
steam-engine. By means of this engine, the water is forced into the
" accumulator," which is a species of press loaded with weights, maintaining
a pressure upon the water within, and thus imparting to it the same
mechanical efficacy that a head of great altitude would afford. From the
accumulator the water is conveyed in a pipe to the hoisting machines, and
when these consume more water than the engine at the moment supplies,
the excess is furnished by the accumulator ; but when, on the other hand,
the machines use less water than is pumped by the engine, the surplus
16 received by the accumulator, which thus gathers po-wer to meet subse-
quent demands. 'VVheu the water has produced its required effect, it

returns to the pump well, to bo forced up again into the accumulator, fo
that tho same watei- cr)ntirnieH in circulation without material wutc. It in
also to be observed that tho accumulator, by a connection witli the steam-
valve, acts as a governor to tho engine causing it to quicken its npeed
when power is wanted, and to retard tho motion when the production of
power is greater tlian neccsBary.

The models of the hoisting machined compri«e three (ipccimenii, vir. Int.
A machine for discharging coal ships, in which a vibrating jib is employcl
to eari-y the coal tub fonvards and backwards. 2nd. A hydraulic swing
crane, which lifts and lowers a large cast iron ball, and turns round with it
citlier to tho right or to tho left, as directed by the attendant. 3rd. A
machine for lifting com stacks into warehouses, wliich works two ropes,
tho range of which is readily ajljustable to any floor of the building.

In all these machines the general principle of construction is the aamo,
tho lifting action being produced in each by the pressure of tho water upon
a piston, or plunger, which acts upon the chain, through a system of pulleys,
which multiply the motion, and give to the chain an increase of trarcl
proportionate to the number of the pulleys. The traversing motion of tho
jibs is also effected by the pressure of the water upon a piston, and suitablo
valves are employed to regulate the various actions.

HENDERSON'S PATENT DERRICK CRANE.

The Derrick cranes, patented by Mr. David Henderson, are extensively
used in many large establishments, especially in the North of England.
They were called into operation with signal good success in the course of
the building of the Crystal Palace, when testing the girders by means of the
Hydraulic Machine. There are, altogether, six varieties of these cranes,
numbered from 1 to 6 ; that represented in the View being one of those
known by the Number 4, the power of which is from two to four tons, and
the radius of range from 25 to 45 feet. Some of tho advantages obtained
by this description of machine over the ordinary form of derrick crane, aro
the facility with which a load can be moved nearer to, or farther from the
centre of the crane, and deposited at any point of the space included
within the range of the derrick ; and increased safety while raising or
lowering the derrick, whereby extra labour is saved in bringing the load to
its original level.

In the derrick fixed at the "Industrial Pahace," three-fourths of the
circle included within the sweep of the crane is obtained, while the remaining
fourth of the circle is likewise available, if logs of timber, or long lengths of
iron, &c., are required to be moved. The don-ick cr.ane consists of the
stem, den'ick, and the stays — usually made of timber, but which may, if
dssired, be constructed of -ivrought iron.

The stem consists of two pieces of timber, which meet at top, and are
connected both at top and bottom by means of cast iron shoes. The lower
shoe is constructed so as to turn on a fixed gudgeon ; and the upper shoe is
also fitted with a gudgeon, by which it is connected w-ith the pair of stays,
and which enables it to be turned freely round. The crab-engine, as shown
in the View, is worked by three men, and Ls fixed at the bottom part of the
stem, the roller, or chain-barrel, being fixed between the two parts of which
it is composed. The stays are fixed at their lower ends by being attached
to horizontal .sleepers, -which meet at the centre of the crane, and support
the lower gudgeon of the stem.

The derrick, wliich is constructed of a single piece of timber, has a cast-
iron shoe at the top, .and another at the bottom, the lower end being jointed
by a pin to the bottom shoe of the stem, so as to enable it to be moved
vertically. Winch-handles, with wheels for single and double purchase,
together with the barrel, form one part of the crab ; while the other part,
which raises or lowers the derrick, consists of a barrel and two wheels, by
which it is connected with the first portion of the crab — the necessary
connection being effected by means of a clutch fixed on the spindle of the
lift barrel. The derrick is supported by a chain, passing from its barrel up
the stem to a pulley at the top. From this pulley it is carried nearly to the
top of the derrick, to which, in the present instance, it is fixed ; but, in
some of the other forms, passes over a snatch-block attached to the
den'ick. .and, returning to the stem, it is securely fastened to the upper end
of the top giidgeon. 'The left chain passes up the back of the derrick, from
its barrel, to a pulley at top, and thence down to the load. In order to
prevent the den'ick barrel from turning, the two portions of the crab are
disconnected — the derrick being supported by a catch, or pall, which acts
on one of the coupliug-wheeis. When the two parts of the crab are dis-
comiected, the craue is in a proper state to be used in raising its load ; and
when it is necessary to move the load nearer to the centre of the crane, tho
two barrels are again connected, simply by means of the clutch, the motion
of the crab being reversed. When the load has been moved nearer to the
centre of the craue, it is necessary to raise the derrick. The coupling-
wheels are so proportioned, that the lift chain is unwound as much as the
point of the derrick is raised, and thus the load is moved horizontally.
When it is required to lower the derrick, the lift chain is wound up, and
the horizontal motion of the load is still preserved. The chain barrel is
tapered, the increased diameter of the barrel moving the derrick through a
laiger range in its higher position, in proportion to the length of the Uft-
chain unwoimd, by which the load retains its horizontal position while in
motion.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

HISTORY OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851'

II. — The History of the "Crystal Palace.
l*;E come now to consider tlie arrangements Ijy which the Great Exhibi-
tion has received not only a local habitation, but a name ; — the origin
and history of the Ci-ystal Palace. We shall begin by quoting the state-
ment in the OScial Catalogue : —

"As early as Januaiy, 1850, the Commission named a Committee 'for all
matters relating to the Building,' consisting of the Duke of Buccleuch, the
Eru-1 of EUesmere, 3Ir. Rirry, R.A., Mi-. Cubitt. Pres. Imt. C.E., Mr. Stephen-
son, Mr. Cockerell, R.A., Mr. Brunei, and Mr. Donald.son.

*■' Mr. Cubit was elected Chairman of this Committee, and from the earliest
period to the opening of the Exiiibition, ha? given daily and unremitting
attention to the subject, at gieat personal sacrifice of his valuable time.
On the 21st of Febniary, 1S50, the Building Committee reported favourably
on the fitness of t!io present site in Hyde Park, which had been suggested
in the eai-ly stages of the undertaking, and for the use of which it had been
already anuoimced that Her Majesty's permission had been obtained. The
Committee ventured at once to recommend that upwards of 16 acres should
be covered in ; a bold step at that time ("21st February), when no data
whatever of the space likely to be filled had been received {yiin. vii., p. 5).
It was their opinion that it was desirable to obtain suggestions, by public
competition, as to the general aiTangements of the gi-ound plan of the
Building, and public invitations weie accordingly issued. They also
reported that when a plan for the genei"al aiTangement should have been
obtained au'l approved, they would invite, by a second public notice,
designs acconipauiuil by tenders, from tlie builders and mamifaeturei's of
the United Kingdom, for the construction of the Building, in the foi-m,
and according to the general arrangement, which should be fixed upon.
In answer to the invitation to send in plans, upwards of 245 designs and
specifications were submitted. Of these 3S were contributed by foreigners :
France sending 27 : Belgium 2 ; Holland 3 ; Hanover 1 ; Naples 1 ; Swit-
zerland 2 ; Rheiu Prussia 1 ; Hamburg 1 ; 128 by residents in London and
its environs ; 51 V>3' vesidonts in provincial towns of England ; 6 by residents
in Scotland ; 3 by residents in Ireland ; and 7 were anonjnnovis. All these
plans were publicly exhibited during a month, from the 10th of Jiuie, at
the Institution of Civil Enguiecers, Great George Street, Westminster.
The Building Committee reported on the merits of them, selecting two
lists of the competitors. They considered the one 'entitled to favom-able
and honourable mention,' and tlie second 'entitled to further higher
honorary distinction.' But they accompanied their report with the
imi)ortant announcement, that in their opinion there was no 'single plan so
accordant with the peculiar objects in view, either in the principle or
detail of its arrangement, as to warrant them in recommending it for
adoption ' {Mhi. xvii., p. 6). The Committee, therefore, submitted a plan
of their own, and assisted by Mr. Digby Wyatt, Mr. Charles Heard Wild,
and Jlr. Owen Jones, they prepared extensive working di-awings, which
were lithographed. They issued invitations for tenders to execute works
in accordance with them, requesting from competitors, in addition, such
suggestions and modification, accompanied with estimates of cost, as might
possibly become the means of effecting a considerable reduction upon the
general expense. In the actual instructions they stipulated that tenders,
in v.'hich changes were proposed, would be only entertained provided they
were 'accompanied by working di'awiugs and specifications, and fully priced
bills of quantities.'

" The Building Committee published in detail tlie reasons, both of eco-
nomy and kvste, which had induced them to prep.ai-e plans for a structure
of bi'iek, the princijial feature of which was a dome two hundred feet in
diameter. Public opinion did not coincide in the propriety of such a
building on such a site, and the residents in the neighbourhood raised
especial objections. The subject w.as brought before botli Houses of
Parliament: and in the House of Commons, on the 4th July. 1850, two
divisions took place on the question, whether the proposed site should be
used at all for any buikliug for the Exhibition. In the one divisiun, the
nvimbcrs in favour of the site were 16*) to 47, and in tlie second 166 to 46.
The Commissioners published, at cousider,ablc length, a statement of the
re.T'ons which had induced tliem to prefer the site, and there can be no
doubt that the force of this document mainly influenced the large mnjority
in both divisions.

'•Whilst the plan of the Euildiug Committee was imder discussion,
Mr. Paxton was led, by the hostility which it had incurred, to submit a
plan for a structure chiefly of glass and iron, on principles similar to those
whicii had been adopted and su;cessfully tried by him at Chatsu-orth.
Messrs. Fo.'C. Henderson, and Co., tendered for the erection of the Building
Committee's plan, and strictly in accordance with the conditions of tender,
tliey also submitted estimates for the construction of the buikUng sug-
gested by Mr. Paxton. and adapted in form to the official ground plan.
An engi-aving of Jlr. Piixton's original design was published in the Wm-
trated London Naoa, 6th July, 1850, which when compared with the
building that has been actually erected, will show wh.at changes were
siibaequently made. The Commissioners havmg fully investigated the
subject, finally adopted, on the aetli July, Messrs. Fox, Henderson, and

Co.'s tender to construct Mr. Paxton's building, as then proposed, for the
sum of 79,800?. Considerable modifications, additions, and improvements
in the architectural details were subsequently made, which have raised the
proposed original cost of the building. As soon as the decision was made,
fi-esh working drawings had to be prepared, and every means taken for
expediting the works, lliese were carried on under the sui>erintcndence
of 'Mr. Cubitt, assisted by Mr. D. Wyatt, Mr. 0. Jones, and Mr. C. Wild.
The formal deed of contract w.as not signed until the 31st October,
although the first iron column was fixed as early as the 26th September,
1S50, the contractors having thereby ineun-ed, in tlieir preparations, a
liability of 50,000/. without any positive contract ; in fact, great reciprocal
confidence was manifested by the contracting parties. Whatever objections
were entertained originally against the use of the site, gi-adually disappeared
during the progress of the present building, and have become changed into
positive approval and admiration, of the building itself and assent to the
particular location of it. It should, however, be stated that a deed of
covenant, to remove the building and give up the site within seven months
after the close of the Exhibition, namely before the 1st June, 1 852, has
been entered into between Her Majesty and the Commissioners. The deed
was sealed on the 14th November, 1850."

Mr. Paxton, at a meeting of the Derby Institute, ^ves the following
graphic and annising narrative of the affair : —

" It was not," says he, '' until one morning, when I w.is present with my
friend Mr. Elli.s, at an eariy sitting in the House of Commons, that the
idea of sending in a design occurred to me. A conversation took place
1-ietween us, with reference to the eonstniction of the New House of
Commons, in the course of which, I observed, that I was afraid they would
also commit a blunder in the building for the Indvxstrial Exhibition ; I told
him that I had a notion in my head, and that if he would accompany mo
to the Board of Trade, I would ascertain whether it was too hate to send in
a de-ign. I asked the Executive Committee whether they were so f;u-
committed to the plans as to be precluded from receivitg; another ; the
reply was, ' Certainly not; the specifications will be out in a fortnisjht, but
there is no reason wliy a clause should not be introduced, allowing of the
reception of another design.' I .said, 'Well, if you will introduce sucli
a ekause, I will go home ; and, in nuie days hence, I will bring you my
plans all com[ilete.' No duubt, the Executive thought me a conceited
fellow, and that what I had said was nearer akin to romance than to
common sense. Well, this was on Friday, the 11th of June. From
London I went to the Menai Straits, to see the third tube of the Britannia
Bridge placed, and, on my return to Derby, I had to attend to some
business at the Board Room, during which time, however, my whole mind
was devoted to this project ; and, whilst the business proceeded. I sketched
the outline of my design on a large sheet of blotting-paper. Well, haWng
sketclied this design, I sac up all night, until I had worked it out to my
own satisfaction; and, by the aid of my friend, Mr. Barlow, on the 15th,
I was enabled to complete the whole of the plans by the Saturday follownng,
on which day I left Rowsleyfor London. Ou arriving at the Derby station,
I met i\lr. Robert Stephenson, a member of the Building Committee, who
was also on his way to the meti'opolis. Mr. Stephenson minutely examined
the plans, and became thoroughly engrossed with them, \mtil at leugth he
exclaimed that the design was just the thing, and he only wished it liud
been submitted to the Committee iu time. Mr. Stephenson, however, laid
the pl.ans before the Committee, and at first the idea was rather pooh-
poohed ; but tlie plans gradually grew in favour, and by publishing the
design iu the Illuslralcd London News, and showing the advantage of such an
erection over one composed of fifteen millions of bricks and other materials
which would have to be removed at a great lose, the Committee did, in the
cud, reject tlie abortion of a child of tlieir own, and unanimously recom
mended my bantling. I am bound to say, that I have been treated by the
Committee with gi*eat fairness. Mr. Brunei, the author of the great dome,
I believe was at first so wedded to his own plan, tliat he would hardly
look at mine. But Mr. Brunei was a gentleman, and a man of fairness,
and listened with every attention to all that could be urged in favour of
my plans. As an instance of that gentleman's very creditable conduct,
I will mention, that a dirticulty presented itself to the Committee as to
what was to be done witli tlie large trees, and it was gravely suggested
that they should be walled iii. I remarked, that I could cover the trees
without any difficidty ; when Mr. Brunei asked, ' Do you know their
height 1 ' I acknowledged that I did not. On tlie following morning.
Mr. Brunei called at Devonshire-house, and gave me the measurement of
the trees, which he had taken early in the morning, adding, 'Although I
mean to try to win with my own plan, I will give you all the information
I can.' Having given this preliminary explanation of the origin and
execution of my design, I will pass over the question of merit, leaving that
to be discussed and decided by other.s, when the whole shall have been
completed."'

Mr. Fox, at a dinner given to hiin at Derby, June 28th, made a speech,
giving the following imteresting particulars of the actual progi'ess of the
works : — •

" In June. 1850. the Royal Commission invited contractors to tender for a
building to be erected in Hyde Park, in conformity with plans and specifi-
cations prepared by the Building Committee.

"The Building, which was intended to consist principally of brick and
iron, with a splendid dome in the centre, was considered of too permanent
a nature for subsequent removal, and public opinion to this effect was very
generally expressed.

AN ILLUSTRATED CVCLOP.EDLA OF THE GREAT EXITITiTTIOX OF ]H-]

'• 111 llic )iiintc(l comlitioiis of loiulor jusuoj by tho BuUiUng Comuiittcc,
tlio folli)wiiig cluuso was introduced : —

"'Tciidera for iiiotlioda of connlniction otlioi' tlinii tliono bIiowii npon
tlio drawings, uinl described in the spccilieatioiih will bo cnlertiiined, but on
condition only of tlieir beiiiK ncconi|paiii<-d by worliinj; driuvings and
siJecilieatioiiH, and fully priocil bills of iiniintities.'

'■This inviliition to iiaition to scud iu lenders, based not only ou tlio
Coniniitteo's jiluns, but upon mioh other designs a» they might wish to
submit, iiulueed mo to beliovo that a tonder for a building of gloss and
iron, as suggested to me, for tho first tinu'. by Jlr. raxtoii. ou the 22ud
Juno, ISIiO, just twelve mouths ago, an engraving of whieli was published
in tho IllHstnikd Lowluii A'eics on the lith of .luly. woulil meet not
only with the appivhalion of the Duilding Committee, but wilh that of the
public at large ; and I therefore went to lUrniingham on the 2bth Juue,
and jjut in harul tho drawings and spocificatious upon which our tender to
the Comuiittce w;us to be Ii;ised.

" On the 2iul of July, Mr. Colo, having heard of our intiiition to luako an
offer for a building of the kind, and feeling strongly that the sueeosa of
tho Kxhibition dejiendcd upon having au atlraetive and suitaVdc buildiug,
came down to liirmingham, at his own suggestion, but witii the penuissiou
of eoniiieteut authority, to stimulate us to proceed, and to (jiVor such liuits
in reference to the reipiirements of the case as would enable us to make
the eoneeptiou of Mr. I'nxtou conform strictly to the condition of tender
required by the Commissioners, and therefore most likely to meet with
tho approbation of the Kuilding Couniiittee; and I am of opiuion, that to
his spirited advice wo are mainly indebted for obtaining an impregnable
locits sta/till on the merits of our case.

" In all this I had tho co operation of my partner, Mr. Henderson, who,
feeling with mo the value of Mi'. Cole's suggestions, and the great im-
portance ui the preparation of these drawings, of conforming as much as
po.ssiblo to the arrangements adopted by the Comiuittee iu tho plau upon
which they had invite<l tenders, proposed the addition of the transept,
in the propriety of which Mr. Paxton, after due consideration, entirely
concurred.

" Before completing our tender, and with a view to a more precise appre-
ciation of tho magnitude of a building covering 18 acres — 1850 feet long,
408 feet wide, and 04 feet high, irrespective of the arched roof of the
transeiit — I walked out one evening into Portland-place ; and there settiug
off the 1850 feet upou the pavement, found it the same length within a
few yards ; and then, cousidei-ing that the building would be three times
the width of that fine street, and the nave as high as the houses on either
side, I had presented to my mind a pretty good idea of what wo were about
to undertake, ami I confess that I considered the difficulties to be sur-
mounted in constructing that great I'alace were of no ordinary kind ; but
feeling confident that, with great energy, good arransemeuts, and a hearty
co-operation on the part of our extensive and well-disciplined staff, it
might be accomplished, and that upon it depended, iu all probability,
the success of the Exhibition, we determined to undertake the responsi-
bility ; and the opening on the 1st May has proved tho correctness of our
conclusions.

" The plans and specifications prepared by us in great haste were sub-
mitted to the Comiuissiouei's, together with a tender, on tho 10th July;
but, though sutficient to enable us to bring the subject before tliem, and
to convey to their minds au idea of what wo proposed to erect, they were
necessarily very incomplete, aud did not contain eitlier sufficient areliitec-
tural or mechanical detail to admit of their beuig used iu the execution of
tlie work.s. The arched roof was afterwards added to the design, and sub-
uiitteil to the Coniinissiouers on the loth July, with the view of getting
over a difficulty which existed in consecpience of the elm-trees being too
tall to be covered by the flat roof proposed by Mr. Paxton.

" These trees were, as Professor Cowper stated in his admirable lecture
on the last day of tho past year, 'John Lull's Trees of Liberty,' upou
which, for some reason, he hatl set his heart iu preference to all others,
iuid would not consent to their removal. For the expense attending the
addition of the arched roof to the transept. Fox, Henderson, and Co. did
not increase the amount of their former tender, and it was consequently
executed at their sole expense.

" The EuilJing Comnnttee, having had the matter under their considera-
tion from the lotii to the 25th July, resolved unanimously to recommend
the Coumiissiouei-3 to accept our offer fur the building with the arched
roof, aud nething could be more disinterested than their conduct in settiug
aside the drawings and specifications which, with much labour, they had
prepai'ed, and adopting others which, though laid before them in so imper-
fect a state, presented to their minds, as experienced engineers and archi-
tects, the mode of constructing a buildiug of iron and glass better fitted for
the purposes of the Exhibition.

" On the recommendation of the Building Committee, the Commissioners
on the 26th July were pleased to siguify their wish fur us to construct the
building, but were met by a difficulty \vluch threatened to postpone for a
year, if not to put an eud to the Exliibitiou altogether.

" The Solicitor to the Treasury gave as his opinion that, until the Com-
missiouei-s had obtained a royal charter, they could not legally proceed,
and were therefore not in a position to give an order to any one. These
cu-cumstances were explained to us by Lord Granville on the 2Gth of July,
in tlie presence of the Commissionei-s, who at the same time told us that it
was their fixed intention to apply to Government for the charter, and he
had every reason to believe it would be granted ; and having informed us

that an Hoon us they were a legally conKtitulc'l bo'Iy tlicy would probably
coueludo a conti-aet with Fox, Hcndojion, und Co., fiuifthiug by a«king
whether, under these cireumstimcefl, wo hIiouW consider It running t^jo
great u risk to enter lit once upon tho execution of tlio work, an othcrwiito
many weeks would unavoiilably be lo.st, and the clianec of opening tho
Kxhiliitiou on the Ist of May jiliiced beyond poBsibiiity. In reply to his
Iioid«hi[i's iiKpiiry, seeing the iiujierative ucceiwity for imniediat<j action,
and desiring to render all the a-saistiince in our power in furtherance of tho
important objects of the K.xhibition, we expressed our williugncsti to iTiu tho
risk, whatever it might be, and without waiting for the charter coinmcnced
at oneo the drawings and tho ncce-SKai-y oiiti-ation.s for tho croctiou of tho
building.

'■ As tho time for tho execution of the Building \va« no extremely limited,
aud being well aware, from experience, that when matters of biwiucRS had
to he decided by a conunittee composed of many pcrson.'i, much valuablo
time wiui generally wasted, we requested tho Commjssioneiv, iu^tcail of
referring us to the Building Committee, to select one of its mcraboj-8,
either the chairman, Mr. Cubitt, I'resident of tho Institution of Civil
Kngiucers, Mr. I{(jbcrt 8te]j|ieiisou, or Sir. Brunei, and give him ab.si)lut«
power to settle with us finally all mattci's connecteJ with the arduous task
we wei'© then willing to enter upon. The Commls-sioners, appreciating
the iniportaucc of this request, appointed Mr. Cubitt to fill this office.

" It was now that I commenced the laborious work of deciding upon tho
proportions aud strengths rcpiired in every part of this great ami novel
structure, so as to ensure that perfect safety essential in a buildiug destined
to receive millions of human being.s — one so entirely without precedent,
and where mistakes might have led to the most serious di.sa.sters. Having
satisfied myself ou these necessary points, I set to work and made every
important drawing of the BuikUng as it now stands with my own hand ;
and it was no small source of gratification to me, when asking Mr. Cubitt
to look over the drawings I had prepared, to find that he not only
hud no desire to suggest alterations, but expressed his entire approbation
of tlu-m all.

"The Commissionci-s haviug carefully considered the merits of tho vaiioua
sites proposed for the Exhibition, amongst which may be named Leietstor-
square, Somerset House, Trafalgar-square, the Isle of Dogs. Battersea-fields,
and Regent'spark, selected, after the most careful con.'iideration, a portion
of Hyde-park, situated between the Serpentine Kiver and the Queen's Drive,
and gave us possession of the gi'ound on the 30th of July, when we pro-
ceeded to take the necessary levels and surveys, and to set out with greafc
precision the po.sition of the various parts of the building.

"The drawing.? occupied me about eighteen hours each day, for seven
weeks, aud as they came from my hand Mr. Heijderson immediately pro-
ciu'od the iron work and other materials required in the construction of
tho Building.

" As the drawings proceeded, the calculations of strength were made,
aud as soon as a number of the important parts were prepared, such as the
cast iron girders and wrought u'on trusses, we invited Mi'. Cubitt to pay a
visit to oiu" works at Birmingham, to witness a set of experiments in proof
of the correctness of these calculation-s. "We first placed upon eaeii part
the greatest load it could ever iu practice receive, and proceeded to show
that above four times that load was required before fracture would occur.
These proofs were made on the 6th September, when Mr. Cubitt was
ple;used to state that he never witnessed a set of experiments of a more
conclusive uaiure. Being thus .satisfied by actual experiment tliat the pro-
portions of the various parfs of the Building were sucii as to en.sure perfect
stability and safety, the jireparation of the iron work and other materials
was pushed forward with the greatest vigour, and large deliveries w-ere
made in the Park within the next three weeks; so that on the Sfith Sep-
tember wo were enabled to fix the first column iu its place. From this
time 1 took the general management of the Building under my charge, and
spent all my time upou tho works, feeliug that, unless the same person
who had made the drawings was always present to assign to each ]iai-t as it
arrived upon the ground its proper position in the structure, it would be
impossible to finish the Buihling iu time to ensure the opening on the 1st;
of May, aud I am coufideut that if any other eoui-se had been taken, or if,
as is usual in the construetion of large buildings, the drawings had been
prepared by an architect, and the works executed by a contractor, instead
of, as in tho present ea.se, these sepai-ate functions being combined by my
making the drawings aud then superintending the execution of the work, a,
building of such dimensions could not have been completed within a peried
considered by experienced persons altogether inadequate for the purpose;

" The ex-ectiou of the Building, now fairly commenced, w as juished forwaid
with all possible speed, and a good notion of the lunount of work may bo
obtained from the fact that at one period we fixed as much ironwork every
day as would be reciuired in a roof of equal extent to the jiassenger station
of this town, which is one of the largest iu the kingdom.

'• It was not uutil the 31st of October that tho contract with the Com-
missioners was completed ; up to which time we not only had received no
order for the BuikUng, and no payment ou account of the work we had
done, but we had run tlie risk of expending upwards of 50,000?. without
being in a legal position to call upon the Commissioners for any portion of
the sum we had so expended ; and such was the appreciation of our con-
duct in this matter, that Lord Granville was pleased, iu the presence of the
other members of the Commission, to state, on the 6tli of November, that
they were of opiuion, that, but for the courage evinced by Fox. Henderson,
aud Co., iu commencing the work without any order from the Commis-

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS.

Bioners, the Exhibition of Industry of all Nations
place.

" Perhaps the most difficult and hazardous, and
resting portion of the -n-ork, was raising
the sixteen ribs of the ti-ansept to their
places. A month was the shortest time
assigned by any one fur this operation.
We commenced on the ■ith of Dec,
and succeeded in raising two in the
course of that day.

"Two more were safely deposited in
their places in the presence of his Royal
Highness Prince Albert on the follow-
ing day, aud the last pair on December
the 12th; so that the sixteen ribs were
all placed in eight working days.

" As the Building progi-es.«ed. I was
assailed on all sides, not only by un-
professional persons, but by men of
high scientific attainments, who, not-
withstanding the careful calculations
which had been made, and the satis-
factory proofs to which all the im-
portant parts were individually sub-
jected, as soon as these pai'ts were put
together, producing a structure of
unparalleled lightness, doubted the
possibility of possessing, as a whole,
that strength which was necessary to
make it safe against the many trying
influences to which it mast necessarily
be subjected.

" One gentleman, after compliment-
ing me upon the beautiful appearance
of the Building, stated his belief tliat
it would never come down unless it

would never have taken
certainly the most inte-

tumbled down, and which he had no doubt, in his own mind, it would ; or
that the first gust of wind would blow it down like a pack of cards.
Another, holding a high scientific appointment under Government, after a

long investigation of the various parts
of the Building, expressed at the
Institxition of Civil Engineers, a belief
in the entire want of safety in its
construction ; and after explaining the
mode of connecting the girders with
the columns by means of projections
technically called snugs, went on to
indulge in an airy prophecy that a
wind exerting a force equal to 10 lbs.
per super6cial foot would bring such
a strain upon these snugs as to break
them all off, and cause them to fall
down in showers. I may just remark,
that, since the exprf-ssion of tliia
opinion the wind-gauges around Lon-
don have registered, in the late storms,
upwards of 20 lbs. per foot; and I
have pleasure in informing you that
the encouraging predictions of this
gentleman, as w-ell as tliose of many
others, have not been fulfilled.

*' In fact, statements of this kind
were so frequent and pointed, that we
were often seriously advised to reply
to them ; but feeling confident we were
right, and that we should succeed in
all we had undertaken, and tliat the
more people spoke against ua the more
complete would be the reaction in our
favour, we abstained from taking any
notice of what was said, leaving the pub-
lic to judge of the matter by the result."

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPyEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

THE LAST DAYS OF THE EXHIBITION.

The last days of tlie Exhibition have passed off iu a mauner at once
gratifying and surprising. Everybody was prepared for a great accession
of numbcra to the iisunl average of shilling visitors, but the most extrava-
g.mt expectations could hardly have anticipated anything so remarkable as
the actual reality. On Monday, 107,815 people entered the building, and
51751. 16s. was taken at the dooi-s. On Tuesday, tliere were 109,915
visitors, and 523U. 10;(. taken at the doors. On Wednesday, 109,760
visitors, and 5283^. Ss. taken at the door. On Thursday (a very wet day),
90,813 visitors, and iSHl. 7s. 6d. taken at the doors.

Facts so astounding speak for themselves, and derive no additional force
from expatiating upon them. Were it not so, we should despair of
describing the scene which the interior presented. Popular demonstra-
tions ai-e always grand. Taking place in such an arena they exercise a

transcendant and overpoweriug influence. In the presence of euch an
a.s.semblage of human beings the highest triumphs of industry and art are
forgotten, and the mind has only time to think of that great nia.ss of
humanity tendering its homage at the shrine of Laboui-, and vindicating
the nobility of toil. If any lingering doubts Iiave been entertained that the
Crystal Palace has not been popular among the masses, its closing hours
will set them completely at rest. That nearly 110,000 people should
within one day and under one roof have enjoyed the grandest spcctaclo
that the world has ever witnessed is of itself a sufficient mai-vel, but that
they should have done so without a single known casualty to life or pro-
perty is almost mcredible. So, however, it is, and we leave to revolutionary
and discontented minds the study of facts which place in so clear and '
unquestionable a. light the love of order and the genuine kindliness of spirit
which pervade all classes of our population.

No. 3, OcTOBEn IS, 1851.

TUF. UOAD TO TI:e EXIUniTIOX. — HYDE VAV.K roiiNrr.

Price Oxe Pexxt.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

Notliing like it has ever been witnessed before, nor can such a spectacle
be soon repeated. The excitement was not confined to the building itself,
but was manifested in every part of the metropolis. The sLs railway
termini were regularly choked up with arrivals from the country. Omni-
buses were filled in.side and out with a rapidity which far outstripped the
zeal of their conductors, and a coui'age which set the weather and all other
dangei-s and discomforts at defiance. Cabs were frequently not to be had
on the best attended stands, and the thoroughfares leading to Hyde-park
were swept tlirougliout the day by a continuous and inexhaustible stream
of public and private conveyances of all descriptions, including innumerable
vans and carts. Where they all came from was the wonder, nor could the
stranger help admiring th-^* marvellous dexterity with which this moving
panorama of life was du'ectcd in its perplexed and luizardous course. Amid
all the apparent hubbub and confusion order prev.iilod, and so complete
■were the arrangements for preventnig injury to life and limb, and for
Becuriug tlie passenger traffic of the streets, that at the principal crossings
policemen were stationed to watch over tlie safety of the timid and the aged.
Till long after midday the pavements on eitlier side along Piccadilly, and
from Hyde-park-corner and up Sloane-street to Knightsbridge, were swarm-
ing with dense black columns of pedestrians, all wending their way to the
Crystal Palace. Within, the vast area of the nave and transept could be
compared to nothing so aptly as to a stupendous beeliive : it was alive with
human beings, who moved to and fro and defiled along side aisles, and
clustered in comts and galleries, while the hum of their voicts and the
sound of tlieir footfalls rose in one continuous swell upon the ear, im- i
pressing upon the mind of the listener mingled sentiments of a«-o and !
mystery.

An incident occun'ed on Monday, however, which for a moment occa-
sioned some little anxiety, not to say alarm, yet from a cause which no
effort of prudence could have prevented. When the crowd a.ssembled
within the building was at its culminating point, it was suddenly discovered
that the Duke of Wellington was present. Instantly the manifestations of
public admiration arose. Hats were taken off, and loud cheers burst forth,
which were prolonged with immense energy. Those wdio were at a distance,
siu-prLsed by an unwonted agitation which they could not understand,
fancied that there was something wrong, and rushed towards the doors.
The Duke also felt the awkwardness of his position, and beat a retreat.
His gi'eat age does not now permit him to execute sucli movcnients with
the precision and firmness \vhich in former days were his characteristics,
but he made his way nevertheless to the south entrance of the transept
with surprising alacrity, followed as he went by the most vigorous demon-
strations of popular regard. Superintendent Pearce, with great tact, stopped
the rush towards the places of exit, and, by his judicious management, the
fears of the most timid spectators were in a few minutes effectually quieted.

In commemoration of the exciting and wonderful scenes above imper-
fectly described, we give Fom- Illustrations : one of the ai)pearancc of the
road at Hyde-park-corner ; tlie second, of tlie crowd at the soutli entrance ;
the other two taken from two distinct parts of the interior of tlie Building.

DEMPSTER'S SEA TELEGRAPH.
Telegbaphixu at sea, by means of Cags and other deseription of signals
communicating messages from one ship to another, and from shore to
vessels, and vkc vcvs^i, has long been considrred a subject of much import-
ance. Various methods have been projected, and improvements have been
Kuggcsted upon those mothodii. Tliere are now sevei'al telegraphs extant
for sigualisiiig at lica, and books publialied to correspond with the arnmge-
lucnta of those telegraphs ; but, for various reasons, none of then; are
sufficiently widely circulated amongst the shipping interest as the import-
ance of the mbjoct demands, for public security and convenience. It is
rather a dtrikiiig aud remarkable fact, that amongst the many thousands of
fiehing-veii-sels and coasters that are couslautly navigating along our coasts,
scarcely any of their commandcry^ avail tliomeelves of the advantage of a
systematic mode of eonuuiiuiciting their de.-iros and wishes from one
point to another. This may in a great measure be attributed to the want
<'f a timple ond easily wcrkud code of signals. To obviate this want
Mr. Dcmpetcr, who haa hmg advocated fishery iniprnvements, has con-
cocted a scries of signals, which deserve the attention of all persons inter-
ested m maritime aft'airs. Tlio contrivance consists of a (lag-staff, with an
equilateral triangular signal, hoi.sted to mast-head. With tliis one signal,
wliicli is divided into four colours — red, white, blue, yellow, Mr. Dempster
manages to symbolize fully the twenty-eight letters of the alpfcabet. Tlie
telegraph is exceedingly simph-, and might be rendered very useful at sea,
piartieularly during light winds and calms. The signal always shows its
colouii) distinctly, put it in wliatever position you choose. Under the old
systcin the flags hang down during ealm.s, and it is difficult to niake their
numbers out distinctly. Mr. Demjistcr gives a coni]>relicnsive idea of liis
system of signalising in a lainted voluiue, wliieh is appended to the flag-
staff. There is also a large map, with the twenty-eight characters of tlie
alphabet in coIoium, neatly cxeeutcil. 'I'ho ba.-e of Mi'. Dempster's im-
provement on signalising at sea, chiefly rests on the princi[)le of clianging
colours, by keeping one colour as a centre, until the other three work six
different ch.angcs. ICaeh of tlie four colours acting as a centre gives tw cnty-
four different letters or numbers, and the four flags appearing separately
give four more number.^, which make up the twenty-eight letters.

HISTORY OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

III. — Gebehal DEScniPTioN op the Buildinci.
THE building in its general arrangement resembles the distribution of

li.irts in a cruciform cathedral with double aisles, consisting of a vast
nave 72 feet wide, 64 feet high, running from east to west, 1848 feet in
length. This nave is crossed at right angles near the centre of its length
by a transept of the same width, and 403 feet long. The roof of this
transept is soinicylindrical, the curve commencing at a height of 68 feet
On each side, both of the nave and transept, run aisles 24 feet in width,
and 64 in height, with galleries covering the whole width of the aisles at
a height of 24 feet from the ground. Beyond these first aisles, and parallel
with them, at a distance of 48 feet, ai-e second aisles of similar widtli, and
similaiiy covered for their wiiole width with galleries on the same level as
those over the first aisles. In order to communicate from one gallery to
another, bridges at frequent intervals span the 4S-feet avenues, and divide
them into courts, each of which has been so an-anged as to present an
ensemble to the eye of the spectator looking down upon it from the
galleries. The avenues of 48 feet, whicli w'e have described as thus
subdivided, and the second aisles, are roofed over at a height of 44 feet
from the ground. The remaining portion of the buildmg consists of one
story only 24 feet high : in which there ai'e of course no galleries. Ten
double stair-eases, each 8 feet wide, give access to the galleries.

The total area of the ground floor is 772,784 square feet, and that of the
galleries 217,100 square feet. The galleries extend nearly a mile in length.
The total cubic contents of the building are about 33,000,000 feet. Tliere
are nearly 2,300 cast iron girders, 23 feet 4 inches long, and 3 feet deep ;
and 358 wrought-iron trusses for supporting tlie galleries and roof; 30 miles
of gutters for carrying the roof-water to tlie columns which support the
roof, and 202 miles of sash-bars.

Commodious refreshment rooms, &o., have been provided around tlie
trees at the northern extremity of the transept, and adjoining open courts
towards the eastern and western extremities of the building, where the
presence of the groups of trees dictated their location. Tlie offices of the
Executive Committee adjtin the soiitheru entrance. In addition to the
southern or piincipal entrance, there are two others, one at the east and
the other at the west end of the building. Fifteen exit doors permit
visitors to leave the building.

Water is supplied in abundance by the Chelsea AVater-works Company,
not only to guard against contingeucics by fire, but to supply the numerous
fountains which are distributed about the building.

Ventilation is effected and regulated by means of " louvres " consisting
of metal blades fixed in wooden frames. These louvres resemble Venetian
blinds in their action. An area of not less than 50,000 feet, superficiid,
of ventilating surface is thus distributed generally over the building. An
ingenious arrangement of cranks, &c., so connects these louvres one with
another, that a single man can open or close with great eiuso no less than
600 feet, superficial, by one motion of the arm.

The decoration of the building, which is in wiiito and blue stripes,
relieved with red, was designed by Owen Jones, Esq.

To give an idea of the enormous extent of the building, it maybe noticed
that the width of the main avenue is within ten feet double that of Saint
Paul's Cathedral, whilst its length is more than four times as great. The
walls of St. Paul's are fourtueu feet thick, those of the " Crystal Palace"
only eight inches. St. Paul's oouupied 35 years in building, whilst the
Hyde Park building occupied less than half that number of weeks ; the
celerity of the con^ruction has been most remarkable. As many as 308
girders have been delivurad on the ground in one week. Seven of the great
trusses of tlie nave were rai^iod Ji; one day. Each man fixed about 200
superficial feet cf glass per day. In order to perform these marvels, it was
necessary to devise ond emidoy various contri\anccs for economising
labour, such as the sasli-bar machine, the gutter machine, the morticing
machine, the jiainling macliine, the glazing machine, besiilcs many others
of an equally ingenious nature. The average number of workmen employed
was about 1800, omougst whom about i2,500 was weekly paid in wages.
Even in the payment of the worknicn ingenious machinery was called into
requisition, Viy which it was found possible to make nearly 2,(ni0 distinct
payments within the space of two hours !

With regard to the internal arrangements as they appeared during the
period the Exhibition was open, a brief survey maybe sufficient as a record
for future reference.

Upon entering at the eastern end of the building, the productions of the
United States were found arranged upon the north and south sides.
Ailjoining the United States on the north side, were the productions of
Russia; Norway, Sweden and Denmark occupying the space opposite to
Rustsia, upon tli"e south side. Exhibitors fioiii Norllicrn Germany came
nest, on the north side to Russia, and upon the south to Denmark. The

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOP.I^DLV OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

proihictiona of the ZoUveroin oceupiofl a coimiilenvljlo n\)two >i)Kiri Imlli
uidos, Riijoiiiiiiy to those of Norlhorn (icniiany. ArticlcH coiitriluitoil by
Aa-triuii oxhihitoiu caiiio next, altio occupying a poHioii of ciic-h tiilu of the
central iias&ut'O. Tlio routrilnition!) fioiii llolluinl joined, on the north
8ule, the AuBtrian proiliu'tions. Belgium next Ofinpicd a fair amount of
Bl)aco upon each Ki(h'. France had 24I-) feet of fronta^'C npon the nortli.
and about 200 feet u|)on the wHith Bide. To Tortufjid and .SiKiin were
allottod a Hpaee upon the north side, a.s well an to Italy. Hwilzorluud
exhibilocl licr jirijiluctioun upon tlio soutli side, and hy their side wore
arranged the articles sent from Brazil and Jlexico. EKyjit and Greceo
oeenpied a epaco upon the north Hide, near to the traiihcp:, and in imme-
diate proximity to some of the rich productions of Turkey, which stood at
the point of junction with the transept, t'liina had a frontage upon the
Honth side, and a portion of that of tlie transept. I'er.sia and Arabia
adjoined to Greece and Turkey, iu the nortli transept; whilst Tuni.-i occu-
pied a portion of the south transept.

Crossiiit; the traiisejit w•c.^t^vard, the vi.-^itor found him.solf amid the
productions of Briti.sh India, Ceylon, and tlie rest of our colonies, from
vvliich he passed to the prodvictions of the United Kiiigdoni, arranged in
vai'ious way.s, according to their classes ; the productions of Ireland being
near the extreme west of the nave. The machinery in motion occupied
the north-western part of the buildiu'^ : the steam-engine, of upwards of
100-horse power, being outside the buiKlini;. Tlio galleries were allotted
to the respective countries in almost the same proportions as the space upon
the grimnd floor. All the lighter and more elegant articles, including the
plate and jewellery of the British contributors, were displ.iyed in the
galleries, the heavier articles being of course exhibited npon tlie ground
floor. tSculiitme and the tine arts occupied a position soutli of tlio west
transept. Articles of statuaiy and sculpture were also placed upon each
side of the c'-ntrai passage, small fountains and other oniamcutal works
being placed in the centre. At the centre of the interseetion of the
transept and nave, or central passage, was the very beautiful glass fountain
by Messrs. Osier, of which wo have already given au engraving and
description.

The general aspect of the building, externally, was thus described by the
Times, about the time of its completion : — The eye, accustomed to the
solid licavy details of stoue ami litue, or brick and mortar architecture,
wanders along tliose extended and transparent aisles with their terraced
outlines, almost distrusting its own eonelusions on the reality of what it
sees, for the whole looks like a splendid phantasm, which the heat of the
uoon-day suu would dissolve, or a gust of wind scatter into fr.agmeuls, or
a London fog utterly extinguish. There, however, the Palace of Industry
remains, a monument of the extent to which li,i;litncss of structure can be
combined witli permanence and strength, a building remarkable not less
for size tlian for the beauty of mathematical proportions and rectangular
■outlines. The varied dimensions and fantastic features of other edifices
there find no parallel. Everything is done by the rule, and yet everything
is graceful, and it might almost be said grand. Wherever one stands no
disagreeable effects present themselves — nothing crooked, awkward, or out
of [ilaee. Tiio subordination of parts to the whole is complete, and an
exi)i'ession of order and exactitude reigns thi'oughout, not unaptly typical
of the jirogress which the mech.auical sciences h.ave made in this country.
But for tliat jirogrcss this great building could never have been constructed,
and it certainly is curious to reflect, njv,- that the work has been aceom-
pli.jhed, and the great result stands patent to the world, that with the
facilities we posde.?sod glass and iron have hitherto been so little employed
by our architects.

Unforniintely, the south side, -which is the principal facade, stands so
close to the public thoroughfare that its proportions cannot be seen to
advantage. Like many other great structures which will readily suggest
themselves to the mincl of the reader, the Palace of Industry must be viewed
from a distance to be appreciated. Vvhoevcr would see a great mountain
to perfection, must not survey it immediately from its base, and on exactly
the same principle the new edifice in Hyde Park cannot be well viewed
from the Kensington-road. The drive along the .Serpeutine and the bridge
over it are the best points for a spectator to select. There the gi-ouud
rises, and the vacant space enables tlie eye to reach over a largo proportion
of the building. Tne trees partly shut out the prcspect, but enough
remains to astonish and to captivate. The vast extent of area covered, the
transparent and brilliant character of the structure, the regular and
terraced elevations, the light airy abutments, the huge transept, with its
archcl and glittering roof shining above the great vitreous expanse around
it, and reminding one of nothing that he has ever heard of before, — all
these things are worth seeing, and threaten to interfere seriously with the
seleetness of Rotten Row. The drive along the Sepentine should certainly
be made the main carriage approach to the Exhibition, for visitors, by a
good vie%v of the exterior, will have their minds prepru-ed to appreciate
the industrial wonders collected inside.

We have now made a comprehensive review of the Origin and History
of the Grtat Industrial Exnibition of 1S51, down to the selection of a site
for the building devoted to its use ; and we have also given a general
description of tlie building as it now stands. The details of the ingenioas
machinery by which this stupendous and ever-memorable structure was
completed in the incredibly short space of six-months, with illustrations,
will form the subject of a distinct chapter.

In the meantime, pursuing the History of the Great Exhibition, rather
thau of the building of the Crystal Palace, wc must speak of a matter very

essentially bearing upon the ultimato object* of the undertaking, namelj
the \>nzfa. ■

IV.— The PitiZE! MEDAt3.
It was originally intended that largo uioiiuy prizfs vliould be giren :
including ouo of 5,000/., and one at lea-St of IfiilOt. to each of the four
sections. Considerable division of opinion upon tbU subject wna f'juwl to
exist, and the prevalent opinion of the country seuined to coincide with
that of Birmingham, at a meeting in which town it wag resolved, " That it
is nut desirable to award money prizes to the sncccsaful competitors in the
intended Exhibition, being of opinion that honorary distinction and com-
mercial reputation are the most sure and honourable reward, and will prove
the most generally satisfactory to the nianufaeturci-s of this diatrict."
The following are the final decisions upon this important subject: —

"Her Majesty's Coniniis»loncrrt Imvc liarl under thijlr c»»ii8itli;niti<>ii the stibjcct of Uie
prizes to lie iiwiinlcd to cxtiibitoru, mid Iiavc roHolvud to tuke tmnieUiuUi Hti-'pn for having
(tinvi'j llleiliils stnicll of various sizes and dilTirent designs, it lieing llieir opinion that
tliis is tiie form in wiiicli it will, gencraliy speaking, lie nio.it desiralile that tlic rewards
sliouia he distributed. Tliey have decided to select Inonic for the maUTial In wiiich tlio
medals are to be I'xecntcd, considering that metal to be better calculated than any other
for tile deveiopnunt of superinr sltill and ingcnnity iu tlie niedalic art, and at thii sama
time tlie most liltely to constitute a lusting memorial of the J^xliibitiun.

"Willi legard to the mode in which the prizes are to he awarded, the Commissionei-s
tliinli it inexpedient to cslablisii beforehand rules so prociso as to fetter the discretion of
tlie juries upon which the task will ultimately devolve. It will be sutBcient for the
present to indicate tlio geuelal piinclplcsto wliicli it will probably be advisahia hi conform
in tlie award of prizes for successful c-aupetiliou iu the several departmeuts of tlio
Exhibition.

" In tiie department of Haw Materials and Produce, for instance, prizes will be awarded
npon a consideration of the value and importance of the article, and the supenor excel-
lence of the particular specimens exhibited ; and iu the case of prepared materlal.s, coming
ui.dcr this liead of the Kxliibition, tlic juries will take into account the novelty and
importance of tlie prepared product, and tiie superior skill and ingenuity monifeated in
the process of preparation.

" I u the department of .Machinery, the prizes will be given w ith reference to novelty iu
the invention, superiority in the c-kecution, incrca.sed ethciency or increased economy, In
the use of the article exliiliited. Tlie importance, in a social or otlier point of view, of the
purposes to which the article is to he applied, will also be taken into consideration, aa
will also the amount of the dillicnltics overcome in bringing the invention to pei-fcction.

" In the department of iMauufactures, those articles will be rewarded which fulfil in the
highest degree the conditions specified in the sectional list already published, viz —
Increased usefulness, such as permanency in dyes, improved forms and arrangements in
articles of utility, &c. Superior quality, or superior skill in workmanship. New use o
known materials. Use of now materials. New combinations of materials, as in metals
and pottery. Beauty of design in form, or colour, or both, with reference to ntiUty
Cheapnes.s, relatively to excellence of production.

"In the department of Sculpture, Models, and the Plastic Art, the rewards will havo
reference to the beauty and originality of the specimens exhiiiited, to impi-ovements in
the processes of production, to the application of art to manufactures, and, iu the case
of models, to the interest attaching to the subject they represent.

" These general indications are sufflcio.nt to show that it is the wish of the Commis-
sioners, as far as possible, to reward all articles in any department of the Exhibition which
may appear to competent judges to possess any decided superiority, of whatever nature
that superiority may he, in their own kind.

'■ In selecting the juries who are ultimately to guide them in making their award, the
Commissioners will uike the greatest pains to secure the services of men of known ability
to form a judgment above the suspicion of either national or individual partiality i for
which purpose they will be composed partly of English, and partly of foreigners) ; and
wlio may be expected to recognise and appreciate merit wherever it may be found, and ia
whatever way it may show itself.

" No competitor for a prize in any section will be alloired to act upon a jury to award
the prize in tliat section.

" The names of persons selected to act on these juries will he published when decided
upon.

" All persons, whether being the designers or inventors, the manufacturers or the pro-
prietors, of any articles, will he allowed to exhibit, and it will not be essential that
they should state the ciiaracter in which they do so. In awarding the prizes, however,
it w ill bo for the juries to consider, in each individual case, bow far the various elements
of merit should be recognised, and to decide wliether the prizes should he handed to the
exhibitor without previous inquiry as to the character in which he exhibits.

" Lastly, the Commissioners in announcing their intention of giving medal prizes, do
not propose altogether to exclude pecuniary gi-ants, either as prizes for successful com-
petition, or as awards under special ciicnmstances, accompanying, and in addition to, the
honorary distinction of the medal. There may he cases in which, on account of the con-
dition of life of the successful competitor (as, for instance, in the case of workmen), the
gi ant of a sum of money may he the most appropriate reward of superior excellence : aud
there may he other eases of a special aud exceptionable nature, in which, from a con-
sideration of the expense incurred in the prcp.iration or transmission of a particular
article entitled to a prize, combined with a due regard to the condition and pecuniary
circumstances of the party exhibiting, a special grant may with propriety be added to
the honorary distinction. The Commissiouers are not prepared, for the present at least,
to establish "any regulations on these heads. They cmsidcr it pi-nbable that a wide discretion
must be left to the iuries to be hereafter apppointed in respect to the award of money

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

THE PRIZE MEDALS. £100 EACH.

prizes, or the grant of money in .-lid of honor.iry distinctions ; it being understood tliat such |
discretion is to be exercised under the snperinteudence and controul of the Commission."

An advertisement was issued on
the 23rd of March, 1S50, and exten-
sively published in the English and
Foreign jouraals, inviting the artists
of all countries to compete for the
designs for the reverses of three bronze
medals, illustrative of the objects of
the Exhibition, or appropriate as the
reward of successful competition, and
offering at the same time three prizes
of 100?. each for the three designs for
the reverses which might appear the
most meritorioits and the most suit-
able to the purposes of the Commis-
sioners, and three prizes of 501. each
for the three best designs which were
not accepted, the Commissioners re-
serving to themselves the right of
making such arrangements for exe-
cuting the successful designs as might
appear to them to be the best. In
consequence of this advertisement, one
hundred and twenty-nine designs were
sent in, and were publicly exhibited
in the rooms of the Society of Arts.
The Commissioners appointed the fol-
lowing gentlemen to act as a committee
for selecting the best designs : — Lord
Colborne, W. Dice, Esq., R.A., J. Gib-
son, Esq., R.A., M. Eugene Lami,
C. Newton, Esq., of the British Museum, Herr J. D. P.-issavant, and Dr.
Gustavo AViuigcn, who, on the 29th of June, reported to the Cornunssioners

that they had selected the following : — 1 00/. each : Mons. Hippolyte Bonnardel,
of Paris ; Mr. Leonard C. Wyon, of London ; Mr. G. G. Adams, of London.

50/. each : Mr. John Hancock, of Lon-
don ; Mons. L. Wiener, of Brussels ;
Mons. Gayrard, of Paris. We give
engravings of the three medals ac-
cepted.

M. BrninardeVs Medal shows Mer-
cury holding a female figure by the
hand (apparently intended to represent
Industry, from the anvil, locomotive,
&c., near her), in front of a figure of
Britannia, standing on a slightly raised
pl.ntform, with both hands extended,
holding wreaths : flags of different
nations make up the background.
Motto : " Est etiam in maguo quaedam
respublica mundo."

Mr. Wyon's Medal — Britannia, seated,
is placing mth one hand a laurel
wreath on the head of an emblematical
figure of Industry; and leading her
forth with the right hand. Behind, are
representations of the four quarters
of the world, who have brought In-
dustry to Britannia. To the right are
emblems of the four sections : — 1. The
cotton plant and wheat-sheaf; 2. A
wheel ; 3. A bale of goods ; i. A vase.
Motto — " Dissociata locis concord! pace
ligavit."

Mr. G. G. Adams's Medal is a grace-
fully modelled group, in low relief, of Fame, Industry, and Commerce.
Motto — "Artificis tacitte quod nicmcre manus.''

Mons. Hippolyte Bonnaedel.

No. 24.— Mb. Leo.vard Wvos.

No. 105. Mh. G. G. Adams.

THE AMAZON, BY KISS OF BERLIN.
The Colossal Group of the Amazon attacked by a tigress, by Kiss c-f
Berlin, is oive of the marvels of the Great Exhibition, and has received more
tributes of unqualified praise than perhaps any other single object in the
Crystal Palace. It is certainly avery masterly production, and in a style which
is almost new to sculptors of our day ; though at the same time, "from the
nature of the subject, it is not entitled to rank with works in the liighest
cla.S3 of sculpture. It is more animal than spiritual ; the conception more
startling tlian poetic. For the Amazon, it is a figure of tremendous
energy. The manner in which she is represented, as having tliruwu herself

back out of her ordinary seat, in order to get beyond the reach of the
tiger, whose claws are already deep dug in the neck and flanks of the horse,
whilst she takes deliberate aim for a single and critical blow at the head of
the savage monster, is admirably conceived and carried out; the face with
its mixed expression of ten'or and determination, is of itself a study sufli-
cient for an erjtire work iji sculpture. The horse and tiger are both
masterpieces in their way, but unfortunately more than divide the interest
with the human subject. This work is a copy in zinc, bronzed, from the
original in bronze, erected in 1839, at tlie foot of the steps before the
Museum at Berlin ; having been made a present to tlie King of Prussia by a
Society of Amiteurs.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOIVEDLV OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF I85I.

.37

TiiK a;.!azon', bv kiss

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

CARPET MAinjFACTtJRE, BY HAITO LABOUR AND BY
MACHINERY.

pARPETS are comparatively a modern luxury in Europe, and especially
in England. It was not until the seventeenth centm-y wa.s somewhat
advanced that carpets were considered a necessary article of furnitiu-e by
the wealthy ; and it is within the recollection of the present generation
that their presence in the cottage was considered a sure indication of oom-
fortable prosperity on the part of their possessors. Up to a very recent
period, flooi-s of concrete were all that was felt to be necessary for the
cottage ; and the gi*ound-floor of the farm-house could boast of no better
material, whilst the fir or pine boards of the bed-room floor were rarely so
close as to prevent a conversation V)etween the oeciipants of an upper a.nd
lower chamber. The more wealthy occasionally indulged in the luxury of
polished deal or oak, and sometimes added the attraction of parquetrie :
but a carpet, if met with, was an imported article — the produce of Persia,
the shores of the Levant, or Flandei'S. Persia still produces some carpets
for the European market, and our Turkey carpets for the dining-room are
Btill from the shores of the Levant ; but France has for some years past
supplanted Flanders in supplying our richer classes with those charming
specimens of design and harmonising colouring which have for a long time
justly placed the French manufacturer as the first and most tasteful of
carpet producers. Persia and Tui-key carpets arc now what they always
were in manufacture, and probably, in the majority of instances, in design
also — abounding with strangely fantastic forms, luxuriantly and harmoni-
ously coloured, and manufactured in materials second in durability only
to the floor of wliich they form the cover. On this account we view the
exhibition of these carpets in the ludian, Turkish, and Tunisian collections
with much interest. Yet they evidence no progi-ess ; whilst those in the
European, especially in the English portion of the Exhibition, sliow that
the day is probably not far distant when the far north will supply the oast
with all that may be required of this class of goods, and when tlie manu-
facture— at least as at present conducted — will become as p>erfectly extinct
as the manufacture of cottons for which India was once so renowned. For
there exists, with respect to the manufacture of carpets in this country,
the same careful study of the nature of tlie fabric — the same evidence of
the successful application of mechanical contrivances to cheapen labour
and reduce cost — the same steady progress and marked success in deve-
loping itself — which characterises tlie production of cottons of the present
day, as compared with those of the hand-loom weaver of the early part of
the present century.

It may somewhat sxirprise many of our readers when we say that there
are but few kinds of carpet, and that the mode of operation pursued by the
different manufocturers of carpets bearing very dissimilar names is precisely
similar — tliat Tapestry and Tournay, Axmiuster and Wilton, are names
that are given at tlie caprice of the maker, and, in many instances neither
indicate the locality of the manufacture nor the quality of the carpet. In
fact, one of these places, Axminster, has long ceased to manufactjre the
luxurious productions beariag its name. Tapestry carpets are those pro-
duced by ihe needle — they are, in fact, needle-work carpets, in which
machinery has very limited duties to perform, and those of a simple
character. Toiirnay and Axminster carpets are produced by hand also ; a
machine — if such it may be called — which is nothing more than a frame
such as ladies use for stretching their canvass for needle-work, is set up
perpendicularly, and the women occupied in the production are seated in
front, and work horizontally. Eacli thread is knottol to the fomidation or
back, and is not in any other way eonnected with any other thread, and this
ia the distinguishing chai-acteristic of the manufacture. There are no con-
tinuous threads, as iu Turkey and Tape-stry carpets — no weaving process
of any kind whatever — no mechanical appliances worthy of particular
mention. The process is unquestionably exceedingly primitive, though the
production is often resplendent with the most marvellous beauties both in
design and colour. '■ Veivet-pile" carpets, "Royal pile," and " Saxonv,"
are all the same kind of carpet— the names being given at the caprice of the
manufacturer, and conveying no detnitc idea of quality. They are each
and all manufactured in the same loom, and are in different degrees the
name f.ibric, and often the satne pattern, as Brussels carpet. In fact, the
wor-sled hop is the distinguishing characteristic of the Brussels carpet.
AVhen cut open by an old i-azor — the tool generally used by the weaver for
the purpose — passing across the carpet, and guided iu" its course by a
grooved wire over which tho loop has been formed, it becomes a " Saxony."
A wire of larger dimensions protloces a larger loop, and this, laid open by
the same primitive process, produces a "A'clvet-pile."

Here, again, we may notice that names are capricious. Brussels ha.s long
since ceased to supply us with carpets, and carefully guards against our
produce by prohibitory duties ; else the Kidderminster manufacturer would
supply Brussels carpets to the city bearing their name. Again Kidder-
minster no longer makes tlie carpet that beai-s the name of that borou'di,
and we depend on the iioith of England or the west of .Scotland for that

production — the Kidderminster makers having directed their attention to
the higher (pialities of carpet manufacture.

No portion of the Exliibition offers more pleasing proof of the fact that
as manufacturers of luxuriant products we are moving forward than that of
carpets. Not only are the designs of many very superior in conception —
showing that a knowledge of forms and colours is well understood — but
the presence of some of the finest qualities of Axminstcr and Wilton
encourage the hope that the highest descriptions of carpet manufacture,
such as those of Anbusson and even of the Gobelins, will ere long be
supplied by British manufacturers. Among this class of articles exhibited,
we notice an Axminster, exhibited by her Majest}', manufactured at Glasgow
for Messrs. Doubiggin and Co., from a design by M. Gruiier. There is
much in this that indicates the artist, but we canuoc think that it will add
to his reputation as a designer ; the design is Italian, and the general form
combines three parallelograms, a long one as a centre and a smaller one at
each end, the longer sides of which extend the width of the carpet. Tho
border is, in our opinion, stiff in delineation, being principally composed
of geometric and architectxiral forms; the year 1851. expressed in Roman
numerals, is in the centre, on a tablet of a white ground, surrounded by an
oval band of flowci-s. A filling of damask pattern in crimson occupies
the space between the border and centre.

M. tSallandrouze, the justly celebrated manufacturer of the Anbusson
tape.stries and the kerseymeres of France, has a fine display of these pro-
ducts, which worthily sustain his reputation. We tliink, however, that he
has been unfortunate iu the work which is evidently intended for the
current year — a tapestry carpet of large dimensions, bearing the royal arms
as a centre, and covered with devices of typical imd emblematical character,
each device being surrounded by a frame of French scroll ornaments. In
the corners are representations of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America ; in
the border we find Poetry and Sculpture, Music and Painting, &c. ; Com-
merce and Industry are on each side of the Royal arms, and in the inter-
vening pni-tions. Astronomy and Chemistry, Architecture and Agi'iculture.
The names and the emblems of the principal seats of mannfacture of Great
Britain and France are also shown in panels. We have heard the fastidious
object to llowers in carpets, but what shall be said of pictures? or who
could reconcile himself to the notion of treading them underfoot?

Messrs. Jackson and Graham, No. 390, are the exhibitors of a '■ Tournay,"
or "Axminster," to which they have given the name of a ''London Carpet."
Why cannot manufacturers agree on an appropriate name for these hand-
work carpets, and not continue to puzzle the public with a variety of
merely local nani^^s for the same class of productions? This is a very
superior specimen of fine Renaissance forms and drawings ; the colouring
also is unexceptionable, and would be warm and cheering by ai'tificial light
— a never-to-be-forgotten consideration in the manufacture of carpets for
reception rooms.

Messrs. Watson, Bell, and Co., also exhibit a hand-worked carpet —
"Axminster" — of an arabesque pattern, with flowers nnitcd, correct in
drawing and colour, and fitted to bear a close examination of detail. There
is another carpet shown by this house to which we would direct special
attention; the card attached to it notifies that it is the design of "James
Ciubb." The general character is arabesque ; well dra\vn and varied
coloured ornament forms tho outer border and centre ornament of tho
carpet, and both these have orange-tinted, or what is usually denominated
"salmon-coloured" grounds. The portion intervening between border and
centre is filled with a well drawn small foliagenous ornament in citron
coloui-s, on a green ground ; perhaps few of our manufacturers would have
ventured on such a display of artistic colouring. The designer is
" unknown to fame," but whoever he is, we commend him for the success-
ful way in which he has dealt: with colours which the manufacturer in
general carefully avoiils — which he will tell you *' won't endure," and can
never be combined with pleasing effect. We should be apin-ehensive of
the effect by artificial light, hurt it is an excellent dayliyht carpet.

Messrs. Turberville, Smith, and Co., also show a carpet of peculiar pat-
tern and colour, that will repaj' attentive observation: a dark ruljy
coloured ground is covered by the leaves of the fern, glowing with all the
tints that autumn gives to them, and forming an excellent pattern for a
library or morning-room, mth a wai-m southern aspect.

We now propose to notice the carpets produced by patented ]iroccsses,
premising by a few remarks upon the objects sought: to be attained, and
the relative value of these inventions. In the manufactiu'e of Brussels
carpet, about two-fifths of the worsted used is absorbed in the hack of the
carpets, and seven colours are the greatest number that can be introduced
by the weaver ; in consequence, the carpet is more costly than is necessary
for wear — good material being absorbed in a p.art of the carpet never
affected by use — and the designer is much shackled in his drawing by tho
limitccl number of colours or shades of colour that he is permitted to use.
Mr. Whytoek's patent was the first of importance applied to the manufac-
ture of carpets. A tliread drawn out of any printed cotton affords the
best illustration that can be produced of the peculiarities of this beautiful
and comparatively successful invention. A thread so drawn out will bear
a certain quantity of each colour that is used in the portion of the p.attern of
wliich it formed a part; and it is manifest that, if the whole of a piece
of printed cotton were separated into the threads of which it is composed
— these threads re-arranged in the order in wdiich they were originally
placed — and the piece re-woven, leaving each in the same relative position
that it originally occupied — the pattern would be reproduced in its in-
tegrity. Now, this is precisely what Mr. Whytock s patent accomplishes

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOr.l'DLV OF THE GREAT EXIIIRITION 01' J85L

in tho uinnnOicture of carpcU. lly IiIm proccsH, cacli inili\lilual lIiroa<l in
ilyod witli all tlio reiniisito colourK, ami in tlio precise iiuaiititios required
for it« posilioii ill tlic pattiTii, ami tliiH ia doiio before tlio weaving com-
DiOIicos, lint this jtrorcH:
cafaialtics in tlio courrfo
of weaving, tliat vuiiit it
for rapid produition —
that in, for being pro-
duced by tlio power-
loom ; and altliough no
woretcd passes into tho
back of tho carpet, yet,
from Bomo cause or
other, tho price has not
been afl'ecied, and tho
ordinary BrusscUi and
velvet-pile carpets can,
wo believe, be bought at
a price 9oiiic\\'hat lower
than those manufactured
inidcr this patent.

Tho next patent wor-
thy of note is the one
obtained and worked by
Messrs. Tempi eton and
Co., of Olxsgow. It 13
only used for producing
carpets of a superior
cjuality, which arc ex-
pected to find consum-
ers amongst those who
would othcrwi.'ie be pur-
chasers of Tapestry or
Axminster. We deem it
sufficient for our present
]nirpose to say that, by
Templcton's patent, che-
nille is dyed and woven in pattern, as worated threads are dyed and
woven in pattern by Whytock's patent. Many differences exist between
tho two, In tho way of working, but the general result is as we have
stated.

Tho last and most important patent in that of Messrs. Bright and Co.
By this process the carpet is woven in white worsted by jiower-looms ; tho
wires used in the ordinary process are dispensed with, and the loop is formed
by a peculiar arrangement in the machinery. The pattern is ti.en printed
on the carpet by a process that strikes tho colour.s through the fabric,
and, at the same time, prevents the possibility of their running into and
mixing with each other. Thus a Brussels carpet is produced by a simple
mode of operation, and by machinery that is admirably and ingeniously
adapted for the purpose — efTccting, as compared with the old method, a
considerable saving in material, and leaving tlio designer perfectly free to
indulge his ta.ste or fancy to the utmost. We have already mentioned the
fact that an old razor is the tool in general use for cutting the loop, and
producing what is called velvet-pile. Messrs. Bright and Co. have accom-
plished the same effect by mechanism as licantifully simple as it is admirable
in its adaptation for the purpose — for whilst the power-loom is producing
the fabrics, it sets in motion a neatly-arranged iu.strument that cuts the
loops, and thus perfects the plan and accomplishes all that the manufac-
turer could desire. We do not say that this process is perfected, or that
all that i.9 thus produced is so excellent as not to be distiuguished from
the best goods manufactured by the old loom and "draw-boys;" but we
do think that it is highly probable that mechanical and chemical science
will so far perfect it — will so combine in removing defects in machinery
and difficulties in the production of clearly defined pattern and brilliancy
of colours, a.- to lead to a v.tst change in the sy.stem of manufacture, and a
consequent revolution in the interests of those engaged upon it.

Amongst the samples added to the Exhibition after it first opened, was
one of a seven-frame Brussels carpet, " wrought on a new principle,
by which the same results are obtained with half the worsted;" so it is
described hy the inventor, Mr. Favvcett, of Kidderminster ; who adds that
it was sent in too late to compote for the Exhibition prize, but that it has
received the prize of 100 guin^-as offered by Mr. T. S. Lea, one of the jurors
in this class, as a prize for " any now invention or improvement that would
employ the working classes, and benefit the town of Kidderminster."'

Stdl as the result of all the display in the Great Exhibition in this
branch of manufacture it does not appear that any process has been made,
or is as yet likely to be made, towards materi.allj^ diminishing the cost of
this article so es-cntial to the comfort and decent appearance of our homes.
Indeed it can hardly be expected, when it is considered how large n pro-
portion of the price is made up of the cost of raw material, and how im-
possible it seems to be to economise upon the quantities used of the latter,
without considerably diminishing tho lasting qualities of the article
produced.

It may be worthy of consideration, however, whether a suggestion
thrown out. by a oorrespond'-nt in the Times, as long ago as 184,5, for the
manufacture of cheap carpets from coarse cotton, might not be .adopted
witli success. He states, " There are many kinds of carpets made of

cotton in India — stout, fcndccablo, linndKomc things; gfmerally they am
termed tcrriijec. These are of all Bizcs, from the email 7 f et by D feet,
which every man posscRSCH, to cnormou)i oiico for roomo and hnlld. Theiw
nrn gonerally striped, red and blue, .n three 8hadc« of blue, HOiiictiiu<;»
/jr- — 3i'^*"-^rT' woven Into pattcmH ;
\\1 \'n'r..r1^ 1 rmd I have often tliouKht
.IV uacful they wouM
m Knglau'i, their
'.arse kinds for tho
l.oorer cl.xssc.i, for bed-
rooms, ic. Again, n hat
bc.iutifiil designs might
not be iiiannfactured by
tho skill of English work-
men ; how large a quan-
lity of pmall ones for
lodividuals, or large for
1 alls, might not be made
I- <v exportation to Africa,
.South America, and even
India! At Warungole,
ill tho Nizam's couuti-y,
beautiful carpets of tho
same description as Tur-
key,— that is, with a nap
raised, — aro made of
cotton."

Those who have care-
fully examined the va-
ried coulents of the East
India department at the
Great Exhibition will
have found abundant
and satisfactorj' evidence
of the tiiith of the above
remarks ; a large assort-
ment of " cotton carpets
of different sizes" for Bengal and Saascram, being a distinct entry in
the catalo^e. and a striking and interesting feature in the general display.
It remains to be seen whether our manufacturers at home can take up
the same line of business with profit to themselves; and if they do, iva
aro sure it will be conducive to the comfort of the public.

LECTUEE ON ART MANUFACTURES.
QNE evening last week, Mr. Wornum delivered nn interesting lecture at
the Government School of Design, Somerset House, on some of the
prominent art manufactures in the Exhibition. In his opening remarks
the lecturer mentioned the different styles that were to be found thtre.
There was the Greek style developed to some extent, tho Oriental or
Byzantine, a tolerable sprinkling of Cinquecento, a little Gothic as sho.\n
in the ^ledircval Coyrt, some Elizabethan, and an immense qniniityof
Louis XIV. and Rocoeco. It was impossible to give more than a geuei-al
view of the different styles. Tliey were all very important to knoiv, as it
was the first business of every designer to make himself master of the
different styles. The study of one style alone would be more fatal to hi3
success than the absence of any ; for in the former case his mind would be
left free, but in the latter he became regularly stei-eotyped and marked
everything with one style under all circumstances. After imjacssing on
his hearers that natural forms might be used in design if attention was
paid to a fit combination and use of them, he considered the question how
far using the revival of past styles might be considered a servile following
of medimval art, and not sufficiently expressing the sentiments of the
present age. In using the old styles they must be careful not to ignore
the ptirposcs their designs would be intended for in the present age.
There might sometimes he injudicious revivals, but that which was
naturally beautiful must remain so for all ages, and the revival of classical
ornament Wixs a good proof of the inherent beauty of those forms. It was
perfectly legitimate to preserve beauty, but not to let it interfere with tho
uses for which it was designed. In the pottery department of the Exhibi-
tion he called attention to the difference shown in the articles exhibited by
Messrs. Wedgwood and another house. Wedgwood's pottery was a revival
of Greek taste, not slavish copies, but a classical taste adapted to the
present requirement in those articles. In the other case they were merely
Greek copies, perfectly ignoring present use. This was an example of the
good aud bad use of the pa-t styles. Alderman Copeland, who exhibited
in statuary porcelain with great success, also adopted the Greek style, and
in th.it material had greater scope to display it. The Greek was the most
imjiortant of tho ancient styles, as it was the result of the labour of
8U0 years. The more modern nations had never had the opportunity
to devote so much time to the elaboration of any of their styles. The
Sevres china exhibited by tlie French was very beautiful, but from its
costliness it was not so important to the many as the manufactm-es before
mentioned. The display in bronze was, considering all things, but small,
and the general style trifling. France and England were the principal
exhibitors. The principal works of France were clocks and candelabra in
the renaissance style, although there were other styles as well. The renais-

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND iTS CONTENTS;

TOLEDO BLADE.

EXHIBITED BT M. DE TSASr.

Thb temper and
flexibility of the To-
ledo steel are well
known as being un-
rivalled in the world,
for the manufactory
at Damascus is ex-
tinct. The singular
looking weapon exhi-
bited in our cut is a
Toledo sword of ex-
traordinary powers of
endurimce, as shown
by its being thrust
into a metallic scab-
bard twisted into a
circle, like a serpent.
When drawn out it

is immediately as
straight as an arrow,
and gleams with
formidable aspect iu
the sunlight. For
an account of the
manufactiire of steel,
see our article on
"Iron, &c.," in No. 2.

COLOUR-BOX.

BY MESSRS. ACKERMANN.

Messrs. Ackermann'
exhibit in the Fine
Arts Court a magni-
ficent Colour-Box, in
papier miche, the
decoratiim of which
is very chaste and
pleasing.

TOLEDO BLADr. BY M. DE YSA5J.

sajtce was much used by jewellers and goldsmiths, while the purer style,
the Cinquecento, was piincipally used by painters, sculptors, and architects.
The Damascened work from Liege was very fine. In hardware he regretted
that a high tone of art was not applied to the cheaper articles in cast iron.
In the silver work he pointed out the great advantage of oxydising the
silver, or rather rubbing it with sulphur and ammoni;i. The effect of this
was to make the silver of a more leaden hue, but at the same time the

design was seen to much greater effect. Sometimes this was done to too
great an extent ; but it might be very slightly oxydised, so as to be hardly
perceptible, and yet take off the dazzling glare which prevented the design
being seen. He recommended this process more to the notice of the
English. If they wished merely to exhibit their work for its value as a
precious lump of silver, it was useless to make it look like lead, but if
their object was to exhibit design, it must not have a bright and glaring

THE KORTH TRAN^LIT. — GREAT GATES OE THE COALBIIOOK DALE COMfAKY.

AN iLLUSTllA'ri",!) CVCLOl'.KDIA OF Till'; (AU'A'V KXllUiJ'l'KJ.X OF is:,].

Blirfaco. Ho montioiied tliree spccimons of oxyiliBcd Bilvor in tlio EiiRliHli
(li-Iiartmont— tlio ^roup of Qucun Klizabeth and Leicustcr, exliibituil l)y
Klkinntou aiul tlic Sliukcsijoaro shield and Titau vase by Mosbiu Hunt ami
Uoskell. ]u wood curv-
iuK bo awarded tbo palm
to tlio l''roiicb, althouf,'b
it wa'f all in tlio nnaia-
nance stylo, and oxcmi>U-
fietl by a dorfcriptiou of
KOino of tlio Iviiglisli fur-
nitiii'o tlio faults to bo
found ill an unliappy com-
bination oronianient. In
ono ca.'o tbo ailist had
supported his sideboaid
by conmciipiio foi' Ioks,
but, not contented witli
that, bad inado a satyr's
bead pcerius outof the tup
of each horn support tho
sUb; and a dolphin's bead
at the oxtreniities form tbo
lower support, so that
there were heads at both
ends. Again, bo said, tbo
strong parts of the orna-
ment in the Froncli woric,
although most elaborate, were so arranged that they protected the wfakor
pai-ts and might be brushed all over witli a bard broom without fear of
breakage ; but the English he should be afraid to touch with a feather
broom, there were so many exposed delicate angles and corners. In shawl
fabrics be thought tbo English did not employ sufficient colours, nor were
tliey always well coutra-^tod ; but the principal reason of this was that, as

coT,ouit-r.ox, HY Al■K^.l:■.J^^■^*.

tlioy worked by machinery, tbo Hliuttlc was tlirown right acrojw the web,
and tho colour consequently oppearcd all throuifli the shawl whcroan in
tlio costly French specimens tlio weft wiui worked in by hand ; and in th»

Indian KhawU tbo whole
wai worked by hand,
leaving it to the tanto of
the workman what colour
should bo used ; aliwi,
that it wa« iinpossiVjIo
to judge of the eirecti of
a combination of colours
■vhcn viewing them
• parately, and throwing
tlie shuttle by machinerj',
til',' cft'cct could not bo
judged of till the work
w.is done. Of course in
England they would not
produce shawls by hand
a.s in India, owing to the
difference in wages, as
in tho latter country
they could get workmen
for a penny aday ; but he
thought if ladies would
get ovtr tbo prcjudioe that
no one but the French

could produce good tilings that the English could compete with them. For
although i>eople would give fifty or sixty guineas for a French sbawi, th<-y
would not give more than twenty guineas foraSpitalfields one. llr.Womum
described several other departiUH-nt.s of art manufacture in silks, priut«d
and woven fabrics, glass, gutta perclia, and many others, and was lUtcued
to tbroughuut his lecture with great attention.

r!l.!.--

Jr.-,'^t I. r>^

Han*,^

it|^

P^^'
1^\%

SOnXE IK THE INTERIOR OF THE GPEAT EXHIBITION,

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

PIANOFORTES.
A MONG the objects of interest and curiosity wliich form tbo contents of
the Crystal Palace, a prominent plnce is held by Musical Instruments.
Of these the piaooforte is the most important, whether we consider its
capabilities (being almost an orchestra in itself), its ad.iptation to all pur-
poses of musical representation, its-universal use in every family as an in-
dispensable requisite for amusement and instruction, or its consequence
as a branch of manufacture, employing a large amount of capital and
skilled labour. Fifty or sixty years back there were scarcely a dozen
pianoforte-maters in England ; there are at present between 200 or 300 in
London alone, while there are makers in most of the capital towns in
the United Kingdom. It is calculated that there are not less than l.iOO
pianofoi-tes made every week in Grfat Britain and Ireland, employing,
when trade is good, full 15.000 workmen of a superior class, and receivmg
wages accordingly. From tliese facts the great magnitude and importance
of pianoforte-making a.s a department of our national indu,stry are at once
apparent.

It is curious to contemplate the transition from the old harpsichord,
with its tinkling lute-like tones, to tlie power and richness of the present
grand pianoforte. To do tliis, we nuist refer to some of the old firms of
emmence, such as Broadwood's, Kirkman's, &c.. who were originally harp-
sichord makers. The harpsichord was the original model for the grand
piano ; the shape, the scale, the strings, sounding-board, and keys were the
same ; the principal alter.ition was in the mechanism — in the adoption of
percussion as the mode of putting the string in vibration, in preference to
pulling it by me ins of a little piece of crow'squill inserted in a piece of
wood, moved by the key. Tfiis alteration made, the progress of the in-
Rti-ument was very rapid. There is scarcely an eminent firm in the trade
who have not contributed to its improvement. It is not, however, to any
one house, but to the exertions of a number of individuals, each acting
upon, and taking advantage of tlie labours of the other, that the present
perfection of the instrument is due.

In this department the leading houses take the first rank, while the
display by makere of less eminence is exceedingly creditable. Tlie manu-
facturers seem as desirous of pleasing the eye as delighting the ear, and,
accordingly, we notice some very beautiful instruments, in which the art
of the carver, inlayer, ,and gilder is lavishly employed ; but we miss any
attempt to give a more elegant and uniform shape to the grand pianofoite,
which is so muc*] to be desired. Messrs. Br^adwood exliiljit four grand
pianofortes (one in a magnificent case designed Ijy Barry), iu which the
beauty of the wood and the excellence of tlie workmanship are conspicuous.

The house of Erard sends several splendid harps, and a number of
pianoforte.5. among which we perceive a revival of the old method of
attaching pedals to an instrument. This calls to our mind having seen,
long ago, an instrument with an octave and a h.alf of pedals, by
Kirkman, belonging to the celebrated Bartleman, and which he con-
sidered a great curiosity. Messrs. Collard, among other instruments,
send specimens of their square and cabinet pianos, for which they are so
famous. But the greatest attraction in this department appears to be the
miniature model grand of Messrs. Kirkman. The ait and science of
pianof'irte-making seems to be concentrated in tl'is little instrument : and
were it not there to speak for itself, no one would believe it possible to
produce such clear, full, and sparkling tones in so small a compass, while
no difEc'ilty seems to be avoided, h.aving GJ octaves and all the modern
improvements. We have had our attention directed to the new repetition
mechanism introduced into tlie concert grand pianoforte exhibited by the
s.ame firm, which, while it is as effective as that patented by the late Mr.
Erard, is of a totally different construction ; and the tendency of those
actions to get deranged and to become noisy is here removed, ami with a
perfect repetition the touch is as smooth and light as can be desired.
Another improvement, also by Messr.s. Kirkman, is tlie addition of metal
bracings to their oblique pianofortes, and the introduction of drilled metal
studs and the harmonic bar fir tiic improvement of the upper notes, so
often defective in this class of instruments.

In regard to the foreign pianofortes, we may safely say. without any
undue a.ssurapti<>n of national superiority, that they by no means rival the
productiftns of English s»kill and industry. The Paris pianofortes, next to
our own, are the best; and the best of thrm are those of Erard. also an
English manufacturer. Good instruments, too, are made at Vienna, and
largely supply the demand of Germany ; but even in France and Germany,
the pianofortes of the great English makers have not lost the pre-eminence
they h.ive so long enjoyed. The American insti'uments are merely copies of
our own. The only original con.struction among those exhibited is a
double pianoforte (in other words, two yiionofortes), each with its own set
of strings and key-board (the sounding-board being common to both), so
placed that two performers can play together sitting opposite to each other,
or four if two are at each key-board. There is some ingenuity in this, but
its a'iility in a musical point of view is very limited.

In anot' er article we shall make a few observations on the other species
of instniments, especially orgnns, of which there are a considerable
number.

JHE)

FOREIGN AND COLONIAL DEPARTMENTS.

PRODUCTIONS OF ABORIGINAL STATES.
first, and perhaps the most powerful and lasting impres.sion received
by an attentive visitor at the Exhibition, when looking through its vast
collection of articles from every region on earth, is this — that all men,
differ as they may in other important points, more especially the
uncivilised from the civilised, nevertheless obey at least one law in
common ; they all, without exception, but in very different degrees of
intensity, lalour. Tlie j;idgment that man shall live by the sweat of his
brow, is here exemplified to the full, although a consolatory experience also
proves that the curse may largely bring out its own relief. The most careless
glance, however, at the multitudinous disphay of the material results of all
men's industiy, establishes some striking distinction iu quality among
them, even whilst unity in the one respect of effort is recognised ; and it
cannot but bo useful to examine the several masses of products in detail,
in order to search out the causes of the obvious difference in their respective
values.

The articles indicated in the title of this paper, for example — the pro-
ductions of those who are commonly called Aborigines, or the less civilised
races — are substantially tiie inferior fruits of human industry. Yet tlicy
illustrate the primitive elements out of which tlie most advanced nations
have elaborated their gorgeous and graceful, their eminently useful
productions. The most polished nations may in them trace their own
perfection backw.ard to its source.

Then, tliese Aboriginal productions suggest, in their i-ude aptitude of
jiuiTiose, sometimes in their skilfulncss, irresistible .arguments to the more
refined, to look with greater indulgence upon their struggling fellows, by
whom such interesting productions are made. The highly civilised man.
rendered by science familiar with the works of uncivilised people, will
subdue his own prejudices in regard to then- incapacity, and soon come
practically to aid them to acquire the superior qualifications that shall
rightfully place them on his level.

China and India have so much in common with us, in their manufactures,
their arts, and their agriculture, and they have made so much progress
already in many respects, that inirelj Aboriyimd products are comparatively
few in those countries, but both possess some worthy of notice. Ceylon
and the Indian Archipelago have sent us more such ; and Africa still more,
from all its quarters — east, north, west, and south. Turkey, although still
too resplendent in ** barbaric gold," instead of cultivating the best taste, is
fast assuming the great forms of our civilisation ; and Russia will bring
from its remoter tribes only anything of a purely Aboriginal character.
Noi'th America, in its prodigious new wealth of products of art and industiy,
oflers some scanty memorials of deei> interest irom its Aboriginal tribes.
Central and South America could have presented most curious combinations
of civilised and uncivilised manners as now existing, and have sent us
remarkable means of comparing the civilisation that existed before the
New World was revealed to Europe, with the improvement introduced by
Christians at a frightful cost of human life. Both regions, distracted with
civil discord, have contributel a little — very little ; but one South Aniencan
British colciny, Guiana, has made a zealous response to the call from home.

A rapid survey of these poor treasures of the primitive man's ingenuity
still in his own hands, will unquestionably tend to allay the melancholy
feeling too prevalent among us, that numerous portions of our race should
be doomed by Providence to perish at the approach of their more in-
strnctcd brethren. Facts encourage a nobler and a wiser prospect. A
capacity for a safer and better condition of life is clearly established by
these productions of industry, exercised in every climate, within the
burning tropic and at the pole, by Negro and by Esquimanx ; by the
gloomy American forests, and over the bare steppes of Tartary ; by the
half amphibious islander of the Pacific equally as by the Kaffir, to whom
an iron bound coast and unn.avigable mountain streams refuse the use of
the simplest boat — each, however, having his peculiar occupation. All
this confirms the oft-repeated judgment, tliat " art is natural to man, and
that the skill he acquires after many ages of practice, is only the improve-
ment of a talent he possessed at the fir.st. Licstiued to cultivate his own
nature, and to mend his situation, man finds a continual subject of
attention, of ingenuity, and of labour." — Fcryumn's Civil SocicI}/,

The same satisfactory conclusion is supported bj' analogous materials in
the Exhibition, and more abundant ones than the purely Aboriginal pro-
ducts. These are the contributions obtained for our daily use by the
combined labours of civilised and Aboriginal men. They are the raw
materials of commerce to an enormous amount in quantity and v.aliie ; tiio
dyes, the gums, the drugs, the oils, the seeds, the woods, the woven and
textile plants, the leaves, the roots, the skins, the furs, tlie feathers, the
shells, which promote so largely the comfort and adornment of social life.
The several deiiartments of each civilLsed nation in turn h.ave received
these contributions from the haibari.an. and sometimes from the savage —
the Aborigines — whom in return civilisation has not yet discovered a
better way to manage than by almost incessant w,arfare.

It ij a capital point, in considering these raw materials of the arts, to
know how to obtain them in nf/ivuiiie condition; and on this point it will
be found that our interests as manufacturers and merchants, and consumers,

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPyEDLV OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

coincido happily with nur tlutiiH itfl inoii. Kx^ictly in i)itiportion nH tiie
nativi) collectors of iiiiture'8 etorOH are well treated iiml well in»triiete<l in
the lioBt ways of civiliHation, the inoro expert arc they, anil the more cIih-
poBcd to be vigilant and honest in their work.

£W//.iA ftiiiioia — The survey (if AhoriRinnl products in the Exhibition
may be ccmvoniontly liegini with llritish Guiana, as the colleetions from
thirt colony are reniarkahly complete, aiul it is a country admirably
described by Sir llobert H. Schonibui'gk, one of the mo.st accimipliHhetl of
modern tr:Lvellcra. It Ih a portion of South America on the Atlantic, in
latitude G ilegrecs north of the ct[uator, and contains 48^ millions of acres
of land. The staple pi-oduco is sugar, nmi, aiul coflee. with some cotton.
Other produce of less value are its plaintains, and various esculents, with
timber and other articles approved by tlie expeiicnec of the Aborigines.

The chief fooil of the natives, the cassava bre.ad. is to bo seen here,
which it is seriously propcwcd to export to ICnglaml, as being superior to
the potato in nntiitious (juality. and so much more abundant tlmn any
meal known, that a protit of i'.'iO per acre may bo gained by its culture.
The graters \tsed by the natives in jireparing the cassava meal from tho
root are of the manufacturo of jiarticular tribes, famous for this business,
as others arc especially famous for tho manufacture of hannnocks — the
materials jirobably in both cases being abundaitt in their eomitries. r^s
Manchester owes its ancient celebrity to the streams and coals of its
neighbourhood.

The cassava bread is made in an elastic tube, called tlic meiappee, a
very ingenious contrivance of the Indian.'^, cays Sir R. Sehombtirgk, to
press the juice from the root, which is one of tho most violent poisons
before being pressed. After the root is scraj)eil it is pressed in this tube
plaited of the stems of the cahithea. A pole in the tube is u.sed as a
powerful lever, and weighed down by two persons sitting on it. The juice
escapes through the plaited work ; and the dried moal is baked in a pan in
a few minutes. A specimen of tlie machine, .as well as of the bread, in in
the Exhil)ition.

Another new article of food was also exhibited— the plaintain meal — which
the Indians use; and our settlei-s oalexilato it m.ay be made to produce a
gross return of £112 per acre ! "Well may Europeans be sui'prised, as
Humboldt says they are, upon arriving within the tropics, at seeing tho
Email space of ground that keeps an Indian family.

The juice of the cow-tree, sometimes used as .1 substitute for milk, is
perhaps more valuable as one of the numerous materials for India-rublier.
The physic nut in common use by the natives is one of the hundred
reget.able medicines of the American forests, well worth further 'study.
There is also, .a species of Jesuits' bark, of far gi-eater importance, con-
sidering its dearness almost prohibits its proper .application in our hospitals;
and this, also, is well known by the Indians.

But the most valuable articles exhibited from Guiana are the woods
originally made known to us by native experience. For ship-bnilding.
they are certamly superior to oak and teak ; and the bright C'dours of the
spceimous strongly recommend them for furnitui-e. In regard to ship-
building, it is a curious fact, attested by Sir R. Sehomhurgk, that one triVie
in particular, the Warraus, have been famous builders of canoes .and
corrials, the durability and speed of which far surpassed any boats from
Europe, They made a chass of launches, carrying from 50 to 70 men.
celebrated in the last revolutionary wars. The timber they selected, the
mora tree, is now acknowledged to be the very best for the prirpose.
Specimens are in the Exhibition.

A more primitive canoe is exhibited, also, made of the bark of a tree,
quickly constructed, of extremely liglit dratight, and portable. Its con-
venient use in this last respect carries us back to the d.ays of our most
primitive forefathers, when the wicker and skin boat, to be still seen on
the Wye and in Ireland, was easily borne on the shoulders of the adven-
turous w.aterman when obstacles impeded his navigation, or he wished to
suprise a neighbour at a distant stream.

In this collection, too, we observed the original hammnclc, which we have
so extensively adopted at sea. and which in France is wisely used in crowded
rooms, from which it can be removed by day to purify the air. It is interest-
ing to know that the Indians make their hammocks of extraordinarily strong
textile materials, new to us, and of excellent cotton. Nor is it less
interesting to learn that the sugar of Gxiiana. of which many specimens are
exhibited, liiis furnished the native people with one comfort from us which
they appreciate. They now grow sxigar for domestic use; and the cane
they cultivate is imiversally of the kind introduced by us from the French.
Cook found it in the South Seas, CougaiuvUle carried it to Mauritius ; and
thence, by way of the French AVest India Islauds, it has spread, within
about seventy year's, over the civilised and aboriginal Western World.

These Aborigines, then, can adopt our improvements. They possess,
also, the elements of the potters ai't, which usually denotes a decided
advance from savage life. The mere savage is content with what nature
has provided to put liquids in — a sea-shell, a gourd, a part of an egg. Tlie
Indian of Guiana manufactm'es his buck-pots of clay ; a specimen of which
is exhibited. In a new edition of Jlarryat's beautifid " History of PorceUun,"
the catalogue of such utensils, from those of Egypt to those of Peru, should
be enriched from well-authenticated examples such as these among
Aborigines.

In some instances the Aborigines are proved to have completely adopted
our usages. From Nova Scotia samples of wheat grown by Indians are
Bent of tho same respectable weight ^64 lb. 11 oz. to the bushel) as our
own farmers' wheat. The Sioux saddle and hunter's belt, wrought by au

Iniliaii maiden, flc ut liy a citizen of the United .State*, in entitled U) bo
aciounted a work of " honest liou-scwiferj'," quite an inuvh aa the carpet
wrought for our gracious Queen by tho 300 EugllHli womt-n. So the New
/i'ulan<l chief. Tao Nui, who HCnda his contribution;* Ibrougli hiH London
agent Mr. (iillman, Hurvly han ccaHO<l to bo an uncivilised man. Tlic>:<i
eontiibutions are, however, thorf>ughly Aboriginal '* Hpoeiuiem* of New
Zealand wooilrt, gum", and bark, llux and llax mauufnctures." Tho sanio
conclusions may be drawn in favour of the c:ip.-icity of tho Nortli American
Indian to adopt our usagoi, from tho model of tho house of the once wild
Carib, the ciuinibal of Columbus, with every hoiuehold convcnicnco most
minutely represented. The c:uiy chair, the w.ix tafien, the neat table, the
tinder-box, the old man's modern bed, luj well as tho aboriginal hammock,
various musical instruments, various cooking utensils, the eugar-prc"<,
cassava-pot, the grindstone, tho neat mat, even the ^'rog-cau and a hundred
other articles are there, to show the profuaicm of comforts which civilis-ation
produces. And yet this is tho race, thus making progress under a little
protection, to which we often refuse common justice, and then we wonder
that they flee to the bu-h. Tiiis little Indian picture of civilised barbarism
is a lesson that should be perpetuated by such a simple work being, by and
by, deposited in the Rritish Muccum, after the Exhibition is broken up.

The models of fluiana native dwellings, also, arc very interesting, as
furnishing, in tho abuntlance of their domestic conjforts, some guarantee
for their permanence in one place, so that they have clearly arrived at a
condition beyond th.at of nomadic life. Other South American modth aro
exhibited ; for instance, there is one of a native raft in the Ei-azil depart-
ment, although none. a.s far as we could find, of the far more curious flying
bri-Igcs which spjau the awful abysses of the mountains. Mexico and New
Grenada. Chili PUfl Pern, are no longer subject to civil disturbance so con-
tinually, whatever may be tho case with Central America, but that their
engineering wonders of that character, from very old times, might havo
been produced with advantage.

Western Africa off^i-s articles so various in kind, so abundant, and so
valuable in commerce, that, when compared with the barbarism of the
people, they irresistibly compel the admission, that trade alone docs not
solve the problem how men are to bo civilised. These Africans, in parti-
cular, are most active merchants ; and they have one usage which should
strongly recommend them, as it furnishes a proof of their respect for honest
dealing. If a bale of goods Is notfotmd at its place of destination to answer
the sample, it may be returned to the broker, who is bound to get compen-
sation fiom the orieinal seller for the purchaser. The specimens of cotton,
both raw and manufactured, from this region, aro numerous. 1'he plant
grows everywhere ; and if our be.st sort shall be found worth substituting
for the native varieties, the habits of the people are prepared for its adoption.

The pottery works are very v.arious, although calaba-hes, or vegetable
vessel.s, are common. Dyes and inedicines are abundant ; and it is to be
noted with regret, that poisons are familiar to the natives for the worst
purposes. One article of export collected by the rudest people of West
Africa is of great value, and it has an interesting history. 'Phis is palm oil,
the import of which has increased since the abolition of the slave-trade,
from a small amount, to more than 2fl.000 tuns a year, worth more than
600.000/. This new Afric;m trade in a legitimate commodity is interesting,
03 a proof of the coiTCctness of judgment in one of the earlier friends of
Negro emancipation, whose very name has been forgotten in the long
catalogue of the friends of that cause. Mr. Thomas Bentley, of Liverpool,
a predecessor of Sharp, and Clarkson. and Wilberforce. was sagacious enough
to perceive, and bold enough to maint.;iin, when a merchant in that slave-
trading port, that some articles existed in Africa more suited to the con-
science and commerce of Englishmen than Negroes. He told his fellow-
townsmen that they should send their ships, not for slaves, but ior palm
oil ; and now it is for Mr. Tliom.as Beutley's palm oil that the very fleets
are sent, which, but for the eff<irts of such men as he, would still be gi'oan-
ing with human victims. This g.iod man became the partisan of Wedgewood,
in the famous potteries, to the beauty of which his excellent taste secured
their most successful character.

From Western Africa havo also been sent the small leathern bottles of
dye for the eyelids, which aloug with other like usages have been cited to
prove the assimil.ation of the Negroes with ancient Egypt. The real
aboriginal products of both regions are well worth comparing together, in
order to illustrate the question.

£g;/pt, Tunis, and Alr/ici-f. — But the superior condition of modern Egyjjt,
in point of progi-ess. has led its cxhibitoi's to confine their contributions too
much to the results of civilised industry. Indeed, not only Egypt, but
Tunis and Algiers, to judge from products thence on this occasion, must I e
excepted from the class of barbarous states, more absolutely than it is to I e
feared is consistent with the real conditions of a iai'ge portion of the r
people. Their contributions are chiefly showy silks and woollens; but, es
is betrayed in the case of some articles from Algiers, to which the prices
are fixed, their dearness really detracts much fi-om theii- value, paradoxienl
as this remark may seem. In truth, a barbiu-ous method of manufactui e
rendei-s cheapness impossible, without in the slightest degree improviEg
quality. These examples show how indiscreet has been the refusal of the
Commissioners to let prices be set to all the articles exhibited.

In one Tunisian article, barbai'ism, and the cause of its duration, are
abundantly demonstrated. Tliis is clear in the Arab's tent. Snug euou^li
it is, and by its lowness easily sheltered fi'om the wind, and even th.e Eand-
waves of the desert. Its camel's hair roof, too, is doubtless water-tight,
but it marks the nomade man ; and beyond all doubt the people whoie

The crystal palace and its contexts :

voluntary habit is to wander, is scarcely less incapable of intellectual and
social culture than the more unhappy beings who, like tlie Indians of North
America, ai-e perpetually moved from home to home by the tyranny of
their white iuviidei-s. It is probable that tlie principal cause of tlie unsub-
dued barbarism of our gipsies is their life of strolling.

The Cape of Good Hope has sent one article deserving special notice — the
ivory of an elephant's trunij, of 1631b., which must be a fine specimen.
Ivory is chioily bought of the natives ; and, from Mr. Gordon Cumming's
account of his own trading, its mysterj' may be interpreted to mean extra-

procured pamt by burning iron ore, and reducing it to powder by grind-
stones, rhey converted sea-shells and seaweeds into convenient water
vessels; they wove ba-skets, and they constructed boats with safe cata-
marans. All these things are exhibited. Surely, then, the men whom their
greedy supplantei-s admit to have done this, and whom the least possible
pams ever bestowed on them proved to be capable of much more, ought
not to have been hunted down, as we know they were, and th^n almost
mveigled to be shut vip in an island too small for even the few remainin-' I
lUe New South IVales contributions offer no sign of the Aborigin°e'3

■a^ '

C.\N'.\DIAN V

OAliuary hard dealing on o,u- part. He had carried into the interior
muskets, for twenty of which he had paid IG/., and obtamed ivory in
exchange at a proit of 3000 per cent., which, as he was informed by
merchantmen was " a very fair profit." To be sure, the manner in which
the black chief, of whom hebou-ht the ivorv, had obtained it, bv oppres.sion
inllicted on the Buslimon who killed the elephants, invites little considera-
tion for that chief; but the whole story furnislies a fresli argument in
lavour of the cmlisation which we consumers of this beautiful product of
the desert are bound to use all means to substitute for its existin" barba-
n-im. The South African a.ssortment of himwji, or cloaks made of the
skms of wild animals skilfully dressed, ostrich feathers, and ivory, represent
the Abongmal produce, for which the Cane traders carry into" the wilder-
ness to the native tribes, beads of many colours and sizes.'brass and copper
wire knives and hatchets, clothing, guns, ammunition, &o.

There 13 a melancholy tribute paid in the Van DiemenS Land depart-
ment to Its now extinct Aborigines. In our forty years' po.sses3ion of that
setdement we have utterly destroyed them, by as atrocious a series of
oppres-sions a.s ever were perpetrated by the unscrupulous strong upon the
defenceless feeble. Yet these poor people had ta.stes and industry too.

I heir bread appears to be worth reviving as a new truffle for soup bv the
gourmands of Hobart Town. The specimens of the root exhibited weighed

II lbs. They obtained a brilliant shell necklace by soaking and rubbing off
the cuticle, and gaiumg various tints by hot decoctions of herbs They

M..KI1 t:;opi:i

works, and prob.aljly the country contains no lunger anv trace of the peoiile •
as Newfoundland eontiibutors do not pretend to an "interest in the works'
ot the lost people who once inhabited it. New Brunswick seems to have
nothing to show but the pretty models of an Indian family, tlie kindness
of whose character is attested by having protected two maiden ladies, whose
father emigrated from the United States after the Americans' war, and settled
among ti.e tribe some 70 years ago. The remnants of the Indians and the
remains of the Eoyalists must liave had many subjects of sympathy, and
many feehngs in common, to have maintained so long a cai-eer of mutual
respect.

The whole amount of Aboriginal articles exhibited is much smaller than
It would certainly have been, but for circumstances deserring of notice.
Ut late years the political condition of the Aborigines connected with
various civilised nations, has been a subject more than usually iuterestinc
to the public The emancipation of our Negi-o slaves in lS34"havin» in a
great measure settled that question, the attention of philanthropists was
free to be directed to the persecutions suffercil by the Aborigines of our
colonies. This was an extensive inquiry, and some refonus took place
1 hen a reaction occurred ; until at length th» old law of force and oppi-e.s-
sion extensively recovered its influence. In this state of things the Exhi-
bition was ])lanned, upon tlie principle of an universal invitation of the
nations of the earth to bring specimens of their mdustry and art under a
common inspection. The Commissioners made no exceptions ; but it was

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOP/EDIA OF THE GREAT EXIIIRITION OF ]8.-,L

impnfsible that thoy h)ioii1(1 f-rant a privilogo,
or any Hpccial advantapo, oven to tlio loast
favoured in actual roiidition. Tlio collection
of articlcH to bu cxliiliitcd was neccsHarily left
to tlio cost Olid activity of tl)0 contributors
and their various Kii]iporterH. I''ranco \va« to
take caro of her people. Germany of hcra,
America of hers. The peculiar claims of the loss
advanced Aborigines for aid were discussed ;
but all that covild bo done was carefully to
niaUo known in various quarters that tlio
Exhibition would be open to them. The result
has been, that the sauio eircuinstancos wdiich
render tlioin iiiferiur to civilised men in accu-
mulated projierty and in ac(piired knowledge,
have operated to leave their show of industrial
development in the Exhibition somewhat
meagi'c, whatever ei|uality of capacity may be
conceded to them, and however acute their
natural intelligence.

THE CANADIAN TIMBER TROPHY.

We come now to speak of the Canadian
timber trophy, and in connection with it, of
the timber trade of this important colony.

The Ottawa or Grand River, which joins tho
St. LawTence near Montreal, forms almost
entirely the division of tlio Canadas, and is the
gi'eat highway so far of the timber trade, which
along its bank emphiys from eight to ten thou-
sand men — an army waging perpetual war
with the forests, and which, under the falso
impulse of our former high differential duties
in favour of C:madian tiinbei', carried on its
operations most wastefully and unfavourably
for the character of the timber and the advance
of the trade. Hitherto, « hito and red pine have
formed the chief timber exports of Canada,
felled mainly within a short distance of the
banks of the Ottawa, and floated in huge rafts
down that river and tho St. Lawrence, a dis-
tance of from 600 to 700 miles, to Quebec.
A single raft of timber will not unfrequeutly
have a surface of three acres. The trees are
cut down in winter, lopped, squai-ed, dragged
by horses over the frozou snow, which forms
a slide for them, to the water's edge. The
rafts are formed upon the ice, on wdiich, when
the spring thaw sets in, the lumberers, as these
forest-felling timber traders are railed, float
down to port, anchoring when they como
within range at each rise of the tide, and
again pursuing their vovage at its fall. A raft
seems almost as if some lan'1-slip, or ishmd,
huts and all, wore sailing down the river ; it
has five or six houses upon it, and, when the
wind sets fiiir, a range of broad thin boards
serves fir sails. Some of the white pine-trees
yield planks five feet in breadth, and the largest
red pine will give ISincli square logs, as much
as 40 feet long. Of the pine order is the
hemlock, a ship's futtock of which is shown in

GLASS GOBLET.

This most exquisitely engraved goblet,
though exhibited in the Hamburgh depart-
ment, is the work of Augustus Bohm, of
Meistordorf, in Bohemia, and owes its location
to the circumstance of its talented fabricator
residing at Hamburgh. The skill displayed
in engraving the glass, so as to produce a
perfect bas-relief, is most marvellous ; and,
when the numerous figures in action and
horses (for the scene is a battle-field), ai'e
taken into consideration, an extreme length
of time must necessarily have been spent in
its realisation. The glass is jiure flint, and
colour'-ess.

GLASS GOBLET, OY A. D0H3I.

jrwn L!^D IT.^^^■K.

the trophy, anrl wliich in nai'l bcant water
well, and in of all woocIh in tliooc rcgionx tho
nioDt ovcrloHtin^ for railway Hleopcm, pilcx, or
for any other underground puri»oMe. But a
Hingle tree of the kind, which ntandx on a
little island in the river St. Maurice, w to bo
found in all Eistern Canada. Tho tree in clone
forests is drawn up frequently to more than
60 feet in height, but itH best height is about
40 feet, and its diameter in such Bpccimen« i«
rather more than 2 feet. Tho /ipecimcn in the
trophy wafl cut from a tree 15 feet in circum-
ference and 60 feet high, (-'luso by this hem-
lock is a thick plank of a be;iutifully-fuatherc<I
and highly polished dark wood, out for vcnccrn,
from the fork of a black widnut — a timber
extensively used in Canaila for furniture, and
some beautiful tables, sofas, chairs, beds, anil
a piano of which are in tho compartmenta
opposite, and to be sold at the clo.sc of the
ICxhibition. The tree from which this plank
was obtained was an old giant of its kind,
and, judged by its size and iuteni.il ai)pearance,
though sound as a bell, had probably spread
up its evergreen leaves to the sun for more
than a tliou.sand years. It stood in the valley
of the Nanticoke, in the township of AValpolc :
and in the winter of 1847, Mr. Fisher, having
marked it for destruction, set up a shanty neai'
it. Its circumference at the ground me:isured
37 feet, three up 28 feet, from which it tapered
very little to 61 feet, where it branched into
two trunks, 6 feet and 5 feet in diameter ;
from this part the veneer plank was sawn.
The whole tree cut up into twenty-three logs,
and made in all more than 10.000 feet of
timber. Three men were engaged a fortnight
in felling and trimming this single tree. The
w.ilnut is a hard close-grained wood, and it
deserves trial — as it is to be had in immense
quantities all over Canadii— whether it would
not serve as well as mahogany for ship-building.
It is exported to the United States, but has
not as yet entered into the timber trade with
England. Another furniture wood in the trophy
is curled maple, in its wavy grain very like
satin-wood, not much differing from it in colour,
and growing as abundantly a.s the pine itself.
It has also found its way to tho United States
largely, but in but small quantities to England,
though it is a hard wood, and admu-ably adapted
for furniture. A bu-d's-eye maple veneer is
also shown. The first bird's-eye is from young
trees, of from twelve to foui-teen inches
di.ameter. As they gi'ow old and large the
spotted curl dies out from the centre ; the
veneer in the trophy wa.s, however, shaved oflf
from a large old tree by a peculiar kind of
cutting machine, which saws or shaves off the
veneer in a spiral round the log. commencing
at the outside, and stopping where the bird's-
eye pattern ceases. 'There arc, besides, two
other sorts of maple shown, the plain hard
maple u.-;ed largely in house building, ordinary
furniture, and in immense quantities for do-
mestic firew-oodand steam-boats. In Montreal
alone there are consumed in a single season

JEWELLED HAWTC.
The history of the Jewelled H.awk. the pro-
perty of the Duke of Devonshire, in the Nether-
Innds department, is not without interest. It
rejoices in a name proper, being tlie "Knyp-
hausen Hawk." and w.is made, many a long
year ago, to commemorate the reconciliation
of two noble Dutch fiimilies which had been
long at variance. It contains within its gay
plumage the identical goM drinking-cup which
w.xs used by the rival Counts upon the aus-
picious d.ay of their reconciling, and which is
discovered upon removing the head of the bird.
Tho wings and body arc chiefly covered w-ith
rubies; turquoises, emeralds, and other precious
stents are displayed in other p.arts. 'The bird
stands about a foot high, more or less, and has
a very stately appearance.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

from 2,000.000 to 8.000.000 cords of firewood— a cord of wood being a
bundle eisht feet long, four feet high, and four feet broad, and costing
thirteen .shillings English money. Each family on an average uses about
six cords in a season. The soft maple is but rarely cut down, a.s it supplies
sugar abundantly. In spring, before the snow ha.s left the ground, when
the sun begins to gnin strength, and there is still a sharp morning frost,
the farmer bores, about four or five feet up the trunk, a hole some two or
three inches deep, and sticks a little cane spout in it. In a few hours he
has in his wooden trough V.elow from two to three gallons of syrup ; and
evei7 morning for a fortnight, as the sap rises with the sun. the tree poiu-s
its sweetness luitil twenty or thirty g.dlons are collected. In a spring
without frosts, the supply of sugar' fails, and its eoUection is a work of no
small hardship. Its after preparation is a i-udc jiroeess : it is evaporated,
to some extent, over a slow fire, and then poured out in pans to cool. The
Bugiu- maplo grows fi-om forty to fifty feet high, and about six feet hi cireum-
ference. The other timbers iu the Trophy are more generally known. The
birch tree, a favourite town plantation, is used in common furniture, and
the timber is largely exported to the States. The oak, both white and
red. is exported as staves botli to America and England, and so is the a.sh,
of which Canada can furnish inexhaustible supplies. The bass-wood is
new to us, but. it seems, has been proved so useful at home that it may
be imported with advantage. It is a soft wood, but close-grained and
durable, resembling something our willow, and h;is been found most
excellent in doors, and the panelling of railway carriages. The rock elm
is also a new import ; it grows apparently from the bare rock to a
height of 30 to 60 feet, and IS to 20 inches in diameter, a tough, durable
wood, and deserving trial for ship-building purposes ; and the butter-
nut, growing on fine diy land, and most of all a favourite, both in the
States, and Canada, for veneering upon, as with ordinary seasoning it is
never known to warp. Last on our list is a little log on the floor, witn
light edges and a dark centi-e, marked iron-wood, of no earthly use, said
our native informant : " It won't float, it 's the eontrariest wood in
creation ; if you want a straight piece, and h.alf break your heart with
hard work to get it, it will twist itself crooked in no time, and if you
mark out a crooked piece, as sure as sun.diine it will stretch out as
straight as a line ; it's as hard as iron and as hea-v^' as lead, and as obstinate
!md cranky .as .an old mule, and never worth either letting grow or
cutting down."

In conclusion, we have a word of advice, in view of this timber trophy,
to give our Canadian friends : it is that they begin to build ships of their
better woods. Their fir-built craft stand but four years A. 1. on Lloyd's
list. They do right well to send a cargo of timber to England to help to
pay their cost, but are not profitable afloat. 'We have to faco the world
now with our ships. Cana-la has no longer any advantage, and can only
hold her place in ship-buililing, whether for sale or trade, by aiming to
build as sea-worthy and durable vessels as tlie Northern and United States.
Cheap run-up ships are the dearest in the end : try, therefore, your w.ilnut,
red o.ak, hemlock, and rock elm, and use the pme only where pine is best,
and where first-class vessels use it.

The total value of the export of timber from Canada in 1S49 was
1,327.532?., of which not less than 1.000,000/. worth cauie to England.

Rival American RsArixa illAcmNES.— Since our publication of an
eugrai-iug, with description of Jil'Cormack's American Reaping-machine
(See No. 1), a trial has taken place, before the Cleveland Agricultural
i-iociety, of the respective merits of that machine, and one invented by
Mr. Hussey, also an American, and the report of the jiu'y of practical men
appointed by the consent of bith parties to decide tlie question of merit is
favourable to the latter implement. This decision throws considerable
doubt upon the justice of the award of a great meJal at the Exhibition to
M'Cormaok's ; but, howevei- interesting t!ie matter may be to the individuals
themselves, it does not much affeet our fanners. Both tlie reaping
machines, valuable as they are, are capable of great improvement, and wo
confidently hoj'B that before next harvest comes round such elianges may
be m.ade upon them, and such new features introduced, as may render the
examples now exhibited comp.iratively unimportant.

GovERNMEXT Purchases is the Cbtbtal Palace. — 'We understand
that the Board of Trade, with a view to the development of a pure style
iu the Government Schools of Design, h.as commissioned Mr. Redgrave,
Mr. Cole, Mr. Owen Jones, and Jlr. Pugiu to make a report of those objects
in the Exhibition which they would recommend for purchase, as models of
ta.ste. The selection of iiei-sons made by the Board of Trade for tlie
purpose in view seems most judicious, and wo have every confidence that
their report, if acted upon, will secure to our scliools of design tliat of
which at present they stand so much iu need, a collection of specimens by
which tlio princii>lcs of art manufacture may be best illustrated. — Times.

On Wednesday the Exhibition was visited by thirty boys and twenty girls,
belonging to the Ragged .Scliool. Pye Street, Westminster, wdio obtained
admission by subscription from the benevolent, sent in consequence of .an
iidvcrtisement inserted in one of the morning newspapers. There were in
also on the same day eighteen old jicople from Bletchingley, Surrey, whose
expenses were defrayed by the rector, and other gentlemen of the p.arish,
s\ik\ whose joint ages amounted to 1,1-il ycaiu

PHILOSOPHICAL INSTRUMENTS AND PREPARATIONS.

•- —

THE MICROSCOPE AND MICROSCOPIC PREPARATIONS.
THE use of the microscope has, within the l;«t few years, completely
revolutionised the study of physiology iu this country, and microscopic
objects n.aturally ilemand full consideration. In this particular, Mr. Hett
has greatly excelled. He has devised a very excellent plan for showing a
number of injected specimens under a microscope, showing the formations
of various animal bodies, even to the manner in which the blood comes
in contact with the atmo-sphere in the lungs, and becomes arterialised. At
the College of Surgeons of London we have the finest anatomical and phy-
siological museum in the world ; and the Exhibition, by bringing forth
Mr. Hett's instrument, has shown how Mr. Queckett's preparations may be
rendered available to the student at any time. With microscopical inves-
tigators Mr. Topping li.as a great reputation. He exhibits five frames eon-
t;umng the test objects which are suitable for the best microscopes, together
with fossil earths and fossil and recent vegetable structures. He h;is also
.showTi some beautiful specimens of dissections of insects, and specimens of
bone, teeth, and shell, and even sections of Oriental and Scotch pearls.
Beside these, he also exhibits anatomical injections, including a remarkably
fine example from the intestine of the rhinoceros. All these specimens are
entitled to the highest commendation. AVithin the last two or three years
a second mounter of microscopic preparations has appeared in the person
of Mr. Poulton, of Reading, who has exhiljitcd a case of first-class objects
which he has prepared.

Mr. Stark, of Echnburgh, exhibits a process of mounting objects in gutta
percha cells, but we have not yet been able to try it. Messrs. Smith and
Beck exhibit a model cabinet, well adapted for containing the objects;
but we are afraid it is almo.st too aristocratic for the working philosopher,
to whom expense is an object; and, lastly, Mr. Leonard exhibits drawings
of microscopical objects.

The ordinary mode of injecting the capillary vessels is either by size and
vermilion, or by the chromate of lead. In examining the objects, we
detected, however, unlabelled, one specimen of a carmine injection, which
w.as manifestly a section of bram. Mr. Smee ha-s exhibited at various soims,
as well as at the Microscopical Club, a series ol specimens of this character.
The n:iieroscopic specimens which are here exhibited may be taken as a fair
example of the minute knowledge which is now possessed by every well-
erlucated medical man at the present time. Scarce fifteen years ago, no
Englishman was conversant with the gorgeous structure which the micro-
scope reveals in a piece of dry bone. Since that period the mode of
arrangement of the ultimate blood-vcs.'els of every part of tlie body has
been determined. The geologists now delight in the examination of fossil
infusoria, or iu sections of the teeth of the gigantic tenants of a former
world. The chemist now examines his precipitates, and has ocular demon-
stration of the characters of the substances wliich he exauiiiies. The
entomologist determines the genus by the form of the scales which cover
the butterfly's wing; and no investig.ator, in any branch of science, is
satisfied without the possession of a microscope to assist his powers of
vision. The microscope is, to minute objects, what the telescope is to the
starry firmament, and both must exemplify how limited are the powers
of man, to grapple with either the luinutia; or infinite extension of Nature's
work.s.

IBBETSON'S CASTINGS.
In a glass ca.se, in an obscure passage near the entrance to the machinery
in motion, we observed some specimens of casting by Capt. Ibbetson,
which are entitled to consideration, from their novelty and beauty, and
their applicability to manufacturing purposes. The fir.st of these comprises
castings in brass from works of nature, and in this way Capt. Ibbetson has
contrived to render the leaf, with all its detail, in a manner wliich has not
heretofore been accomplished. Chantrey some years ago 1 ad a liigh
appreciation of casting from nature, and he devised means by which the
object was encased in clay, baked, and then the powdered part driven out
by means of a current of air ; but ho could only take one cast from a mould,
while Capt. Ibbetson states that he can make any number of copies. He
exhibits, also, a casting, of brass, of a raised map of the Isle of Wight,
which may be useful for educational purposes. This model, although upon
a small scale, is made from his own surveys, which he also represented in
the wonderful geological model in the AVestern Nave. The second kind of
casting consists of depo.sits of an alloy of gold and copper by electrical
agency. Now, electro-metallurgists state that these depositions are in the
highe.st degree ditficult, because the current will reduce th.at metal w-liich
requires least force, to the exclusion of the rest. Capt. Ibbetson states
that his specimens have been analysed, and they arc found to consist of an
equivalent of each metal, a fact of much interest to the chemist. By this
plan he has covered the fairy-like maiden's h.air fern, the pitch plant, the
liurnming-bird, and many other cm'ious species which he has procured from

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOP^EDLV OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF ]8.-,l.

tlio national pardcnH at Kevr. Tlic nioiln by wlii«li ho obtniiiH tlioso rosiilts
lio lit prcsuiit lu'o|w Kc'iTct. Tlio tliinl invcntimi crmHists in a new ni'xlc
wliiuli lio liiw (lisc(ivtT<«l <if Lironziufi inm. lIo states by liifl |plan lio
contrives to throw tlie liron/.o, as it were, into tho tcxt\n-o of tbo iron, and
that it dispenses with tlio uso of varnish or any other simihir snbstanee,
The speeiinons exhibited are very beautil'id, and it has been reiiorted that
tho Coidbnioii Dale Company are thinkinj,' of adoiiting the invention, whicli
is also, for the jproHont, icept seeret.

Tho importance of tlieso specimens is not so mucli to bo fonnd in their
own merit as in tlio power wliioh thoyaftbrd to tho manufacturer to extend
processes in directions liitljorto ujiknown.

PILLISCHliR'S MICROSCOrK.
Mr. Pilliseher, who is one of the best nioUers of niicro.soope« ill LuiiJoa,
exhibits one of large dimeiwioi)«, of oxquisite workmanship, iu order to
sliow what can be rluno in his way. This beuutirul instrument iii the

MICRitSerH'T

PY srn. 1 iT.LiSijiii:!!.

largest whicli appears iu the building, and is of the most approved con-
struction, being iu every respect properly placed as regards its centre of
gravity. The stage is much simplified iu comparkon with those ordinarily
used, and is worked by means of a rack and pinion, and an Archimedian
screw, the two pitches corresponding .accurately with each other, giving
gths of an ineh motion for each revolution. The fine .adjustment works
with a lever and screw, having flO threads to the inch. The body slides on
a groove, and can be adjusted by raek ami piuiou to the gic,ite.~t nicety.
As in the best uiicro.<copes, a draw-tube is tixcd on the top of the body,
to which the maker ha.s added a very useful contrivance iu the shape of

a register, attaclio<l to one of tho millcrl beada, whereby tlic nicMt ndjiiat-
nicnt may bo obtained, so that the examiner is enabled to look at the
object under inspection, while he Is incrciising the power to any required
degree. He haa also added ail erectipg eye-piec« tu the body, which m also
another advautago.

ANATOMICAL MODELS.
Grouped nmong tho Surgical Instruments, in Section 10, arc Rome con-
tributions of anatomical inodcli", a department of ort which, from tho
I'xtensive collections in Italy. France, and Oermany hii« been supposed to
be exclusively conlined to the Continent, but in which iioiuc of the iipcciniena
1 xhibitcd on the Biiti.ih side will show that we have .a Ivonced to a high
degree of jicrfectiou in this countiy. The inat«riul« of which the modelti
are piijicipally componcd are pla.ster of Pari* painted, jtapier indchi, gutti
porchu, and wax ; and tho subjects which they illustrate ars dissections of
the human body — Home few morbid specimens— and the anatomy and
dovclopmoilt of several of tho lower animals. With the exception of an
interesting series of anatomy of the male and female tor]»edo in wax,
presented by the Grand Duke of Tuscany to Professor Uwen. and de|)Osittd
by him in the College of Surgeons, we have not recognised any striking
display of talent on the Continental side. Tho nutgllificd models of gutta
porcha, &c., which take to pieces and show in «ucce«8ive layers the deeper
parts iu the organisms they demonstrate, however ingenious and amusing
they may bo, have no pretentious to a high, ami far loss the highest, order
of anatomical modelling. The French exhibit a variety of these; and a
full-length anatomical figure in papier mdchi and gutta percha, with a
section of the human head, is shown by llr. Simpson. Our attention,
however, hius been ai-rcstcd by somo very striking wax models, by Mr. Towne,
whoso experience and skill are ivell known from his works at Guy's Hospital.
He appears to have selected some of the most intricate and diflRcult dissec-
tions, and to display the several structures with a rigid regard to truth,
which challenges the severest scnitiny of the practised anatomist. This is
obviously the case in a model of the head and neck, with a deep section of
the brain, iu which there is not only a most valuable piece of anatomy in
the relative position of the muscles, blood-vessels, and nei-\'es of the neck,
and the distribution of the gi'eat nerve of sensation, known as the fifth ncn'C ;
but there is also a minute dissection of the internal ear and the orbit,
which exceeds any that v,e have yet seen, in delicate, yet perfectly clear
and accurate modelling. An arm at fuU-length, with the corresponding side
of the chest, exhibits the minute distribution of the nerve.s, with the
armn'^'cmeut of the muscles, blood-vessels, &e. A very beautiful and
complete series of changes which takes place during incubation in the chick
is also shown, and tho same subject is illu-^^tiutcd by an exhibitor from
Newcastle. Tho latter arti--t has tried to unite natural structure with his
models, but with no more than the usual success of such incongruities. A
case filled with some small models of tho heads of the great division? df the
human family aiFords an interesting subject for exainination, and a felicitous
reference to the extent of race, which is includtd in the purposes of the
Exhibition.

LACE GASSING MACHINES.
Mr. S.vmuel Ham., of Basford, near Nottingham, whoso name is favoiu--
ably known on account of his condensing api'aratus and other inventions,
originally took out a patent for a machine for ga.=5iiig lace ; and in order to
show tho importance of this invention, it is only necessary to state that
the cost of liurning off the fibres from muslin and other delicate fabrics,
some thirty -five years ago was at the rate of 6d. per square yard, whereas
at the present time as much as COO square yai'ds of laee may be gassed for
the same sum. The gassing machine iu tho Machinery iu Motion Depart-
ment of the Great Exhibition, which is exhibited by Messrs Barton and
Eanies, consists of a series of gas-burners, placed iu a straight line, and
regulated iu length by the width of lace to bo •'gassed." The lace is made
to pass through the various jets of gas at such a velocity as will just
remove tho fibres by which the whole surface is covered, and yet not destroy
the fabric itself. It is quite evident, therefore, that tho exact speed at
which the lace is required to travel through the jets of gas must be regu-
lated with great nicety; for if the velocity bo too gi-eat, the object in view
^^•ill not be attained. During the process of gassing the lace is carefully
watched by four persons, two of whom stand in front, and two behind the
macliine, in order to see that the lace is duly gassed, and also to prevent
the fabric itself taking fire. Cotton thread which has been subjected to a
process somewhat similai' to that above directe-l, by means of a machine
soinc«hat modified from that above described, is sold in the market as
" gassed thread,"' and in consequence commands a higher price.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS.

KSCAMPilF.NT OF FOOT GUAKD3, AT THE EASTEli:: END OF THE GREAT EXIIIBITIOS DUILDIXG.

SOUTFI KSTRASCR OF TUT. dlKAT KXIIIHITIOX.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPiEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

GL'ASS M'ANUFACITURES.

GLASS-BLOWING.
'IMIIC miinufiicture of glass is one of groat and daily increasing importance
in tliis country; tlio application of this material to many uses heretofore
inithoiight of being daily on the increase ; thanks to the liberal policy
which a few yoai'S ago abolished those fiscal bm'thens which had operated as
11 bar to enterprise and progress. The subject is one of peculiar interest in

connexion with the Great Exhibition of Industry of l?.")!, a.s but for tlio
enfranchisement of the gla.ss manufacturer, the building in which that
unrivalled display wa.s held could never have been constructed.

The time at which glass wa.s invented is very uncertain. The popular
opinion upon this subject refers the discovery to accident. It is said
(I'lin., Nat. Hisl., lib. xxxvi., c. 26), "that some mariners, who had a cargo
of nitvum (salt, or, as some have supposed, soda) on board, having landed
on the banks of the river Belus, a small stream at the base of Mount Carmcl

>'o. 4, OfTor.KU 2.1, IS.'iL

fil.ASf-Iil.dWlNf:

TiUrE L>NE Pennt.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

in Palestine, ami fmJiug uo stones to rest their pots on, placed muler them
some masses of uitrum, which, being fused by the hcnt with the saud of I
the river, produced a liquid and transparent stream : such was the origin j
of glass." The ancient Egyptians were certainly acquainted with the art i
of glass-making. This subject is very fully discussed in a memoir by I
M. Boudet, in the " Description do I'Egypt," vol. h.., Autiq. Mrmoires.
The earthen\yai'e beads found in some mummies have an exte^-ual coat of
glass, coloured with a metallic oxide ; and among the ri(ins of Thebes pieces
of blue "lass have been discovered. The manufiicttire of glass wa» long
carried on at Alexandria, from which city the llomans were supplied Avith
. that material ; but before the time of I'liuy the manufacture had been intro-
duced into Italy, France, and Spain (xxxvi., c. 26). CJlass utensils have
been found among the ruins of Hercuhmeum.

The applicatiou of glass to the glazing of windows is of comparatively
modern introduction, at lea^it in nortliern and western Europe. In 674
artists were brought to England from abroad to glaze the church windows

on crowii and German sheet-glass, SC«. ?d. per cwt. ; on broad glass,
12s. Sd., and on common bottle-glass, -Is. id. per cwt. In 1S13 those rates
were doubled, and with the exception of a modificatiou in 1819 in favour
of p)ateglass, then reduced to 3/. per cwt., were continued at that high rate
until 182o. In that year a chaiigc was made in the mode of taking the
duty on ilint-glass, by charging it <>n the weight of the fluxed materials
instead of on the articles when made, a regulation which did not affect the
rate of charge. In 1S30 the rate on bottles was reduced from 8s. 2d. to 7s.
per cwt. Tiie only further alteration hitherto made in these duties occTn-red
in 1S35, when, in consequence of the recommendation contained in the
thirteenth report of the Commissioners of Excise Inquiry, the rate upon
flint glass was reduced two-thirds, leaving it at 2c/. per pound, a mea? ure
which was rendered ncce.ssai'y by the encouragement given under the high
duty to the illicit manufacture, which was carried on to such an extent as
to oblige sever.al regular manufacturer.^ to rclin<piish the prosecution of
their business. [Pen ny Cydoiia:.dia.'\

4 ^

SV'OCEgSIVE ST.VGr.a otp glass-bi.owiicq.

at Wfvemoiit^i, iji f|v^ilin>l\ ; ft'l^ ?vfin in tlip year 1507 tli^s is^pt^? of
oxcliuiing coVl fiona d\vel|ings was c'nifiupd to (ayge p.stuVlishuK'U^, an.d by
no nicaiia universiil 'ovei( \\\ ilie:u. A\} entry tlie(i \ui\llo i(i the ^liqutes of
JV survey of Al(i\viclc C,'\stie, the residence of the Duke of KorthuTuberland,
informs us that the ghiss ciisements were taken down dming the absence of
the family, to preserve thom from accident. A ceutuvy after tliat time the
nse of window-glass w.-^s so small ui Scotli^nd i^liat only the upper rootns in
tlio roy^l palacps were fiu'nished with it, Ihp lower part having woocleu
sinittei-s to adudt or exchide the air.

The earliest inanufacturo of ili;^l-glas3 in JlngU^d was begmi hi 1557,
sunt t((e progress made in perfpctii^g it ^y^xs so iXoyy, tlwt i( wiis not until
i^ear the close of \\^a sovoutesHj,!^ P^t"V.V: tHt tt\i.s ppuflt'T was inde-
iieudciit of forcigiicv-^ for tlic supply of the comtqon article of (JviiAing-
giasses. \\\ 1673, so;iio plate-glass w.as niado at Li^mbeth, in works sup-
ported by tVe Duke of Ihukiugliam, but whicli vie\-c aopp abandoned. It
\va8 cxi^c'ly one century \:\\f\ that tl(e first e-itahlisluueut of magnitude for
the pvf'l'-'Ction of |datc gta-ss wa-s formed in thi-> country, uuder tho title of
'■ The Oovernor and Coinpiiiy of pr(ti^li Cast ^'lats-rtlass Manufactuvers."
The raonibera of this company SHbscvibod au "lupje capital, and works upon
;i large scale werp erected at Ravopheatl, ^ear I're.so.pt, \\\ Lancashire, which
have becii in oonstayt and supcpssfi^i onevatiou frpni tliEit titflo to, tb®
present djiy.

At an early period of its history in t^is country tho glass mauufactuve
became an object of taxation, and ilnties v.-ero imposed by the S and 7
• AVilliam and Mary, which acted so injuriously, th^t in tlie second year after
tho act was passed one half of the ((niies were taken oH', and in the follow-
ing year tlie whole was rojiealed. In ^746,, wheji tlio irianufactuve had taken
firmer voyt. av* excise duty was agair^ u'lipospcl, (\t tlip rate of one penny per
pound on tlip nritprials used for inakmg crown, plate, and flint-glass, and of
one farthing per pound on those useil for making bottles. In 1778 those
rales v.-cre iucrc.iseil 50, per cent, upon crown and bottUi glass, and were
doubled on flint and plate-glass. Tlipso rates were further advaiiee(l froiii
timo to time in conirtion with tho duties upon most other objects of tiixa-
tion, and in 1806 stood as follows : — On plate and fiuitglas.H, 4u.s. psr cwt. ;

Since tlie alteration in tlie tariff, tjic manufivctiire of glass in this country
has received an iiiimeuss extension, and in several branches of the art we
have outstripped the foreigner, who a f>?w years since maintained against
us a flourishing competition. In tlie preparation of the raw material, with
one or two exceptions, we occupy the highest place, and have acquired
this advantage by our large capital, by our improved chemical knowledge,
and by the i;idomitable energy of our character. Even tlie f ireigner
ackuowledge^ our superiority in these r-spect-s, ami in ta=ite and colouring
he also admits that we have made considerable progress.

'• Por ii long time," says M. Step':iane Flacliet, '■ England has excelled us
in the luannfacturo of glass, especially crystal glas^. The precise cause is
not known; it docs not appear in tlip mode of fusing the materials — more
probably it may be attributed to the purity of the lead which they use.
We ku"*v h'>w poor France is in tliis impovtant resyiect, having imported,
for several yeavs pa-t, from fifteen to sixteen millions of kilogranmies of

that metal, principally from Spain Tho French ghvs is

inferior to t'le t5^ii^lish in p"int of colour, and changes inuoli sooner when
exposed to t^ie \\\v. Our manufaoturors decl.aro that tliis difference does
not aviso from an inferiority of workmau-'bip, but from tho limited means
which we possess of purchasing the article, and which in a great measure
piay ho attributed to tho i)ii)iM(e division of the mil. In order to reduce
tlie price of glass to the condition of the purchaser, our manuracturers
have recourse to an extra infusion of alkali, wlach, being slowly absorbed
by tliii atnii 'Sphere, causes the glass to lose its transparency."

Glass may bo regarded, generally speaking, as an admixture of three
kinds of ingredients — silica, alkali, and a metallic o.xido. The silica i.5 the
vitvifiable ingredient, the alkali is tho flux, and the metallic oxide, besides
acting as a flux, iinparls certain qualities by which one kind of glass is
distinguishable from another. If silica be exposed to tliQ strongest heat it
will resist fusion, but if it be mixed witli an alkali, such as potash or soda,
and the mixture bo tlieu submitted to the same temperature, a combination
will ensue which takes the form of a liquid, and when cooled becomes
transparent. Tho quality of glass mainly depends on tlie proportions
in which tho silicious matter and the alkali are coinbined, oil the tempe-

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCL0P;EDTA OF THE fiUEAT EXIIT13TTI0N OF 1851.

ratino to wliii'li tliey nro oxpo8e<l, irnd on tho skill witli which tlio culiro
pi'ori'ss is iiorf'irnied. Wli»-n ;i poifoct combination of tlic iiiHtcrials i« not
seciii'i'd, till) f,'lii«s Ih covoivil witli dafk spoln or ]jartick'», ami otUcr
inoqvuditioK, wliich aro railed pti'iiP. Th-M-o ai-o tliijo kinds of Rla-s in
onlinai-y use — ri'own gl;i«s, iilato-glasa, and Hint-glais. 'i'lio nilicious Band,
wliicli f'onns tlio bauo of tho maiiufactmo of each, is ]ii-iiicipftlly deiivcd
from Almn Hay, in thi> Islo of \Vlp;lit; from liVim, in Norfolk; and from
Ayli'^niry, in I'.uckiiigliamnliiro. 'J'lio matcnals for fliiit-ghns arc nuarly
as follow-s ;— Oho jmit of alkiiM, two parts of oxid'! of lead, threo of
8ea-si\nd, and a small portion of the oxid' s of manrancne and ar*cnio. 'J'he
oxhlt: of li-ud is employed ns a poworfid iliix; it also imparts a great histi'o
to tho metal, and cansos it to bo mora ductile when in n semi-fluid Btato.
Tho manKauoso renders tho gla.?3 perfectly cohairless. When tlieso
ingredients ai'o mixed, it is called the hutch, and tlio niixtm''> is goncr.iUy
of a sidmoncolourcd huo, tho red tinge being given by the oxide of lead.

" Who," says Dr. .lohuson, " when ho firot saw tho sand or aishes by a
casual iiilcnsoncss of heat molted into a metalline form, rugged with
excroseenees and clo\idcd with impuritich, would have imaidncd that in
this shapoU'ss lump lay concealed fo many conveniences of life as wouhl,
in time, constitute a great part of the happiness of the world ! Yet by
some such fortuitous litpicfaction was mankind taught to procure a body
at once in a high degree solid and transparent; which might admit the
light of the sun, and exclude tho violence of the wind; ■which might
extend tho sight of tho philiisopher to new ranges of existence, and charm
him at one time with the uuboundeil extent of material creation, and at
aui'tiicr with tlie endless subordination of animal life ; and, what is of yet
nn>rc importance, might supply the decays of nature, and s<iceo<u' old ago
with subsidiary sight. Thus was the first ai^tiScer in glass cmnloytd,
tlToui,'li without his knowledgo or expectation. He was facilitating and
prolonging tho enjoyment of light, enlarging the avenues of scimcc, and
conferring the highest and most lasting pleasures ; be was enabling the
student to contemplate nature, and tlic beauty to b-bold herself."

Owing to the injurious operation of the Excise duty upon gla.=s as already
stated — since happily abolished by Sir Robert Peel — the Kngli.sh manufacture
■was long inferior to tho French for plate-glass, and to the Bohemians for
coloured and ornamental glass. Since tho exciseman was released from
his attendance at the glassdiouse, the English have been gradually improving
thomsclvea in tho manufacturo of every variety of this beautiful article,
adopting processes now to England, but which had been long in use in
other countries, where the mauufaeturcr was not impeded by the operation
of impolitic laws. Among these new pi-ooesses, that of the manufacture
of plato-glas.-,, in the mode represented in om' Illustration, is one of tho
most interesting. When the Messrs. Chance of Spoii-lanc. near Birmingh.am,
took the contract for the supply of tho large quantity required for tho
Crystal Palace, amounting to nearly 400 tons, they found it necesfary to
import a few foreign workmen, in consequence of a scarcity of English
hands sutliciently skilled and experienced to cnmpli'tc the order within the
tirao specified. The process represented by the artist is very simple and
beautiful, but requires a steady and practised hand. When tho requisite
weight of "mot.al"is taken from the furnace by the blower, it is blown
into a spherical form in the ordinary manner. It is then, after being re-
heated in tho furnace, swung iu the manner represented, above the head
and bcliiw the feet of the workman, until it assumes the form of a cylinder.
The worlcman stands upon a stage opposite the mouth of the furnace, with
a pit or well beneath his feet, six or seven feet in depth. He swings and
balances the molten metal — firmly affixed to a knob of glass at the end of
a long iron b.ai-, or blowing tube — first above and then beneath him, mitil
it gradually expands to the size which tho original quantity of "metal"
was estimated to produce. The slightest miscalculation of his power of
swinging it, or deviation from the proper course, might dash the hot glass
cither .against the side or end of the pit or ■well, or ag.ainst the wall of tho
furnace — or. worse than all, against the bodj- of a fellow workman or of a
spectator. No such accidents ever happen, though the stranger unac-
customed to tho sight is for a while iu momentary dread of some such
result. When swung to the proper length, the cylinder is about four feet
long, and twelve inches iu diameter. The next operiitions .arc to convert
it into a tube, by disconnecting it from the blowing-iron, and removing
tlio bag-like extremity. These processes are performed by boy.s, with
strings of red-hot glass, which easily cut through the yielding metal."
The boys then take tho tubes under their arms, and remove them to
.".nothcrpart of the building, ■\vherotliey stand on end, like chimney-pots, to
await the operation which shall convert them into flat sheets of glass.
This is also very simple. The tube is cut down the middle, and iu this
state placed in the "flattening kiln," where the moderate application of heat,
aided by a gentle touch from the attendant workman, brings it flat upon
r. slab or stone. It is then gently rubbed, or smoothed, with a wooden
implement, and passed into a cooler part of the kiln, where it soon hardens.
It is then tilted on edge, and the manufactm-e is coniploto. It is afterwards
oit in the ordinary w.ay to the requii-ed size.

The series of illustrations on pages 49 and 50, represent tlio Yarious imple-
ments used in melting and blowing glass, and the appear.au ce it presents jn its
successive stages. Those ■»-ere copied from samples exhibited by Messrs.
Ilvistly and Co. of Sunderland, in addition to a great variety of specimens
of the actual jiroduct for window-s, conserv.atories, &c. Un the left is the
melting-pot. which st.inds nearly five feet binh (^"o. 7, on the cut). No. 1
shows tha blow-pipe and ball of metal, as taken from the pot ; No. 2, shcet-
gla.ss .as formed by tho blower in a wooden mould; No. 3, sheet glass when

Bwiiiging in tlie procons of blowing ; No, 4, (Jicotj(la»M when fully swung ;
No. 6, ulicct-gliiKs when finislicd by blowing; No. 6, ehcctglaw whca
p-artLolly flattened.

jeffheys mahine glue.

TiiK marine glno ih ono of tho inventions which havo reunited
from experlnient« mode to attain in some m«wuro tlic iramo objwt
by dlfleront meauB. Messrs. JollVcy, Walsh, and Co. exhibit n groat
variety of fipecinielm of their marine ghio an applied to Tariuus porta
ofvcuselH, in order to show the strength and tenacity attainable by the
use of thiii important Bubstance. Many ycjirs ago Mr. .Icffrcy turned
bin attention to a proccsii, by galvanic action, of producing copper
sheathing suitablo for ships' bottoms ; but, after numerous experiments
and considerable expense, finding tho cost of production of the copper
sheathing by his new process to bo equal to that of the copper-plate« for
ordinary uso for tho same purpose, ho abandoned his scheme. Neverthe-
less, his investigations on this important subject led to "the idea of
employing resins insoluble in water aa an cfTcctual protection to ships'
bottoms." Tlio result w.os tho compositlou which is known as marine
gluo, and which is now so extensively used in the navy. It consists simply
of three ingi'cdients, viz,, caoutchouc, coal u.aphtha, ivnd shell-lac, in pri>per
pro]ioitions. It requires several days to dissolve the caoutchouc previously
to tho addition of the shell-lac. The various specimens of the application
of marine gluo may bo mentioned : — 1. A piece of the ma.st of the Cura^oa
frigate, .after her return from South America. The glue wa.s found to bo
in.sepnr.alile even by the ap|)lication of the wedge. 2. The piece of mast
put together with tho marine glue, and which had been subjected to a
pressure of 22 tiuis, by means of tho hydraulic press, before a splinter
could be effected. In order to show the great addition.al strength of the
main-m,a»t, the fore-mast, and the miijen, by the use of the marine glue, it
is only necessary to observe that the number of feet of surface joined in
tho three masts is equ.il to 2128; so that only taking three tons to tho
foot, wo have .an adcUtioual strcng'th put into these masts of not le.«3 than
0384 tons, a thing improcedenteil. 3. A block of elm, about 12 inches
scjuare, which bad been put together with the marble gluo, and subjected
to an explosion of guni)owdcr. At the conclusion of the trial, it was found
that the seam or joint w.as perfect. 4. The piece of a deck put together
with tho glue ■vvas taken f^'om a vessel, the interior of which wiis destroyed
by fire, and. although the underside was found considerably charred, the
upjicr side, including the glue, was perfect. 5. Mr. Jeffrey, at the request
of Sir I. K. Brunei, prepared a cannon-ball of o.ik, about seven inches iu
diameter, whicli w.xs fired at Woolwich, in 1842, at au angle of forty-five
degrees, to a*5ecrtain the effect of concussion on the joint when rebounding
from the earth. On an inspection of this interesting specimen, it will be
found that the joint is still perfect. 6. A block of deal about twelve
inche.5 square, with a surface glued of similar extent. The wood waa
shattered at four tons. Thus, taking three tons per foot, we have additional
strength of 25,000 tons distributed over the hull of a first-nxte. 7. Short
length of a model mast, of about 8 inches in diamct^jr, exploded with gim-
powder. Although the wood was rent, the splinters were confined by the
marine glue. 8. Specimen, showing the method of converting rectangular
into circular timber, by dividing the rectiingular piece by a segmental cut
at the radius required, and then jilaciug the under piece above the iqiper
piece, and connecting the two pieces together with marine glue. Tlie ribs
of the roof of the 'Transept of the Palace of Industry were thus formed,
not, however, having the use of m:u"ine glue at the joints. 9. A mahogany
deck, paved with marine glue ; .and finally four s&ams, two of which have
been subjected to the same teniperatiue under the line. The effect of the
Sim on the seams made of pitch has been known to melt it away to the
doptU of an inch in parts, while the gluo in tho first case remains perfect.

Pbeservation or the Chystal Pal.\ce. — On Tuesd.iy evening, iu accord-
ance with the resolution passed at a pre^vious meeting, declaring the
desirability of preserving the Crystal Palace, a meeting of the inhabitants
of Do Beauvoir Town, Kingsland, was held at the Sussex Arms Tavern ; Mr.
John Carr in the chair. — Mr. Addiscott proposed a resolution to the eflfbct
that the Cryst.al Palace, on account of the many glorious associations with
the Exhibition of 1851. and being itself a work I'f art and beauty, ought to
bo preseiTcd as a national memorial of that gi-eat and successful luider^
taking. — Jlr. Hughes supported the resolution, which was earned un.im-
mously. The 'second resolution, which was proposed by Mr. Russell,
euforcoJ tho necessity of public meetings on the subject, and also of
petitioning Parliament with a view to pre?er\-e the palace either as a winter
garden, or for other purposes beneficial to the public. The resolution w.as
carried, and a petition to the House of Commons embodying the sentiments
of the meeting was aftei-wards jn-oposed by Mr. T. Beard, the honorary
secretary of the committee, and unanimously adopted.

K.vrGiiTHOOD Offebid. — We learn on good authority that knighthood
has been offered to Mr. AV. Cubitt. the commissioner superintending the
erection of the building, to Jtr. Pa\ton, and to Mr. Fox. — Morning Paper.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

THE ARTS OF DESIGN AND DECORATION.

THE FINE ARTS DEPARTMENT.
"THE exclusion'of the painter's ai't from participation in the scheme of the
Great Exliibitiou was an error of judgment on the part of the Commis-
sioners, which it seems utterly impossible to account for. At a time when
the application of decoration upon the true principles of design is being
attempted, under the auspices of Government committees, not only in the
palaces of the nation and the houses of the gi'eat, but also in the more
humble abodes of the middle classes (through the operation of Schools of

And if good so result from observations on sculpture obtained in this
way, by millions who never saw a work of sculptuie before, how much
more useful to them would bo some notion of the principles and practice
of painting, involving both composition and colouring — an art much more
intimately and generally applicable to the purposes and requirements of
social life ; — and if a comparison by the more critical portion of the com-
munity of the works, we can hai-dly venture to say the schools, of sculptui'o
of various nations, be interesting and instructive, would not a similar
comparison of works of painting be at least equally so ? The importance
of such a comparison to English ai-t it w-ould be impossible to overrate,
when we reflect upon the compai'ativelyjshort and chequered career which
art, since its revival, has had in this country. It is scarcely more than a

FINE ARTS COUItT.

Design) — at a time when furniture, dress, and utensils for the table all
come in for a share of the improved taste of an age ambitious in ai't, it
seems an act of fatuity, when preparing a Grand Exposition of the Works
of Industry of all Nations, to exclude from the lists that very branch of
art which affords the highest resources for decoration, as well as the most
abundant and varied examples both of composition and colouring. The
assiduity and interest with which the thousands who thronged to the Exlii-
bition in Hyde-park examined the miscellaneous contributions of sculpture
from all nations, must a.ssure us that the masses are susceptible of enjoy-
ment from the contemplation of works of fine art ; and although many of
the specimens hero presented to them fall far short of the standard of
excellence, and although the impromptu criticisms of the multitude by no
means evince an ad\-anced taste, yet we feel so much confidence in the
ultimate triumph of truth, which in art is beauty, that we are inclined to
look for practical good results even fr'om tliis scrambling course of self-
education, amid a sort of wilderness of wild flowers.

century and a half that art has held any position amongst us ; smce Sir
James Thornhill, st.Ta-ting in rivalry to La Guerre, the favourite decorator
of the mansions of the nobility of that day. received a commission from the
State to paint the interior of St. Paul's Cathedral and the hall of Greenmch
Hospital, in which he was assisted by a German named Andre, and which
he contracted to do at the rate of 21. per square yard ! It is not a century
since the first attempt to establi.sh an Academy of art was m.ade, inaugu-
rated by the learned and admirable discourses of Sir Joshua Reynolds ;
and in the course of that period, what have we done towards the formation
of a school of art ? what definite purpose or niles of taste h.ave we arrived
at ? The answer to these questions must be given by a silent and signi-
ficant pointing to the walls of the various exhibition rooms in Trafalgar-
square, Suffolk-street, and Pali-Mall, where all has long been caprice, and
glitter, and wild confusion, and where now a portion of our. cxhibitants
seem to seek for unity of purpose, by devoting their pencils to a miserable
copyism of the poorest mediaeval models. Thus, whilst in little more than
two centuries (Giotto died in 1336, RafFaelle in 1520), revived art in Italy
arrived at its highest point of excellence and power imder a RafTaelle, who
founded a school which, in the persons of a Giulio Romano, a Garofalo

AN II.1>USTRATED CYCLOl'.EDIA OF Till': (JllEAT KXHIHITION Or 1^51.

auJ a Piirnicginno, surviveil hoiiio tinio lifter liiiii — ill KnK'ii'"'. in iibout tli«

eatiio ])i^i'iiiil, iil'tci- varioim uncoiicorteil oflbits, iinrl fuHtercd by much

iiKlisciiiiiiiiatiiig iirttroiiii^,'L>. wo find iii't. ImviiiK lu'voi- oiico ftttcinpted ii

flight ofthi) liiglicat aiiihitifni. ilogciieniting at iinco into thu stilVaiid inaui-

Iiiiitc inannurisni of tlio twelllh and thirteuiilh ccntnrien.

' Thoio is no hope of remedy for such a state of things, but in wholesome

exposure in liroad

daylight of public

Bcrutiny. Wo must

meet extravagaiuo

with extravagance ;

and native ali'ectatiou

being confronted by

conceits from abroad

(where there is much

of the same error to

complain of), shame

and mutual ridicule

may e<irrect much ;

whilst the strong arm

of criticism and the

loud voice of pojiular

( oudemuutiou will do

the rest.

lint it is not only
to an exhibition of
modern art of all
nations that we should
have looked as the
means of educating
the public taste. The
vast avenues of the
Crystal Palace, which
miglit, without much
trouble, have been
prepared for the pur-
pose, would have af-
forded an admirable
opportunity for form-
ing an exhibition o
by-gone art, arraiigei
ill order of schools
an exhibition of thi
highest interest aui.
iitUity, which, frou
the nature of circum
stances, has never ye
been carried into ef
feet, and for whicl
the spacious resoui-ce;
of the World's Fair ii
Hyde Park aftbrdec.
the fir.^t, and perhap:
the last, opportunity
Of the forthcoming o
the necessary mate
rials for furuishinj
forth such an eshibi
tion, we cannot eutei
tain a doubt, had tin
opportunity been al
forded, seeing thealac
rity with which foreigi
potentates, and ou.
own most gracious
Sovereign and her
Consort, have freely
sent in the costliest
articles of jewellery
and vei'lii in their pos-
session, to enhance
the attraction of the
Exhibition ; and how
their example has
been followed by

wealthy public companies, by noblemen and private gentlemen, each
anxious to contribute their or his mite to the general splendour, but
who, we are convinced, would have been far more proud to have shown
a Eaffaelle or a Rembrandt, than a "jewelled hawk" or a necklace
once the property of the poor King of Kaiuly ; and the public^
the more intellectual portion of it — would have been much more obliged
to tliem for such contributions, and the men of art, and the men of taste
of all Europe, would have tlianked them for helping to make up a show of
precious worth and enduring interest, the recollection of which would have
served to light their paths durmg a life of toil and study iu the pui-suit of
excellence and beauty in art.

It is useless to enlarge upon the practical advantages and the intellectual
charm of such an Eihibition; it has been denied U3; and although a

ORlCilN OF THE QC-VRItEL OF THE GUELPIIS .VND THE GUlBELLINS, BY F. It. PICKEKSOILL, A R.A.

department in the CrysUd Palace has been nunied the " line Ail« Court,"
the very cxiHtenco of such a coiiipartmeut is a mockery wbou coupled with
the announcementb that —

" Oil piiintings and water-colour paiiitiugH, frcdcocH, drawingH, and
cii).'iaviiigH, are not to be admitted, exce[)t as illustrations or examples of
materials and processes employed, and portrait busts are oot to be admitted.

"No single artist
will be allowed to ex-
bibit more thau thrco
works."

It is true that this
regulation is not very
cleaily worded, and
that it might bo
evaded, as all ill-ad-
vised and purposeless
laws may be ; almost
every oil or water-
colour pointiuf;, or
drawing, or cngi-avinp,
being more or less
available in "illustra-
tion of materials or
processes employed."
Indeed, we could
name seveitd publish-
ing houses who have
managed to gain ad-
mission for a variety
of engravings, either
published or in pro-
gress, and water-co-
loured pieces destined
iu due course for the
bauds of their en-
gravers. And as to
" fresco " painting ;
why should that be
excluded, if distemper
and other like pro-
cesses be admitted, iu
which we have abun-
dant examples of wall
decoration .' We have
abundant evidence ou
every side, moreover,
that the rule ha-> been
relaxed as regards the
number of works to
which each exhibitor
was to be restricted.
But still the general
object of the rule,
whatever that object
wa.s, has been effect-
ed; and the " Fine
Arts Court " has been
crowded with veiy
ordinary terra cotta
cists, including brick-
coloured and by no
means delicately treat-
ed nymphs of heavy
proportions, wax mo-
dels.wax flowers, niek-
nackeries in colour
printing, and fancy
stationeiy, card mo-
dels of houses and
gardens, dolls di'cssed
iu coui-t and other
costume, egg shells
carved and engraved
with fancy views, mo-
lds in willow-wood,
models in paper, and every conceivable absurd toy which could enter into
the conception of a boarding-school miss, and which render this department,
as far as it goes, a positive blot upon the otherwise fair face of the Great
Industrial Exhibition of all Nations.

And it is really curious to see the shifts which poor Art, being excluded
under its ordinary forms, has managed to represent itself iii the Great Con-
gress of Industry, and what inconsistencies and waste of space this has led
to. Although " oil painful;; and water-colour painting, fresco, cU'awing, and
engraving" have been declared inadmissible in ] their general sense — that
is, in their best and noblest performances — the pictorial genius of Europe
lias manifested itself .ibuudantly on all side^ in almost every conceivable
material but the prohibited canvas; upon porcelain, from France, from
Vieima, from Milau, fi-om Dresden ; upon glass from Berlin aud other

-^i^iU^

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

parts of Germany; upou tin from 'Wirtemburg ; upon plateiroQ from
Thui-ingia. Then -n-e have mosaics fi'om Rome not a few, and beautiful of
their kind; and from Muuioh we hare a collection of "stereochromic"
pictures, executed upon wood covered with mortar, " a process intended as
a substitute for (the prohibited) fresco-painting." Sh- 'William Kewton has
been allowed wall-room for several pictures upon ivoiy. representing "The
Homage at the Coronation," "The Marriage of her Majesty," and '■ The
Christening of the Prince of Wales," &c. ; but tlicir reception in his case
may perhaps be explained by the announcement that the ivory in these
works is "joined together by a process of his own invention." Mr. Ha.slcm
and Mr. Bone have some enamel pictures on gold — many of them Royal
portraits, others copies from old mastei's; and Mr. Esses shows " an exten-
sive collection of enamel paintings," copies from works in Royal and noble
collections. In short, whilst High Art has been rigorously excluded. Little
Ai-t has been gi'eatly favom'ed. As to the prohibition of engravings, it has
been found impossible to carry it out ; and accordingly we find whole shop-
loads of them in various styles in different pai-ts of the Building, some
framed, othere loose. In addition, we have been startled here and there
with some wonderfid imitations of engi-avings, and pen and ink drawings,
in silk, in human hair, iu crape, &c. ; which, as soon as the first impulse of
curiosity ;s over, only leave >ipon the mind of the spectator a feeling of
disappointment and irritation.

Whilst upou the sidiject of simulative processes, we may refer to some
"poker drawings," upon wood, by the Rev. W. Calvert, and some specimens
of the ai-t of " xulopyrography," or charred wood engraving, exhibited by
Lieut. C. Marsh.'dl and Mr. J. T. Mitchell, imd which are entitled to rank in
a higher category than the contrivances named at the close of the preceding
paragraph. The latter productions are somewhat similar iu appearance to
old sepia di'awiugs, and in theii' process of working have something in
common with poker dramngs. The difference between charred wood
carvings, or engra\Tngs, and the said " poker drawings," is that tlie former
are cut from the surface of hard and white wood, which has been previou.-;ly
completely chan-ed over, the lights and shadows being efl'eeted hy scraping
gradually away the black surface to the necessary depth, according to the
shade required, going below whei-e the burning extends for the absolute
lights: whereas "poker di-awings" are burnt ou the sm-face of white wood,
the lights being left and the shades burnt in. One of Mr. Mitchell's
Bpecimeus is taken from a rare mezzotinto engraving by Prince Rupert, who.
by the way, was long supposed to have been the inventor of the last-named
process, though of this there is some doubt, it being probable that ho
learnt the art from Colonel Louis Von Siegan. The subject is "The Execu-
tion of St. John the Baptist." after Spagnoletti. The other specimen by
this exhibitor is taken from Uwius " Chapeau de Brigand" (in the Veruou
Collection), and is of more minute workmanship than the preceding one.
Lieut. Mai-shall exhibits, we tldnk, three or more of his works iu this line,
the most important of wliich is after Raffaelle's cartoon of "St. Paul
Preaching."

The engraving which accompanies the present article is taken from a small
picture (" the Oiigin of the Quan'el of the Guelphs and the Ghibellines,")
by F. R. Pickersgill, A.R.A., which has been admitted, not as a specimen of
art, but of Rowney's silica colours, in which it is painted. Besides this, we
have one or two other specimens of a like kind, and exhibited for a like
purpose ; as, for instance, two of Concanuon's now method of aerial tinting
by calcined colours, and some designs in the crayons and chalks of some
other manufactm-er, whose name we have forgotten. Beneath these, ami
Eome other g.audier displays of colovu's, rainbow or prism fiisiiion. are raugei.1
the bru.shes, palettes, and other implements necessary fur using them ; and
60 complete and instructive is this exposition of art requirements considered
by Mr. Rowney, one of the exhibitors, that he places a little plaster groiip,
entitled "Letting the Cat out of the Bag," iu the midst of his compartment,
as much as to s,ay that the mysteries of the craft exist now no longer, and
that amateurs may all be ai-tists if they ple:«e to lay in a stock of the
necessary materials. In Mr. Ackerman's department we were agreeably
struck with a very elegant colom'-box, made of papier niachc.

The above flying notes, though imimportant iu themselves, mav bo
interesting some future day, as affording a notion of the position held by
the Fine Arts iu the Great Exliihition of Industry of All Nations of 1851.

THE QUEEX'S WITHDRAWING-EOOM AT THE
CRYSTAL PALACE.
The Engraving in page 60 represents the waiting-room erected for the
reception of her Majesty near the Korth entrance of the Building, having
particular reference to the suiTonntling grovip of anxious spcctatoi's, on the
occa.sion of the inauguration of the Crystal Palace, on the 1st of May. This
elegant little apartment was chiefly composed of rich tapestiy, the interior
being lined witli pale light blue and white silk, flutech The furaitnre was
of a very costly character, combining lightness of appearance with splendour
of effect. The sofa and chairs were carved and gilt, and covered with light
blue silk damask. The carpet, of rich Bru.ssels, was a flowered pattern.
Flowers, tjistefully disposed, lent their aid to give a pleasing and lively
effect to the picture. Iu tlie rear of the pruicipal room was a smaller apart-
ment, separated from it merely by a draped partition, iu which was a
handsome cheval glass, in a gilt frame and stand. Crowds of persons daily
thronged to view this little lijou of a boudoir, at a respectful distance
however — a cordon being drawn around it, guarded by a policeman.

IHARDWARE.

BUTTONS.
T^HE oldest of the Birmingham buttons seem to have been a plain fiat
button, of the waistcoat size, which, a hundred years ago, was sold at
is. Gd. a gro.?s, and which is still manufactured at Is, 64. a gi'oss. Then
came a very Large button, of the size of half a-crown, with ornamental
devices ou it ; but this was dear. It was the gilt aud plated button, intro-
duced between 1797 and 1800, which made the gre.it "hit" iu the trade.
This button became immediately fashionable, and continued so for a quarter
of a century. Everybody must remember the days when the blue coat,
with its seemly array of glittering brass buttons, was the not imbecoming
garb of a gentleman. At the end of twenty-five years, it was pu.shed from
its popularity by the covered, or Florentine button ; but some years ago
a d.asljing attempt was made to revive its gloi-ies by means of a deputation
which the trade despatched to London. We do not learn that they com-
mitted a similar inadventure to that of the poor wig-makers, who went up
to petition the throne, some years previously, against the practice of
wearing one's o\vii hair, but, going in their own natural hair, so scandalised
the mob by their inconsistency, that they had it all cut off for them bj'
the rabble. Armed with sets of beautiful bright buttons, the discomfited
makers forced their way to the foot of the Throne, and, tendering their
article, besought Royalty to pity their misfortunes. They represented
t'aat the old button was very handsome, and that thousands were reduced
to poverty by the introduction of the new one; aud they therefore
entreated the King (George IT.) to encourage the metal button ,madi-
by wearing that article. The same appeal was made to other influential
persons ; and not only the King, but the Duke of Clarence, several of the
Miui-sters, many members of the nobility, the Lord Mayor, and other
notables, accepted the proffered buttons, and promised to wear them.
The expf-riment was successful, a reaction took place, and the dark button,
as we well remember, went a&ide for a few seasons. Again we all came
out glittering —

To midnight dauces aud the public show.

But the triumph was not long, and that it was not longer, 'was the fiiult of
the Birmingham people themselves. Some manufactm-er invented or
introduced a cheap method of gilding the button.s. The trade c.illcd it
French gilding, the workmen named it "slap dash." It made the buttons
look remarkabl)' \jrilliant f:ir a very little while, but they tarnished almost
immediately, even before the retailers could sell them ; and if placed in all
theii- brightness on a new coat, they looked shabby in a fortnight. This
discoveiy — perhaps it is refining too much to suppose that it was intro-
dmced by a friend to the Florentine button — fatally and finally damaged
the metallic cau.3e, by ctistiug discredit upon the whole manufacture :
people left off ordering brass button.% aud by ISiO the trade was again
rmneA A second attempt at obtaining illustrious intervention was made :
Prince Albert was assailed by a deputauon, and the sympathies of the press
were invoked by the metal-buttoniit. But the charm would not work
twice, and yon never see a gilt button now except upon the terribly high-
collared coat of some terribly devoted adherent to old iashions, who maj'
be observed nestling in the corner of the stage box ou first nights, and
who, if ho speaks to you, is sure to growl out the unreasonable mtimation,
that " You ought to have seen Joe Munden, sir, in a character like this.
Muuden, sir, icas an actor."

Except the buttons required for the military .and naval services, aud for
" Jeames," the met.al .oi'ticle is out of date, aud covered buttons have it all
their own way. Tlie Florentine or covered button was first introduced
into Birmingham in 18'20, and it derives its name from the Florentine
cloth with which it is covered. It is composed of five pieces : first, the
cover of Florentine or silk ; second, a disc of metal which gives the shapo
to the button ; third, a somewhat smaller disc of brown pasteboard or
waddmg ; fourth, a disc of coarse black linen or calico ; and fifth, a disc of
metal from which an inner cu'clo has been pimched out, so that the cloth
or calico above may slightly protrude, and form a shank of the button.
Young girls cut the various discs mth a punching machine, and the last
operation is to place the five pieces in regidar order in a small machine
constructed to hold them — an arrangement cai-ried out by a number of
little children under a woman's superintendence : and then this macliine,
i which has been compai'cd to a dice-box, is brought under a press, which
I with a touch fiistens the whole bottom together with a neatness aud a
completeness to which any one who mil examine his coat-button eau be
witness.

Horn buttons are made from the hoofs of horned cattle : tho.se of horses
are not available for the purpose. The hoofs are boiled until soft, aud cut
into halves; then " blanks " are pimched out. The blanks arc placed in

M^^,

(""^C* ife yi-Z^^vv-

^/^j\£G<i<yi>-

THE ROYAL PKOCESSION AT THE OPENINQ OF THE OREAT EXHIBITION.— MAY I.

THE CRYSTAL P.-a.VCE AND ITS CONTENTS;

Throiighowt tho day the parks and tho Hues of thoroughftirc presented
a scene of iudcscribablc animation ; crowds of people rushing liithcr and
Uiitlier; carnRgos. cabs, carts, and omnibuses crammed inside and out,
formmg a difficult passage thi-ougb tbc dense uncounted and uncounUiblc
tbroug. In short, the oiKjnin? of tho " World's Gieat Fail- " appwu-ed to
be kept bv all, with one consent, ni a national holiday— all the shops m
KuightsbriJgc. and a great proportion of those in Piccadilly and other
neighbouring sti-cets, being closed. , , n e

The hour fixed for the opening of the various doors to tho holdei-s ol
season tickota was niac o'clock ; but long before that time every possible
pomt of access to the building was thronged with well-dressed pei-sous— a
great pi-oportion of thoiu ladies— eagerly waiting for admission. Con-
eideriu" the immense number who eventually were admitted— some twenty-
five thous.iud or thirtv thousand at lexst— the proceeding was conducted
with woudtfrfiil oixlt-r'aud regulai-ity, and with much less pci-sonal mcon-
venience than generally attends the congiegatrng of lar-c assemblies,

I'ite ccntl-e urea of the intersection of the naves and transept was that
set" apart for the ix-ception of her Jhyesty and her Court, and tho other
distinguished persons who were to tike part in the interesting ceremonies
of the day. At the uoitbcrn portion of lliis area a dais was erected, covered
with a splendid carpet, worked by loOl.idies for her Majesty, and graciously
accepted by her ; and upon this was placed n magnificent Chair uf State,
covered with a velvet robe, or mantle of crimson and gold. High over head
was suspended an ocUigon canopy, trimmed with blue satin and drditcrios
of blue and wliite. Before the chair rose the beautiful glass fountam,
glilt-^i-ing as a precious stone in the morning beams. Behind rose the steni.^
of tiie Oriental phints and the 'itately elm, one of the most agreeable and
refi-eshing parts of the whole view. Along the galleries of the main western
aveaue, the depai-tment for British goods, a succession of the most beautiful
carpetiy was suspended, like bauuoi-rts, only more sideudid, in a knightly
hall of old. Along the forei;;ji avenue evei-jthing stood revealed in its
best : and the vista al^ng the whole Hue was perhaps the most splendid
and extensive, as a piece of ai't and humau contrivance, ever pre^^nted to
humau view.

Uv 11 o'clock the honourable cnrpa of Geutlcmen-atrArms, in then- gay
uniforms, had taken up their station at the rear of the da'is, whilst the tiine-
houourcd body of Beef-eaters were ranged along the outer line of proccs-^ion.
The trumpeters and heralds stood ready to proclaim the arrival of the
Queen of these isles, and the heralds to marshal the order of her coming.
At half-past eleveu the Duke of Cambridge arrived at the north door,
but did nut enter the area, awaiting the arrival of the DuchcsS of Kent,
who, accom}'anied by the princess Mary of Cambridge, followed shortly
after him. Their Royal Highnesses now entered the retiring room, which
had been prepared for her Majesty's reception, an elegant little apartment,
covered with tapestry, and lined with silk, pale blue and white, fluted with
a crown overhead in the centre. The Commissioners and foreign ministers
now made their way down to the entrance-hall, ready to pay their i-espects
to her Slajesty on her an-ival (see Kngi-avin-^). Kxactly at ten minutes to
twelve, the Queen and her Royal Con.^ort. accmpanied by tlie Prince of
■\Va.es and the Priucei'* Royal. a!ighte<l from thtir carriage; and after rc-
pair.ng to the rctiriug room, procee led to enter tiie magnificent edifice of
the production of which his Royal Highness had been the chiuf prunioter.
The 'iucen wore a drcis of pink satin, brocaded in gold ; Prince Albert, a
Field Marishal's uniform; the Prince of Wales, a Highland dve*s; and the
Princi S3 Royal, a white lace dress, with a wreath of tiowers round her liead.
The R jyal party, especially tlje young Prince and Princess, appeared mucli
struck and delighted v.ith the stately grandeur .of the scene which burst
upon t. leir view.

As h T Majesty and Prince Albert entered under the cryjital arched roof,
througl. the handsome bronzed and gilded northei-n gate* erected by the
Coalbro ikdaic Company, through the adjacent Spaces decorated by gorgeous
exotics, sparkling fountains, and choice statuary, and as the tlouriflli of
trumpet and clai*ion procliumed this their State entry, a most deafening
burst of applause came from the cimcourse of loyal bubjects around her,
who rose to welcome the Hoval pair. The siglit was overwhelmingly gi-and.
"When her Majesty had taken her seat in the chair of state — to which t^he
wa? conducted through the Pioyal Commi.si.'ii oners. Foreign Milristcr.^, and
members of the Cabinet, who in their bright Comii dres?e« and splendid
uniforms were ranged aroimd her chair — the national anthem, "God save
the Queen," wa^ performed by a choir of nearly a thousand voices, occom-
pani^d on the organ {built by Messrs. Cray and Davison) by Mr Ooas and
Mr. Turle.

His Royal Highness Piince Albert having descended from tho daw, and
taken his place with the other Commissionei-s, read the following address : —

" May it p!c*sc yonr Mujcslj" — We, the C'ommiasionera np)>oiDl«d by your Slujtflty's
Royal warrant »f t'lie 3nl <ir Jannary, 1850, for the promotion of the Exliibitimi of tlie
wjrkKof lii'liutry of nil Nations, and subsfinenlly lufxirpomtcd by your MuJciJty'K Koynl
clinrter of the 15tli "f Aiigiist in tbe same year, humbly bey leuve, on the occnijioi) of y.mr
Majesty's ausptcioiiH visit at the opening of the Exhibition, to luy before you s. Iirief
Blatement of our pr<Kr«HiiiiCB to tiie present time.

" By virtoe of tlic authority graciously committed to us by your MuJ^Aty, we have
made dilii^nt lu(|Uiry iuto th^ metiers which yoitr 31ajenly wus plciiscd to refer to us —
namely, into the best mode of introducing tlic productions of your .Majusly'a colonics and
of foix-i^ counlries inlf) thiH kin^doin — tlio t>elcciion of Ihc most di'MirJildu site for llie
Exhibition, tijfi general conduL-t ofihi; iindcruking, and tlw; propi r miilmd of dftcrminiog
the nature of tlit: prizea, and of securing the- most impartial dietiibmiiiu of tliem.

'■ In tbi- pfiflB.culion of thcs'j inqnirii's. and iu llie discharge of tho duli(.i assi;riicd to
us by your Maji>ity'» lE'.ynl cliarter of Im-orp'iration, we have held eoiiHlant meetings of
onr whole body, and have, moreover, referred numerous ()UCStious connected with a great
Tariety of snbjetla to commiltces composed partly of our own members, and partly of

individuals distintruislied in the scverul depirtmints or science and tho artSj who liavo
cordially responded to our applications for (heir assiatanoo at agrvut saunheo of their
valuablti time.

".\mong tho carliosf <iuestIons brought Iwfore us. was the important one as lo tho
terms upon which aiticlea offered for exhibition should be admitted inlo the ItniMlng.
We considered thut it wiis a maia charuclerietic of Ihu national umleit^iking tn which
we were engaged, that it should depend wliolly upon the vohintary conn ilmnmis ut tlie
people of this c.nmlrv for il-t success; and we, therefore, decided, without lie--.it:ui>>ii, thut
no elmrgo whatever should he mado for the admlB3lon of such goods. We if-nhiiLiod,
also, that the olHco of selecting the aviieles to bo sent should be cntj'usled, in the lirst
instance, to local committees, to be estJiblishud in overy f<ji\,'ign country, and, in varlotn
districts of your Miyesty's dominions, n general power of controul being rescfvud to tho
commission.

" Wo have now tho gratification of stating that our anticipations of mippMrt In thU
course have in .-ill respects been fully rualiseil. Vonr Majosly's most nr.xi.ms ili.nrtli.m
to the funds of the Kxhlhliion was the signal for voluntary contrihiitluiis Inni jill. even
the humblest, classes of vonr subjt^cia ; and tho funds which have thus been plaied at mir
disposal omnunt at pivsent to about (W.twtrf. I^cal committees, fr-ini which we have
unifurmly rereived the most zealous co-opernUon, Were formed iu all jinrts of llie I oiled

Kingdom, in many of yonr Jfajesty's cilonica, and in tlie terrilorlos of the Il'm nblo

East India Company. The most cner;.'ecic support has also been j-cceived frutn tlio
Gi.verumcnts of nearly all the countries in tlio world, In most of which ctimmissions have
been appointed for the special purpose of promoting the objects of an Kxhibitiou Justly
characterised, iu your Miuesty's Royal warrant, as bu Exhibition of tho Worlcs of IndUBtry
of all Nations.

" We have also to acknowleilge the great readinesa with whicli porsnns of all clashes
have conio forward as exhibitors; and here again it becomes our duty to return our
humble thanks to vour Majesty, for the most gpaclooa mannef in which yonr Mujesty has
condescended to associate yourself with yonr snyecls, by yourself cuntrihnting some
vahtable and int«restin« articles to tho Eslilbitioft.

"The nnmbor of exhibitors whose prod'.iMions it lian been found possible to noconimo-
date is abi.ut 15,000, of whom nearly oHt-h ilf am Itritlih. Tlie remainder repvc^^ent tho
prodiictioii* of more than forty foreign .-onntrlcs, comprising .alnio>t the whole uf the
civilised nations of tho globe. l» -irr-iiiyiiig tho spM.ce t" be nlloltid t.i eiieli. we have
taken into coiiaidemtion hoth the nature of i« piodmtinns ami the fiulli:ie^ of neccsa to
this country alforded by it* gcographital iiositlon. Yoiu- M O-^-'v" "'"iiiid the luoduttiona
of your Majcitv's domini'iiJ arran,^-iii in tlio western ]".Ltii.ii •■{ tin' lluililiii;,', and those
of foreign cmntries in the easicm. Tlie KxliihKion is diviri..il into tlu: (niir ^-ivfit elussoji
of— 1. Haw Matcrial-i; •-'. Machinery; 8. SlulUlffleturc;; :iii.l -l. Si.-iil|.tiiLv and tho l-'lne
Arts. A fnrlhcr division hfts been made ivcording t'l tin' tjiogivplii.-al p^siiiim «t the
countries represented, those which lie within (he warmor latitudes being pla:cd near tnb
centre of the Birllding, nnil the colder eonulrii-.') at the uxtremities,

"Your Mftjeslv having boon gracijusly jileased (o grant a site in this, your Royal
Park, for the purpoRus of the £.<chibition, tlm first cnlumn ol" the stiuctnre, now tionoiired
by your Majesty's preseucp, was fixed on the 20lh of September lost. Within the short
period, therefore, of seven mtmths, owing to tlie eneruy of the contractor-), and tlic activo
industry of the workmen employed by thent, n building has betui creeted, entirely novcd
ill its con^truclloR, covering a apace of mur.- than ly tines, measuring Ibjl feet in length,
and -ISG feet in extreme breadth, and CApaMe of containing 40,WjO visitors, and affording
a frontage for the exhihition of goods to tlio extent of more than ten miles. Foi-
the origiuiil gn«gcstion of the ]>r!ncipl« of thta stntcturo, the Commissioners are indebted
to Mr. Joseph Paxton. lo whom they feci (htir acknowlcdgmenls to be justly due for tliis
iutcro-sting featnre of their nndcrtuking.

"With regard to the distribution ofrcwai'ds to deserving exhibitors, we have decided
that they should bo given in the form of medals, not with reference to raoroly indivnlnal
competition, but M rewards for excellenco in wliatcver shape it may prtsent itself. The
selfiption of the persons to be rewarded has Ijeen enunisted to juries composed (.»|uahy of
British snbjeels and of foreigners, the former hiiving been seliicted by tho commission
from the recommendations made by the loeal committees, and the latter by the (lovcrn-
ments of tho foreign nations, the proiliiction* of which arc exhibited. The names of Iheso
jnrors, comprislBg US they do many of European celebrity, afford the best guarantee of tbe
impartiality with which the rewaiila will be ussigned.

"It atfords 11!^ ranch gratification, that, notwithstanding the magnitude of this under-
taking, and the preat distances from which many of tbe articles now exhibited Imve hnd
to be collected, the day on which your Majesty has been graciously jdeiiaeU lo be present
at the inauguration of the Exhibition is the same day that was originnlly named for ita
opening ; thus aifonling a proof of wliat may, under QadtB blessing, be nc^Miinplished by
good-will and cordial co-operation amongst nations, Sided by the means that modern
science has placed at our command.

" Having thus briefly laid before your Majesty tliB results of our labours, it now only
remains for ns to convey lo your Jlnjesiy our dutiful and loyal Acknowle(]guienl.s of tho
snpport and enconragenientwWcli we luive derived throughout thiri extensive and hihorious
task from the graciuus favour and eiiunii-iatice of your M'jjesty. It is our liearlfcli
prayer IhattbiLi undertaking, whie]i li;i; fur its cud tho promoti'in of all branelies of
human industry, and the sfrengthenin;; <.r ihi! bonds of prncsand friendship among all
the nationi of the earth, may, by tin' lili-ssing of IJtifine Providence, ecindiice to tfio
welfare of your .M tjesty's people, and hi: liin;^ rememliercd among the brightest circnta-
stances of your .Majosly's p';aceful and happy reign."

To which her Maje-^ty read tlie following gracious reply, which wa:^ put
iuto her hands by Sir U. Grey : —

I receive with the groatest ef^alatl\>>n the address wmeh yon have predicated to me
un the o,)i'ning of this Exhibition.

" I have observed, with a warm and increasing interest, tlie ptogres-, of yonr proceed-
ings in the execution of the duties entrn&tcil to yui by the Royal Commission; nnd it
affords me sincere gratification to witness the sneeessful reniilt of yoitr Judicious and unrc-
mitdng cxortionS 3n the splendid spectacle by whicii I am this day snn'omrdcd.

" I cordially concur wltli you in the prayer, that, by Grid's blessing, this undertiiking
maycondiico to the welfare, of my people, and to the common interfsli* of (he hiitnan raCt*,
by enconraging the arts of pcftce and indnn-.ry, strcngtliening fhe bonds of union among
the irntion* of the earth, and promoting a friendly and honoirrirhlc rivalry in the iiaefnl
exercise of those facuhics which have been conferred by a beneficent Providence fo^ Ihc
good and the happinena of mankind."

Prince Albert then returned to Itia place beside her Majesty on the ddia,
and the Archbishop of Canterbury n-ad the following prayer, or benedic-
tion, a breathless etiUneas peiTading the vast assemblage : —

PRAYER.

" Almiglity and everlasting God, governor of nil things, without whom nothing is
Bti-ong, nothing holy, accept, we hcseecliThev, the sacrifice of our praise and thanksgiving,
receive our jirayers wbicli we offer up to Tliuc this day, in behalf of this kingdom and
land. We acknowledge, O Lord, that Thou hast mnltiplied the blessiugs which Thou
miglitest most justly have withheld ; we acknowledge that it is not because of the works
of righteousness which we have done, but of Thy great mercy, that wc are permitted to
come before Thee thiw day with the voice of thanksgiving, instead of humbling us for
our offences. Thou ha«t given us just cjiuse to praise Thee for Thine ubundaut goodness.
And now, () Lord, we beseech Thee to bless the work which Thou hast enabled ns to begin,
nnd to regard wUh Thy favour our prcticut purpoau of uniting together la the bond of

AN ILI-USTRATED CYCLOPiEUIA OP THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

vats containing a strong dye, red, green, or black, and the shank is next
fixed in. The button is then placed in a mould, where the under surface
is stamped with tho maker's name. A dozen moulds arc put into an iron
box, and heated over an oven until tlio horn is aa soft as wax, and tlien an
upper mould with the pattern for the top of the button is pressed down,
fitthig close to the hiwer mould. Tho moulds having been placed in the
press, and Hubmitted to its action, tho buttons are complete, except that
the rough edges rcipuro paring. Brushes, worked by steam, then run over
aud poiirtli the buttons, and they arc ready for the sorter. There are
numerous beautiful specimens of these buttons iu the cases to which we
shall presently refei-.

There are still many other kindd of buttons to be noted. Tho pearl
button gives employment to two tliousand people in Birmingham alone.

Wo muat not forget glass buttons, with which it was lately the pleasure
of admiring mothers to sprinklo their little boys very profusicly, and which
are also much in demand for ex£iortation to tlie African chiefs, who have
the truo barbarian love of glitter. There are two sorts, the roimd and tho
knob-shaped. Tho firmer aro made of sheet-glass, of various colours, and
coated with lead, which is cut by hand into small squares, the cornoi*.-i of
Tyhich aro rounded with scissors, aud the edges aic ground on a wheel.
The shank i.s then fastened; it is joined to a round piece of zinc, the size
of the button, and soldered to it. The tuob buttous arc made in a mould :
a long rod of glass boing softened in a furnace and clasped in the mould,
in whicli tho shank haa previously boeu fitted. The black gla^s buttons,
for coat links, arc made at a lathe. Agate, cornelian, and stone buttons aro
imported from Bohefnia, and shanked and finished in Eirmiiighatn.

There are several other kind.^ of buttons, as tlic iron and bras^^ buttons
with four holes, userl for trow.ser8, steel buttons for ladies' dresses, wooden
buttons and bono buttons for under clothing. The furmer are punched
by one press, rendered concave by another, and pierced by a third, ami
then a hand-piercer is introduced from the opposite side to that wliii.h
receives tho blow, in ordtir to smooth the edges of the holes. Having
been cleaned, tho buttons receive ft white coating, by moans of a chciuicul
process. The steel buttons arc niaJe by tho steel toy manufactureis. The
wood buttons are inado by wood-turners ; and the bone buttons arc chielly
madct by the horn button maker.^.

^avltig tlius enumerated the principal forms of button, we will ynsn iu
review some of the specimens etiiibited. Messrs. Twigg (279. Ijeneral
Hardware! have some very handsottie specimens of the ".leftines" button,
and 8omo boldly embossed riavnl buttons, with appropriate ornament.
3ome of their cut-glass buttons in metal aro effective. Messrs. Pigott's
(281) bronzed buttons, with sporting subjects, are among the best we
have ever seen : and Messrs. Hammond (28*2) hare some particularly
bold and well-executed device buttons— a set which we noticed, as made
for a "Curling Club," being vei-y chaiactcristic. Messrs. Aston (253) not
only show a haudaome assortment of all kinds, e.specially of the Flurcutine
class, but they introduce a series designed to illuitrate their manufacture —
a course which is very much iu conformity with the spirit of the Exhi-
bition, and one whicli we could wish had been adopted wherever it was
convoniontly practicable. Messrs. Inmau (281), ha\'e also some bold and
well-executed buttons, some of them honoured with the episcopal insignia,
an'd others for the servants of the Loudon Docks. Some of the prettiest
Cu(>glas3 buttous in the Exhibition are those of Messr.^. Neal aud Tonks
(235) ; aud Messrs. Chatwiu's case (266) contains as highly-finished speci-
mens as any assortment around them. In counoxion with Mr. Biinks's
buttons (287), we nbscrvcd snmo large and fine specimens of the shells
used in the manufacture of pearl buttons, above described, which are
brought from tho Culf of Persia, and from the Sooloo Isles. A very small
but pretty contribution is tftade by Mr. Knowles (2S9). consisting of gold-
plated aud enamelled buttons — there arc, We think, about a dozen only.
Mr. Wells (290) exhibits some horn button.% of considerable morit. The
case (295) contributed by Messrs. Smith, Kemp, and Wright shows us a
very brilliant assortment. Tho sporting buttons, representing tho ncck-
nnd-neck end of a race, the banter clearing a hedge, the sportsman bringing
down his p.irtri<lge. witli other varieties of amusement, aro very cleverly
designed. There is a gnod St. Qoorgo an<l the t^ragon, ;tnd indeed fl very
rich multiplicity of devices, onainels, crests, buildings, military and liaval
buttous, a capitid lion, and other designs for ornamental buttons. Messrs.
Allen and Moore (300), among many choice and beautiful articles in hard-
ware, exhibit metal bnttoijs of fine finish ; and Mr. Aston (:»0) shows velvet
buttons, which wc marked as V*ry rich iu their effect. Wo have spoken of
the manufacture of pearl buttons, and Messrs. Elliott (3C.2) exhibit some
with tnetallic rims — an armngemcnt which conveys tho desirable idea of
exceeding care in tho finish. Messrs. Inj^ram (36-1) illustrate very fully
the horn button iu its history and varieties. Slessrs. Hooley also (3051
have some metal articles auiiil tlicir beautiful htirdwaro. Mr, Nii.'5h (310),
a die sinker, shows the dies by which the metal buttons aro stamped. In
a case (36-1), exhibiteil by Mr. Bri.'iar.il)b, aro specimens of the mothor-o"-
pearl button, and among them of tlio black pearl.

The general characteri-^tics of tho specimens of button manufacture
must, of course, be, to a great extent, similar, tho contributions being
chielly sent by first-rate producers, who, in rnnning an honourable race
with tlieir rivals, all attain the point of excellonce which loaves little room
for diversity. In some of the casoa there is more artistic taste, as regards
tho designs of ornamcut, than in others : but the mechanical fiuish of the
whole array defies censure. Tlie button maiiufiKturc of England is
obviously and decidedly creditable to the country.

HISTORY OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION,

V. — Opening op the GaEAT Exoibitios on the Isr of Hat.
QK" Thursday, the 1st of Jlay — the day fixed upon from tho very outaet
for the piurpose — the Crystal Palace of Industry, in Hyde-park, was
inaugurated by the Queen, accompanied by Prince Albert, the Prince of
Wale;?, the Princess Royal, and many other branches of tho Royal family,
besides several foreign Princes, who had come over eipreasly to asaiiit in
tbe imposing ceremony. Farther, in order to give increased importance
to the occasion, to stamp it with the solemn adheaion of her Majesty'a
political advisers, tho officers of State, both of tho Government and of the
household, attended upon her Majesty, forming a magnificent and glittering
coHeyc.

Never dawned a brighter morn than on thia ever-memorable "May^y f
tho sky clear aud blue, the suu coining forth in undimmcd splendour, the
air crisp, cool, yet genial, oa a poet's spring mora sho ild be. London,
with her countless thousand-i, was early afoot ; by six o'clock, the hour
fixed for opening the park -gates, Mtrcams of carriages, all filled with gaily-
attired company, came pouring in from all parts of tho metropolis and the
stirrouudiug districts, while whole masses of pedestrians marched in mighty
phfJatLX towards the scene of actlmi. Ail St. James's Park, all the way up
Constitution Hill, all the way along Kuightdbridge and Rotten-row, was
one sea of heads, whose owncTS wore all intent upon one object — to catch
a glimfjoO of her Majesty and splendid suite on her way to the Palace of
Industry. Tho hne of route was fcofit by the Horse Guards and the police,
who, we ore glad to add, appeared to have experienced little difficulty in
preserving order, whilst they interfered as little as possible with the plea-
surable enjoyment and freedom of action of the mtiltitude — so fully ihd all
appear animated with the one desire to signalise this truly popular cere-
monial with generous and kindly feeling, and a respect for the rights and
duties of one another.

Tho only houses from which a siglit could be got of the procession were
those in Grosveiiur- place and at Hyde Park Corner ; and these were crowded
with well-dressed persons, chiefly ladles, even to the very roofs. The roof
of Apslcy House was fully tenanted after this fashion, so was also that of
tho park-keeper's lodge ; and ut this point, when the procession emeiged
from the triumphal arch at the top of Constitution -hill, the cheering, which
had been enthusiastic all along the line, rose into a shout which almost rent
the air ; whilst hats and handkerchiefs were waved from every hantL

The windows of the new front of Bucluugham Palace were also filled
with eager spectators of this portion of the day's proceedings, consisting
chiefly of persons attached to the Royal household ; the centre balcony
being occupied by the younger Princes and Princesses, attended by several
ladies.

Pt-ocisely at cloven o'clock the Hor.5Q Guards commenced widening the
path for the procession ; and at half-past eleven, the Uuid of the regiment
playing '' God save the Queen," the Royal covlhje set forcli, iu presence of
a vast multitude, who cheered with uumistakeable he.ortiness — a greeting
whicli her Miijesty and her Royal consort acknowledged by repeatedly
bowing, smiling all the while with \mdisguised satis^liction.

Tho Royal procession consisted of eight cvrnogcs, the coachmen and
footmon all in their slate liveries. It was, however, in its oixler. in maoy
respects diffcrout from the state processions with which we are all fauiiliu:
on the occasions of opening or proroguing a session of Pm'liament. ^^e
saw none of tho Ocutlemen Ushers, none of the Exous and Yeomen of iho
Guaitl. And, as the most important <lLstioction, the carriages, even that
of her M.ijesty, were drawn by a pair uf horses each. Her M:ijesty'3
carriage wa? not the large nncomfortablcdooking "glass coach," but a
•' dress carriage ;" sufBciently open, huwuver, to eiiable most of her subjects
to see her to advautjige. The occupants of the pthor caiTiagei were the
Lord;? and Ladies in Waiting, the Lords of the Household, the Maiils of
Honour, with some of the ladies of the suite of tho Princess of Prussia.

The cmniages were driven at a i-ather sumrt trot along the i>juie, an!
thils curiosity was not so perfectly satisfied as at other times, when Royalty
in state presents it,sclf in public.

At a ijuartcr to twelve o'clock thO Royal procession reached the northern
entrance of the Crystal Palaee, the band stationed 6heie striking up " Uod
save the Queen," whilst a solute was flrcil from a battery prepared on tha
uorth or further side of the SerpeuHne, the martial noise of which, however.
w;u? drowned in tho morre heart-Inspiring acclamations of thousands o'
Queen Victoria's pcacofal and peace-loving subjects.

At tho moment her Majesty entered the building of tho Exhibition, tlio
Royal standard was cUsplayed from a staff erected at the top of the extniwc
end of the northern transept, which floated proudly above the hiindivd and
one fliigs, of all nations, with which the exterior of the buildiug had b^^
an early hour in Che raornmg been dressed.

Before closing our account of tho ont-ofdoors proceedings of the day.
we should state that at eight o'clock most of the metropolitan churches
sent forth a merry peal ; the uuion-jack bt-iug at the same time hoiatcduvm
thcii' steeples.

AN TLLTJSTRATKD CYCLOryEBIA OP THE CMIEAT EXHIIUTfON OP IR."!.

]., 1,0 1111(1 rmicuivl thoiUauiTul imil.ms of llic uiirlh ; (mi- c,l' Tlirr, 1 1 I,"r.l, uii.l iMl <,l llio
linimrutlipM or mini, It ivmii'lh tliut vlnU'nco ia not licnrd In onr lnn,l, nor i-.,iitinll',ii«, nor
vluloliro iTlMllli 0111- llorilora. II Is of Tll(-r, O I,or.l. llint imtlou doos not lift ii|i HirorJ
iDjiilint mitlon, nor loiirn wnr any mon,. It In of Tlioo that rn'W 'x «'i'lil" ""f "'kH",
nloiiluoosiiuss Mlthiii oui' imhii-oii, anil mon K" f"i'li '" K""'')'. "nd Hint kiiinv|p<li;(! I»
U„n',M»od lliroMKliout the \v„ilil. Tlioroforo, l> I,,ir,l, not unto ii«, but unto TliT nanii', lio
all iirnlso. Whilst wii Bui'viy the Worku of nrl ami Indiislry whh-h Bnrmnnd ini, let not
our h,,ai-l.i lio llft.'.I ii|i that we foi-Rot tlio Lord onr Cod, or that It In not of our men jioirpr,
or of the niiHht of our hands, lliat wo have piKon in tliin woaltli. Toaoli in( to roninmluT
(hat thin stmc whioli wo liavo iuo|miod Is all Thliu' own, In 'I'hiiu' liamla It Ih to mak,>
((roat and ulve ulronxtli and lionoiir. Wo thank 'I'hoo, wo [iriiiso 'I'hco, wo crilroal 'I lioo
to -iviTruh- (hln assoiiildy of many nations, that It may tond to tho advanroinent of 'I'hy
Kl,,rv. to thoiilorcaHO of our luvtrtlu-ritv, ami to the promotion of poaro and Koo'1-wltl anions
tlui tii'lforoiit raros t,f nmilkliut. I.ct tli,; many mcrelos we have received dUpose onr hearts
t" Hi'rvi- 'I'h,,o inoro ami move, who art tho au'thor and River of all pood thlnRS, Teaeh us
t,, iia,' 111,,;;,' earlhlv hlonsiuKS that Thou hast Riven us bo richly to enjoy, that they may
11, ,1 witlulraw our alToclions from lliose heavenly tliiiiRs which Thou hnst prepared tor
th,-tii Hint l,,ve Thee llir,iiij,'Il the merits and mediation of Tliy Son .lesus Christ, to whom,
M illi Thee ami tlie Holy Ciliost, he all honour ami glory, world without end. Aincii."

The "Hallelujali Chorus" then followed, by tho choir, iimlor the direc-
tliiii of Sir H. K. Bishop, acoompauiod on the organ by Drs. Elvey and
W.vKlo.

Tlic lloyal procession was then foriuod in tho fdlowing ordar : —

neraljs.

Arcliilect, .Josepli Paslon, Ksq. Conlrnctor, Mr. Fox.

Supcrinteiulenta of tho Works— C. H. Wild, Ksq. ; Owen Joucs, Kaq.

rinanctal OlHcer, F. II. Carpenter, Esq.

Mcmber.s of the Duilding Committee— I. K. Uruuel, E.sq. ; Charles Cockerell, E3i|.;

Professor Donaldson.

M,'inlicv3of the Finanee Committee— Samuel Pelo, Esq.; Sir Alexander Spearman, Hart.

Treasurers — Baron Lionel de Rothseliild, William Cotton, Esq.; Sir John William

Lulihock, Hart.; Arthur Kett llarclay, Esq.

Secretary to the E.xecutive Committee, Matthew Div'hy Wyatt, Esq.

Excculivo Committee— George Drew, Esq.; Francis Fuller, Esq.; Charles Wentworlh,

Uilke.jun., Esq.; Ileniy Cole, Esq.; Lt.-Col. William lieid, Kl. Engineers, C.Ii.

FOREION' ACTIKG COMMI!>SIOSF,BS.

Auslvia— M. C. Duscliek, Chevalier do Home— Signor Carlo Trihbi

Iliir(j. liussi.a — >L Gabriel Kamensky.

Or'.iufii in WoitiuiC to tiui (^iicen.

Havaria— I'rofes^iov Dr. Sdiafhault, M.

Theobald Hoelim. it. Ilainrtl.
HelRiiim — rd. Charles Caylits, JM. dc

Hroucken.
llcnmark — Ite^'nar Westenholz.
France— .M. Siillandronze do Lamornaix.
Craiid Duchy of Hesse- M. Kosslcr.
(ircoco— .M. Kalli.
llnnse Towns — M. Figlheim.
Holland— M. Goothcns, SI. J. P. Dudok

van Hal.
Northern Germany — M. Noback.
Portugal— M. F. J. Vauzellcr, M. Antonio

Valdoz.
Prussia— Haron Hebeler.

Sardinia — Chevalier Loncisa,

Sa.xony- Dr. Seymirth, LL.D.; M. Gusta-

viis Diirstling.
Spain — M. .Manuel dc Ysasi, M. Itamon dc

la Sagra, M. Hamon de Ecliovarria.
Sweden .and Norway — M. ('has. Tottio.
SwitEorland-:-Dr. liolley, .M. Eichliolzer.
Tunis — Signor Hamda Elmkaddem, M.

Santillana (interpreter and secretary).
Turkey— ai. Edward Zobrab.
Tu.scany — Dr. Corridi.
United States— Mr. Edward Riddle, Mr.

N. 3. Dodge (seeretai'y).
AVurtemburg — Mr. C. Hrand.
Zollvercin— M. Hauiatli Stein.

Secretaries to the Royal Commission— Edgar A. Bowriiifi, Esq.; Sir Stafford H.

Nurtbcote, Bart.; J. Scott Kussell, Esq.

Special Commissioners — Dr. Lyon riayfair, Lietit.-Coloncl Lloyd.

IICR MAJESTY 5 OMJIISSI0XEU3.
.lohu Gott, Esq.
Wm. Cubitt, Esq.
Thomas Bazlcy, Esq.
Thomas Baring, Esq.
Sir Charles Lyell.
Sir R. Westmacott.
Rt. Hon. H. Laboucliere.
Lord Overstone.

Earl Grnnvillc.
Earl of Ros«e.
mrC. L. E.istl.ik5.
HI. Hon. W. E.fJlad.stoue.
Lord .^ohn Ititssell.
Lord Stanley.
Earl of Ettesmei'e.
Duke of Bnceleuch.

Mr. Ahlerman Thompson.
K. Steidieiison, Esq.
Wni. Hopkins, Esti.
T. F. (Jibson, Esq.
Itichard Cobden, Esq.
(.'harles Barry, K;-.q.
John Shepherd, Esq.
Pliilip Pusey, Esq.

Her Majesty's Master of the Ceremonies.

Foreign Ambassador and Ministers.

r.M. the Duke of Wellington, K.G., F. M. the Marquis of Analesey, K.G.

C'onimandcr-iu-Cbie?. Master-General of the Ordnance.

Her M.ajesty's Ministers.

Ills Grace the Archbishop of Canterhur;-.

White Wands; viz., Comptroller of the^Househol.^.

Treasurer of the Household.

Vice-Chanabcrlain.

Lord Steward. Lord Chamberlain.

Garter Principal King of Arms.

His Royal Highness Prinee Albert, leading her R,,yal Iliglmess the Princess Royal.

The Queen, leading his Royal Highness the Prince of Wales.

His Roviil nighuess the Prince of Pnissia.

Her Royal Highness the Duchess of Kent.

His Royal Highness Prince Henry of .the Netherlands.

Her Royal Hi.irhness the Princess of Prussia.

His K,)yal Highness Prince Frederick William of Prussia.

Her Roy.al Highness Princess Mary of Cambridge.

His Serene Highness Prince Edward of Saxe-"\Teimar.

His Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge.

Mistress of the R^hes.

Lady of the Bedchamber, Marchioness of Dom'o.

Lady of the B^dcliamber in W'aiting.

Maid of Honour in Waiting. Maid of Houoiir in Waiting.

B.',Icliainlier AV,>mau in. Waiting. Lad)' Superintendent. Lady Caroline Harrington.

Foreign Ladies, and Lady in attendance on H.R.H. the Duchess of Kent.

Gold Stick in Waiting. Jfaster of tliG Horse.

Groom of the Stole to H.R.H. Prince Albert.

Captain of the Yeoman of the Guard. Captain of the Gentlemen at .Vnns.

Master of the CucEliounds.

Lord of tlie Bedchamber to H.K.H. Princs r „„, .„ ^ir i»- ,« i »7 n

Albert in Waiting. ^"'^ '" Waiting to tlie Queen,

Groom of thu Itchhamher Itt II.U.II. I'riiicQ
Albert 111 WaltinK.

Clerk Karilitl.

lUpicrry to H.R.H. Prince Albert in Wiillini,'. Eiioerry to the Queen In WaltinK.

Gontleman fuller. ficntlenmn L'alier U) the HwiiTtl of SUtc. GeiitliTjian L-'ither

Silver Stick in Waiting. ll.l.l Oftleer of llriga.le In Walling.

Tho Gentlemen In attendnnee ujion llieir IJoynl Ilitflinewwii the DiichMH of Kent, tlio

Duke of Cttuibridge, and llui I'rliuai and Princvfts of Prussia.

ll,-nu,lH, A;c.

The Iloyal )>roco.ssion wont iij) in tho west end of the nave by iti north
Bide, returning to the cit/st end of the imve by im Houth nidc, includin;; tho
south end of tho trnnr-ept ; and coming back to the centre along tho nurth
hide of the nave, all ))icscnt were thus excellently well enabled to Bcc her

Majesty and tho proccBsion.

Uui'inti tlio proees.sion, and at tho Queen's approacli, the organs in tho
British division, built by lIes.irH. Willi.s, Walker, and Hill, of London, and
those by foreign iinportera, Du Croquet (Paris) and Sehidze (Erfurt), were

successively iihiycl.

On her Majesty's return to tlie platform, the Queen declared "the Exhi-
bition opened !" which was announce<l to the public by a Hourish of
trumpets and the firing of a Royal sitlute on the north of the .Serjientine.
'I'lie barriers which had kept the nave clear, were then thiowTi open, and
tlio public were allowed to circulate, 'n-hich they by no means appeared
disposed to do, as they were all crowding towards the glories of tho
transept.

Her Majesty then returned to Ihiekingham Palace by the route by which
she came, and all tlic doors, which had been closed at half-pa-st eleven
o'clock, were again opened.

Throughout tlic whole of the Queen's traverse of the building, her faco
was wreathed with smiles and jileiisant looks, and her Majesty evidently
took a more than common interest in the brilliant spectacle which evcrj--
where attracted her notice.

The ceremonial was one. it may be said, without precedent or rival. The
hom.igc pai.l by the Sovereign of the widest empire in tho world to tlio
industry and genius of both hemispheres, will not fill a page in hi.^tory
a-s a mean and unsubstantial pageant. While the race of man exist.?, thi.?
solemn and magnificent occasion will not reailily fade away from his
memory like the " ba.seless fabric of a vision ;" it comineneed an era in
which the sonj of toil shall receive honour and reward ; and, in accord-
ance with the spirit of the day, it stimulates the energies of man to conquer
" fresh domains," and discover now faculties of natui-e and her products,
for the well-being and use of his fellow-creatures.

AVe append tho Programme of the Musical Performances : —

At the entrance of her Majesty a flourish of trumpets.

When her Majesty had taken her seat in the Chan- of State, the National
Anthem, " God save the Queen," was performed, under the direction of
Sir George T. Smart, organist and composer to her Majesty's Chapel Royal,
by tho chou-s of her Majesty's Cii.apel Royal, St. Paul's Cathedral, West-
minster Abbey, St. George's Chapel, Windsor, some of the pupils of the
Royal Academy of Music, 'nith the chorus and part of the band of the
.Sacred Harmonic Society, and many other performci-s, both foreign and
English. Accompanied on the organ (built by Messrs. Gray and Davison)
by Goss, organist of St. Paul's Cathedral, and Mr. Turle, organist of West-
minster Abbey.

After the Prayer by his Grace the Archbishop of Canterbury, the " Halle-
lujah Chorus" (Handel) was performed, under the direction of Sir Henry
R. Bishop, the Professor of Music at Oxford ; accompanied on the oi-gau
by Dr. G. Elvey, organist of St. George's Chapel, Wmdsor, and Dr. Wylde,
Professor at the Royal Academy of Music.

During the Royal process-ion the organs (in tho following order), built
by Messrs. "Willis, Walker, Hill— all of London ; and the organs built by
Messrs. Du Croquet (Paris) and Shulze (Erfurt), were played under the
superintendence of Mr. W. Sterndale Bennett, by Dr. Wesley, organist of
Winchester Cathedral ; iilv. Hopkins, organist of the Temple Church ; Mr.
G. Cooper, organist of St. Sepulchre's Church; M. Danjou, organist of
Notre Dame, Pai-is ; and Mr. H. Smart, organist of St. Luke's Church Old-
street.

When her Majesty had returned to the platform, and declared the Ex-
hibition opened, a flourish of trumpets, and iho national Anthem, " God
save the Queen," was repeated.

VL— Close of the Exhibition-, IIth Oct. — Reeom on the Awards of
Juries, 15th Oct.

The Great Exhibition having been open to the public Ifl days, was
finally closed on the 11th October. The only incident which marked the
event, was tho [striking up, at five o'clock, of the National Anthem by ajl
the organs, accompanied by many voices in all parts of the crowded avenues.
On Monday and Tuesday,'the 13th and 14th, the Crystal Palac« wastliro'mi
open to exhibitors and their friends, who were admitted by tickets without
charge ; and on Wednesday tho 15th, the history of the Great Exhibition
1S51 was brought to a final close, with a slight business-like ceremony,
in which Prince Albert, as the President, received the reports of the juries,
and addressed a speech in reply. This ceremony took place upon a
tcmporaiy dais in the middle of the transept, (the Crystal Fountain haymg

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

been previously removed), and the whole building was crowded with
eshibitoi-s and others admitted by tickets. We shall confine ourselves in
this sketch to the principal points practically beai'ing upon the results of
the Exhibition.

Viscount Canning, President of the Council and Chairman of Juries, read
a report, in the course of which he described the constitution t>f the Juries,
and the priuciples by which they had been guided in the distribution

of prizes and awards : —

" The various subjects included in the Exhibition were divided, in the first instance,
into thirty classes. Of these, two were subseciuently found to embrace fields of actiou too

each group consisting of such juries as had to deal with subjects in some degree of kindred
nature ; and before any decision of a jury could be considered as final, it was required that
it should be brought before the assembled group of which that jury formed a part, and that
it should be approved by them.

"The chief object of this provision was that none of the many foreign nations taking
part in the Exhibition should incur the risk of seeing its interests overlooked or neg- J
lected from the accident {an unavoidable one in many instances) of its being unrepresented |
in any particular jury. I

" Each groTip of juries received the assistance of a deputy-commissioner, and of a special J
commissioner, appointed by her Majesty's Commissioners to record its proceedings, to |
furnish information respecting the arrangements of the Exhibition, and otherwise to facili-
tate the labours of the juries composing the group.

" It was farther determined by her Majesty's Commissioners that the chairmen of the 1
Juries, consisting of British subjects and of foreigners in equal numbers, should be fonued '

^■^' ^^\

TUE vUEEn'S WITHDE VWING-BOOM.— llIiB MAJESTY'S ARUIVAL AT TIIH NO;iTll ICNTUA.NMIC.

arge for single juries, and were therefore divided into sub-juries. This increased the
number of acting juries to thirty-four.

" Each of these thirty-four juries consisted of an etiual number of British subjects and
of foreigners. The British jurors were selected by her Majesty's Commissioners from lists
fumislied by the local committees of the various towns, nicli town being invited to recom-
mend persona of skill and information in the manufactures or produce for which it is
remarkable. Tlie foreign jurors were appointed by authorities in their own countries, in
Rucli relative pntportion amongst themselves as was agreed upon by the foreign coramis-
sioners sent here to represent their respective Governments.

"In the event of a jury finding themselves dehcient in technical knowledge of any
article submitted to them, they were empowered to call in the aid of associates. These
associates, who acted as advisers only, without a vote, but whose services were of tlie
greatest value, were selected either from the jurymen of other classes, or from the lists of
persona who Imdbeen i-ecommendcd as jurors, but who had not been permanently appointed
to any jury.

" Each jury was superintended by a chairman, chosen from its number by her Majesty's
Commissioners, The deputy-chairman and the reporter were elected by the jurors
themselves.

•' Such was the constitution of the thirty-four juries taken singly. They did not, how-
ever, act iudcpendeutly of each other, inasmuch as they were associated into sii groups,

into a council; and that the duties of the council should be to determine the conditions
upon wliich, in accordance with certain general principles previously laid down by lu-r
Majesty's Commissiuners, the difl'erent prizes should be awarded; to frame rules to gniilc
tlie working of the juries ; and to secure, as far as possible, uniformity in the result of their
proceedings.

"These are the most important features of the system upon which the jurors found them-
selves organised. I will now refer briefly to their course of action.

"The council of chairmen, in proceeding to the discharge of their duties, were met :it
the outset by a serious difficulty. Her Majesty's Commissioners had expressed thcm-
selves desirous that merit should be rewarded wlierever it presented itself, but anxious at
the same time to avoid the recognition of competition between individual exhibitors. They
had also decided that the prizes should consist of three medals of different sizes ; and that
these should be awarded, not as first, second, and third in degree for the same class of
subjects and merit, but as marking merit of different kinds and character.

" The council of chairmen found, to their regret, that it would be impossible to lay down
any rules for the awarding of the three medals by which the appearance at least of denot-
ing ditTerent degrees of success amongst exhibitors in the same branch uf production could
be avoided. Acct)rdiuglv, after fullv explaining their difficulty to her Majesty's Commis-
sioners, thi'v requested, as a course by whicll it might be materially diminishecl, that one
of the mtdais might be withdrawn.

AN ILLTTSTHATED CYCLOIMIDTA OF TTIE GREAT FA'TITBTTTON OF l«m.

r,i

" Of till) remMnliiK two, tlioy
whcrovcr a ciTtiiin stiiiulnrd ofi?
— ulMltv. Iii'iliily, ilic'iipni'HH, mill
lii'lliK tJiki'ii iiilii r.iiisidvmtii'ii
ini'iiilvil tliHl thiM iii.'.l;il sh.'liia
griiii)iH.

"Ill ri'Kixrtl to tlio otlirr find
award wliould Iio somi* imiiortmit
UrorcHKi'H (if iiinii'irnctiirf, or oi ik'
nliiiuld not, lio r..iif.in'd for ox
oiniiioiit; mid tliry tiirtlioi- wii^'K
clmiriiii'ii, npon tin* n-ooiniiirinlii

" 'riio prinoliilo thus dosoriliod
Hiiliwi'i|iiiMitlv fnrtlier dovolopi'd
couiuil of c'lminiioii. ll» niildif
rc^jiirdod llio forriKii JiiniTS. Mi
I'ltiiico iitid (loniuiny ; and to tl
avoidance of all iTroKnition of

BilHRHMtcd that ono, till) |iriwi modal, »lioiild lio roiif.Trod
xoiilli'lico In iirodiirtloii or worklnaiwlilii liiid lii'cn atliiliiod
ptnllon to partlrnlar iiiarkotH, anil ollior iliiiicntii of merit
accordliiK to tlio iiatniTof tins .d.jicl ; and llioy rccom-
liu awaidod by tlic jniloB, anlijcit to conlinnatlon by tlm

larRor modal, they aiiKKoatod that tlio condlllonB of its
novolly of iiivcMitlon, or B]iplirallon, oitliir hi nialorlal, or
■Inalllv nimblnod with ^roat hoaiily of iloHiun; but that It

i.ilh'ii'i f prodmlion or workniaiiKlilii alono, liowcvor

o«lod that thin modal «li..iild bo awaidod by the council of
itionofa "piry, aiippoi-ti'd by its (fi-oiip.
mot tlio viowH of hor Maj. •sty's (!omnil»»ionorfl, and was
by tliom in a miiiiilo which tliov commiiiiiratod to the
•ation, however, was not williont dilllcnltios, especially as
iiiv of Ihoso had taken part in llie national exhibitions of
lem lllo dislinctlve elianirler of Iho two medals, and the
degrees of inei-lt between the reeipicnts of prizes, were

prejudices and Jcaloiislea Ui hiivii la'on e>|icct>»l V, Intcrfiro with tlio ilc<l«i..nH, but thi!
nature of the coHo presenttjil many dlfllciiltleii of n fonnldablo cliaracli^r Vi tlie formation
of a Jndpmimt which slionld appear sBllafaclary to all. The names of Ilic Jurors, liidwd,
when once made known, were of tliemselvcH a sufllclcnt Kiiarantoo for that imiiartlnlUy
wblcb was essential to tin; fulfilment of tlielr task; and fn^ni all that liaa c/iino t/t thu
knowledKo of till; Hoynl Commissioners durInK tha pronrcal of their lalwors, Ihcy arp
fully satisfied that every award has been niadi- with the moat careful wnalderatlon, after
the most ample and laborious Investigation, and upon grounds most strictly honourable,

Just, and candid.

" Hut although the liigh character of the jurors would have fully Justified the f'ommls-
sloners in entrnsling them with the award of the prizes wlllioiil felterliig their iliscretion
witli any Inatrnctions wha^;ver, had nothing more than an impartial decision Nren
required, there were difficulties of a very peculiar nature inherent to the L8sk,'whlcli sei-med
to render necessary tlio adoption of some regulations that might, at lirst sight, appear to
have been somewhat arliitrary in their character. 'I'lie differences in llie wants of various
nations having necessarily impressed their several manufactures with dllTerent clmrac-

I, iv. I principles, and at variance witiv their experience ; inasmuch as one of the chief
vmposes of the national exliibitions of the continent had been to distinguish the various
i! ■Tecs of success attained bv rival cxliibitors.

■ It was to be e.-ipected, therefore, tliat cases would arise in which the council medal, as
III' ln"her reward, would be asked for exhibitors whose claims were only somewhat

II. II "r in degree, witliont differing in kind from tliose of others to whom tiie prize medal
liii.l l.r, II awarded. In such cases it became the duty of the council of chairmen lo refii.'ie
111. ii ~:ini'iionto the award of the council medal; without, however, necessarily impnsniiig
ill., alleged superiority of tlie article for which it was demanded. On the other hand,

me instances have occurred in which they have felt themselves called upon to oonfirai
111., claim to a council medal where the object for which it was claimed showed in itself less
merit of execution or manufacture than others of its class. It follows, therefore, that the
award of a council medal does not necessarily stamp its recipient as a better manufacturer
or producer tiian others who have received tlie prize medal. It is rather a mark of such
invention, ingenuity, or originality as may be expected to exercise an influence upon
industry more extended, and more important, than could be produced by mere excellence
of manufacture."

Prince Albert in his reply, after thanking the Jurors for their services.
Baid ; —

" In no department of the vast undertaking, wliich has just been brought to a happy
close, were greater difficulties to have been appreliendcd than in that in which your
lordship and your eminent colleagues have given your assistance. On this, the fil'st
occasion on which the productions of the different nations of the globe have ever been
brought together for the purpose of comparing their several merits, not only were

tcristies, it would seem to be almost impossible for those who have been in the habit o[
judging the productions of tlieir own country by one standard, to enter fully into
merits which can only be properly apiireciated by another standard, since the very points
which ill tlie one case appear to be excellencies, may in the other, not unnaturally, be
taken as defects. This consideration, and a knowledge of the evils which were to tie
apjn ehendcd from any accidentally erroneous decision, in a matter so intimately connected
witli the commercial interests of every nation, induced the Royal Commissioners to lay
down, for the guidance of the juries, those principles to which your lordship lias referred.

■• It would perhaps have been more interesting to the public had the Commissioners in-
structed tlie juries to follow the practice which has nsu.illy prevailed in the exiiibitions of
individual natiou.s, and to grant medals of difTereiit licKiees, to mark the gradations of
excellence among the exhibitors; but they feel that they have adopted the s.afer course,
and that which was upon the whole most in accordance witii tlie feelings of the majont>-
of the exhibitors, in directing that no distinction should he made between their ments
if their productions came up to the standard requisite to cntille them to a prize, but that
all should without exception take the .same rank and receive the same medal.

"The Commissioners, however, considered it right to place at the disposalof the council
of chail-men a peculiar or ' council' medal in the crises to which your lordship has refen-ed.
Important discoveries in many brandies of science and of manufactures have in this
Exhibition been brought under the notice of the public ; and it seems just that those who
have rendered services of this kind to the world should receive a special mark of
acknowledgment on an occasion which has rendered so conspicuous the advantages which
the many have derived from the discoveries of the few. .... _i

" The grant of the council medal for beauty of design, and for excellence in the fine arts,
as applied to manufactures, though made upon a somewhat different principle, is also
compatible witli the views of the Commissioners, since in the cases m which it has been
given it does not mark any greater comparative excellence of manufacture, or assign to

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTE'NTS;

one producer a liiglier place than is accorded to others, but U to be I'e.^nrded as a testiiuony
to the genius which. cnn cli^the the articles refinirod for tbc use of daily lilu with beauty
that can please the eye and instruct and elevate the mind. Valuable as this Exhibition
has proved in many respects, it appeal's to the Coinmissi-^ners tlmt there is no direction
in which its effects will be more sensibly and immediately perceived tlinn in tlie
improvement which it may be expected to i)rodui'e in taste, and the impulse it has ;^iveu
ti the arts of desi^: nnd a special acfcnovi-ledgroent is justly due to tliosc who have
aflforded the best ex^niph-s of art, whether pure or applied, and led the way in this
interesting career of iinprorement."

His Royal Highness tlieu, again, on behalf of the Commissioners thanked
the Jui'oi'a a.s a body, the Foreign Commissioners, and the Sectional and
Local Committees, adding; —

"And fiually, we cannot forget that all the labours of tliosc thus ofUcially conneotrd
with the EshiI)ition would have been in vain, had it not been fijr the hearty frood will
and assistance of the v.-hole body of exhibitors, both rorcign and British. Tlie zeal
ivhich they have displayed in affording a worthy illustration of the state of the industry
of the nations to which they belong, can only bu efpiullcd by the successful efforts of their
judustiial skill. The Commission have always had support and encouragement from
them during the progress uf the undertaking, and they cannot forget how cheerfully they
submitted to regulations essential for their general good, although sometimes producing
personal inconvenience to thejnselves. If tho Exhibition be successful in aiding the
healthy progress uf manufactures, we trust their ofRirts will meet with a due reward."

Tlie National Anthepa waa then sung ; after T^hich tho Biphop of London
read ajirayerof thaiiksgivUi?. This was fullowed l-y the Hallelujah Chorus,
at the close of wJiich tho I'liuce and Commiasiouers left the platform, and
the business of tho day teruuuafcedf

ANALYSIS OF THE AAVARDS.
A:i examination of the aggregate result of the labours of the jurors
j;ho\vs that tlie number of awui'da of all classes — council and prize medals,
and " honounible mentions" — is 5084 ; of this number 2039 have been
awarded to the United Kingdom, and 3045 to the foreign exhibitors. Upon
analyzing these lists, we find that the proportion of prizes awarded in the
six great groups whicli included the \iholo of the jui'ors h as follows : —

HAW MATE1!I.VI.S. — CLASSES

I. TO IV.

ISlUiili.

Fnrcijju.

Total.

Council medals . , , , .

Prize medals

12.3

4S7

532

Honourable meutious ....

l:..i

535

(JGfl

Total ....

2e2

988

1250

M.iCmXEl:T.^C!.AS31S V

TO X.

Council medals

Prize medals

301

191

492

Ilouourablo (ueutions ....

fil

114

laj

Total

iOi

3-11

ii5

TEXTIIE r.\3itIC.-i.— CLASSES XI. TO

Council medals 1

Prize medals "7

Houourablo uieutioi'.a . . , , 1 o5

Total

528

liETALLIC, TnnEOl'S, AKIl CEE.'.IUC SIA.M lACTOEES.-

Couucil medals . . . . . 14
Fri^e medals . . , . . . 312
IIoDovu'ablp mentions .... 203

•19S

83.3

277

4f;2

777

1300

CIASSE.S

SXl

. TO x^:v

211

626

1!I9

407

Total ....

MISCELLANEOUS MASUPACTURES.-
Council medals ....
Prize medals ....
ilonouraUe mciilioiis

Total ....

ri>'E AUT
Council medals

Prize medals

Uonourablo iiientioii.i

Total

634

434

963

XXVI. TO XXIX.

•J 10 14

112 232 374

100 154 2.34

2!;i

-7
41

390

60
47

lU'J

612

87
88

179

We shall make some observations upon the award.'', and the nature of the
ohjeet.s tliey have reference to, in future articles. Besides the medals tlie'
Juries have, iu .•> few special eases, granted money award.s, of wiiich the
following is a list ; —

MONEY AWAllD-S.

— Alex. Biriiie, United Kingdom — for having exhibited a compltte S"t of

fi.shing nets, lines, .and hojk-, for deep sea fisliin;; — 501.

— .Jcseph Bothway, United Kingdom — for havin;; cxibitod models of hi.9

improveniciits iu the construction of blocks, combining strength
and other advauta^eg with much Iciis v.cight — 50i.

159 Daniel Harvey, Ujiited Kingdom — for having exhibiteil a model of the
'■ Victoria and .\lbcrt" yacht, cxeeuJcd by him — being a fine .speci-
men of ■.vorku)ai»;hip — 40/.

174 — Demp.ster, United Kingdom — for an ingenious sv.stcm of signals for
merchant ship.s — 20/.

463 G. F. Greiner, United Kingdom — for his new and useful method of
bringing into unison the strings of each choir of the pianofoi-to,
also for hi.? invention of a new and mechanical contrivance fur
iv.anos, combining the advantage of Erard's machine, with greater
construction and durability — 607.

— ■ J. iS. AVood, United States— for tho oxpensea incurred in constructing
his piano violin — 50/.

101 F. Eotor, Switzerland — to enable him to carry on further exp»rinic!it=>
to test the isochrouism of spirals, his invention of a now and
ingenious free i-pring esc.ipcmeut being particularly adapted for
tliat purpose — 50?.
KoTE. — T/ic Jury (iwanl the sum of 107. eacJi to the foUuic'rug sidij^cts.

106 Ann Harv(>y (Belfast), United Kingdom — hand-spun flax-yam.

546 Hempen Spinning School (for a little girl 10 years of age), Prussia-
spun fl:ix-yarn.

— Jane Moijill (Belfast), United Kingdom — hand-spun flax-yarn.

237 J Bamford, United itingdom — fine light gauze flannels.

97 E. Budden. United Kingdom — the workman anIio bound an album, very
elaborately ornamented, in which ta«te and good work are di.?playe'l.
Niel, United Kingdom — for the care, industry, and perseverancu
ilisplayed iu binding an imperial 4to. Bible iu cream Morocco,
under great disadvantages; the work was executed at his own home
after his daily occupation, by gaslight in tho winter; and notwith-
standing these difficulties, a oousidorable degree of excellence is
attained.

STATLSTICS OF THE K.XUICITION.
xruBKii or visiTdiis.
In tlio month of May the mimljor of ^ isitoi-s uiis

In Juno

In July

In August

In Soplcmbcr ...

la Octuher, up to the lull instant

Grant! total . . ....

: totftl receipts ireiT aa follows, up to the close of 11:0 ICxtilhltiou :■

Piiblio sub.-eriptlona

Privilege of X^rintlng

I'rivikigc of supplying rofi'cshnicnts

Ami>nnt roccivi'd for season tickots up to 1st of May ,
Koyally of id. per copy oji catalogues

Total funds In hnml on the 1st of M:it .
Amount rocoived at the (ioovs n]) to August oO .

Ditto up to till" cud of .'^tiptemhcr

llitto up to Saturday, October 11

i.i.n.iic.

l,;Ul,17(i

1.023, l;-.j

l,lo5,aiu

SJ1,1(17

0,201,6"iG

£04.311 n 0

«,200 0 I)

D.BOO 0 I)

40.000 0 ' i

.£113,011 0 0

. 252,141 S> i;

. (a.O)7 12 0

. 41,'J--'2 11 «

Grand tot.al

, .£«0,113 IS 0

CURIOL'S FACTS CONNECTED WITH THE EXHIBITION.
Oe the money received at tlio doors, 275,000/. vva^ in silver, and 81,000?.
in gold. Tho weight of tho .'silver coin so taken (at tho rate of 28!) i.
per 100/.) would be 35 tons, and its bulk 900 cubic feet ! The rapid flow
of the coin into the hands of the money-takers prevented all examination
<if each piece a'i it was received, and 90/. of bad silver was taken, but only
one piece of bad gold, and that was a half-.sovereigii. Tlio half-
crown was the most usual bad coin, but a much more noticeable fatt
i=, that nearly all tho bad money was taken on the h.alf-crown anil five
shilling days. The cash was received by eighteen money-takei's : on the
very heavy days .six extra ones being employed during the busiest hour?.
I'roni thom it was gathered L.y three or four money-portcra, who carried it
to four collectors, charged with the task of counting it. From tliem it
went to two tclUrs, who verified tho sums, and handi'tl it to tho final j
custody of the chief fiuanci.al olficer, Mr. Carpenter, who locked each day's
amount in hi^ peculiar iron chests iu the building till next morning, when
iu boxes, each holding 600/., it was bc-irne oil' in a hackney cab iu charge of
a Bank of England clerk and a Bimk porter. The money wa% received in all
forms, ranging between farthiugs and ten-pound notes. Contrai'y to the
notice.s exhibited, change was given. Occasionally foreigners gave
Napoleons, and these coins being mistaken for sovereigns, they received
nineteen shillings out, and liberty of admission into the bargain. The
monies of America, Hamburg, Germany, and France, were often teudercd
and taken. Tiie total number of visitors from the 1st of Jlay to the 11th
of October was 0,063,980.

Collection of Specuiexs fob FonEiGU KATIO^Js. — The following
circular lias just been issued to the British Exhibitors: — "Many of the
foreign Acting Commissioners having represented that international ad-
vantages would be likely to arise if their countries possessed a collection
of specimens °of raw materials and produce, and patterns of some clas.scs
of manufactures shown by British exhibitors, together with the wholesale
prices of them; and having expressed a desire that such collection should
bo formed, her Majesty's Commissioners have authorised the Executive
(,'oinmittee to assist iu forming them. British exhibitor.s, who may bo
willing to present specimens and patterns for this purpose, are requested
to communicate immediately with Lieutenant Tyler, R.E. ; but in those
cases where they may not consider such presentations to be a sufficient
commercial advantage to themselves, the Executive Committee are autho-
rised to treat for the purchase of the necessary qualities ; and cxhibitoirs
aro requested to forward their terms for the purchase to Lieutenant Tyler
before removing their articles from the building, — 51. iJigby Wyatt, secre-
tary, Exliibiti'ui-building, Oct. 14th."

AN TLLTTSTRATET) CYCLOP.'EDTA OF TITE dREAT EXTTIBITION OF 1«.-,1.

LITERATURE OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

TlIK GREAT EXriIBITION' AND ITS RESUIjT.S.

(ffllOM TlIK II.LD8TUVTUD LOXDON NEWS, OCT. 11.)

'I'lTE Oi'o.vt Kxhibition of tho Industry of all Nntiona closes toilaj-. In
tlio couvso of a few wooka tlio most extensive assemblayo of valuable
jimdiict!) in all brauclios of inannfiictm'o pvor bi'ouglit togotlior under onii
roof will bo wattoroJ unil dispor-icd, and tbo Oi-oat Industrial Congress of
IS-ll will bo uumboi;od witli tlio rnomorablc events of the past.

lUit it-i influoiieewill not co.aso here ; it is but the first act of an importapt
social iiiovoniont, up'in whioli tho curtain is about to fall ; and who shall

ly thiit what is to follow may not go far toreallso tho profound andphilan-
ilu'opio aspirations of tho Prince Consort, tho projector aud'riiling genius

f tho whole srhcme, in the raeniorablo words uttered by liini at a banijuo|
given by tlio Lord Jlayov in 1819 >

" 1 eoncoivo it to bo tho (Uity of every educated person closely to watch
(iiiil study the time in which he lives; .and, ,^h far as in him lies, to add liis
huinble mite of individual exertion to fiu'thcr tho aecomplishnient of what
he liolisvoa I'rovidenco to have ordained. Nobody, however, who bus paid
any attention to tho )iarticular features of our present or.>, will doubt for a
inonicnt that we are living at a porioil of must womlerful transition, wliich
ti'uds rapidly to tlio accouiplishmeut of that great end to whicli, indeed,
all history points — the realisation of the unity of mankin(J. Ki>t an unity
wliieh brcalis down tho limits, and levels the jieculiar ehai'actoristica of the
diilurent nations of tho earth, but rather a unity the rcsiilt nud product of
thosQ very national varieties and antagpui.stic cpialitips. Tho distanc.'S
wliioh seinirated the different nations ,and parts of the globe are gracjH^lly
vanishing before the achiovenients of niodeni invention, and we can traverse
theiu with ineredii)le ease : tho languages pf aU (lations are known, and
their aeipiironients placed witiiin the reach of eve)'ybocly ; thought is com-
nmuiealud with the rapidity and even by tho powoi' of lightning. On the
otlior hand, tlio great principle of divi.^ion of labour, which may be called
tho moving power of oivilisition, is being extended to all branches of
s^cience, industiy, and art. Wliilst forinoriy tlio greatest mental energies
strove at univciYal knowledge, and that knowledfrc was confined to the
few, now they are directed to specialities, and in these ,ngain even to the
iiiiuutest points : but tho knowledge acquired becomes at once the property
of tho oomuiuuity at large. Whilst formerly discovery ^^■,as wrapt iu
secr^'sy, tlio publicity of the present day causes, that no sooner is a dis-
covery or invention made, than it is already improved upon .and surpassed
by competing efforts ; the products of all quarters of tho globe .are placed
at our disposal, and we have only to choose which is the best and cheapest
for our purposes, and the powers of production are intrusted to the
stimuhis of competition and capital. So man is approaching a more
complete fulfdmeut of that great and sacred mission wdiich ho h<a=? to
perform in this world. His reason being created after the image of God,
lie has to use it to discover tho laws by which the Almighty governs his
ci'eatiou, and, by making these laws his standard of action, to conquer
nature to his use — himself a divine instrument. Science discovers these
laws of power, motion, and transformation ; industry applies them to the
raw matter, -which t!ie earth yields us in alnmilance ; but which becomes
valuable only by knowledge ; art teaches us tho immutable laws of
beauty .and symmetiy. and gives to our p'roductions forms in accordance
with them. Gentlemen, the Exhibition of ISol is to give us a true test
and a living picture of the point of development at which the whole of
mankind have arriveil iu this great task, and a new stirting point from
which all n.atious will be able to direct their further exertions."

Looking back upon the cxporieaoe of the two years since these views
were propounded ; looking back inoro particularly xipou the six months
which h.ave elajised since the Great Exhibition w.as completed and thrown
open, we .are inclined to think there is littlo if any exaggeration in the
hopeful picture of the world's future which is thus shadowed forth, as
capable of accomplislimcnt by tho right direction of the natural gifts and
means .at the disposal of the great human family. If no more h,as been
accomplished as yet, the very crowding iu of goods from all quarters of the
globe, and the thronging iu of millions of speetatoi'.s, interested more or
less in the production or uses of those commodities, afford a striking proof
of tho unanimity which prevails amongst men upon any comprehensive
scheme of true usefulness, and their power to carry it into accom-
plishment.

This great feature also distinguishes the Peace Congress of IS.'ll from nil
known political congresses or movements of nations — that whereas, in tho
one case the gain of one is under almost all circumstances obtained by a
couoo.ssion or sacrifice of interests on the jiart of some other, and tiiat
generally the weaker one ; iu the other, gain is gain to all, tlie superiority
of means or appliance evidenced by each competitor being at once available
to the advantage of .all the rest, Tlie achievements of human intoUect are
common propevty, and only require to be known to be at once applied, iu
combination with other.?, to the attainment of still greater acliioveiucnts.

It cannot bo doubted that tlio kucccm of tbo Qrcnt Kxliibitioo liiw Ur
exceeded tho mont Hanguino cxpectntionR of it« projectors ; ami, but tlutt
it wa.i a gathering together for good, they iiiii;lit alinohl, lik« niiother
Eraiikonstcin, |iavo been terrified at tho vaat army of obnorvation. of
various raoea itnil habits, which they have been llio means of conointnaiiiK
around tho woalthiost and leant defendeil cipiUil in the world. Jt in
curious, i|i({ood. to look back at a few <,f tbo piwt ciriumatancei in lliin
great drainOi '^'"' '" "'-'° ''""' "'° aiiticipati'nfl «f the directoiu of it Imvo
been di.ii>ppuiut'il ; but two will nudic-, and wo inciitiou them merely lui
curiositipg of history. When, after niaiiy stru^'glcs. nud much eoiivawiing
for 8ul(»criptioii» throughout tho country, the itoyal t'oiuniiaiion wiwt
foriuoij, niid incorponited by charter, its first net w.-w to rescind <» contract
optionally open to them, with Messrs. Muiidny, by which all risk or liability
uium pecuniary grounds would have been avoided, tliun " OMitiiig tiio *
(lucecbs of the propo.scd experiment entirely upon public sympathy." Thin
step proliubly alarmed the Executive Comniittoo ; it ."ceracd at le:u)t to
them to render the i.^suo problematical, and they immediately, iu a Ijoily,
toiidorod their resignations. " These resignations," ilr. Colo F.iyo, ju bin
Introduction to the Official Catalogue, "were not neccptcd, and bomic time
elapsed before the exooutive an'angcmcnts wcro conclusively mudifie<l to
meet tho altered circumstances of the case." Again, when the guarantee
fund h.ad been subscribed, and tho Crystal Palace was on tho eve of
completion, Jlr. Pnxton, doubtless with the assent of othcr.s eiignncd in the
anxious undertaking (for the step was iKjt disavowed by them), publi<lied a
letter to tlio Prinio Minister, urging him to arlopt the work on behalf of
th' public ; that is, to pay the expenses out of the Consolidated Fund, and
tlirow the doors open gratuitously, .as at tho JIuscum and other jiublic
institutions. This proposition was fortuii.itcly not acceded to ; and nearly
half a million of money iu voluntary contributions at tho doors— tho
greater part iu shillings — has justified the refusal, and given convincing
proof of tl)e abundant efficacy of "public sympathy " in a good and useful
cause.

The pxpevimont of a g,athoriug of the industiy of all nations was a
novelty, not only as regards England, but the world generally ; for.
although there lu(vo been many expositions of works and manufactures in
Franco, P.elgium, and other countries, ami also, iu particular districts of
England, they have been wholly restricted to the products of the ccur.try
iu which they were held; .and when, in 184a, the French Minister of
Cornmei'ce endeavoured to promote an exposition in France upon a wider
basis, comprehending the productions of other nations, the prejudices of
commercial bodies to whom he commumcated l.'is views dissuaded him from
carrying out the scheme.

Nor can it be denied, that when the proposal was made in England, and,
indeed, long after that proposal Wiis adopted as a fact, the manufacturing
and nionied interests of the country looked but coldly upon it, .and gtive
it for a long time an unwilling couiiteuiince. Our men of Manchester, and
Leeds, and Birmingham, may h.ave thought — and thought with some
shadow of truth ou their side — that, in an intercommunioation of industrial
experiences, and a comparison of manufacturing processes with all the
world combined, they had less to gain than to give; they may even have
feared that their best inaehiuery miglit be copied — theii- best hands
lured from them ; they may have thought, besides, that their business was
already enough to occupy all their time and attention .at home, witli'-ut
m.aking a show of it abroad ; and as men of business, and Britons to boot,
with somethiug at st.ake in the laud, they may just have shared ever so
little in the numerous predictions of trouble aud danger w-hich were
muttered forth, from time to time, as inevifcibly attending a large ineui-sion
of " disatfected foreigners " from all parts of Europe. As for the .agricul-
tural body, tliey held aloof, because of their politiral religion they have
little sympathy for the restless spirit of industry, which, in their view, has dis-
turbed the harmony and order of our domesticpolity, wliilst improved methods
of tillage, even supposing them to be possible, could oniy be luade the
pretence for reducing rents already much too low, aud throwing upon the
parish agricJiUural labourers, already much too numerous for the I'equirc-
meuts of their respective districts. So iittle faith bad the men of busine:;s
aud the men of laud, .as yet, in the realis,ation of "the unity of man-
kind," in the enlightened and genoi-ous spirit propounded by the Prince
Consort.

Ou the other hand, there were enthusiasts — travelled men, doubtless. —
who took a very different view of the question, and advocated that view
veiy authoritatively iu the columns of an iuflueuti.al d.aily print. They
disabused the artificers of England of their supposed .superiority ; they
took the .shine out of them " a few," as the Americans would say: they
told them very plainly that they had much, had everything, to le.ara from
foreign taste ; that, although they could make things veiy strong, they
could not make them neat, much less eleg:int, according to the neatness '
and elegance of the Coutineutal standard :^that their calicoes were stout,
but tawdry ; that their chairs would last for ages, but th.at they were
fashioneil upon barbarous models of ages long goue by ; th.at their dooi-s
aud locks were effectual for tho purpose of exclusion, but repulsive in
aspect ; — that, in fact, iu all that related to appearance we were ccntm-ies
behind civilised Europe.

There were those again who took leave to doubt and hesitate as to the
authenticity of these uncomfortable assertions. OUl .Tohn Bull threw
himself back in his easy chair, with his feet ou his double piled Axminster
carpet, twiddled his thumbs through his snowy-whito lawn shirt-friH, gazed
viicautly upon the comfortable crimson flock paper-haugings of his sanchiiii

THE CRYSTxV-L PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS.

sanctortmi, and wondered what
people could want more.
Young John Bull, who had
been his six weeks tour abroad,
and had travei-sed the sandy
plains of a Belgian salon; had
tried his weight upon the un-
comfortably shaped rush chair
of the French hotel ; had ad-
mired the mysteries of a Ger-
man door-handle, all primitive
iron, and constructed upon the
primitive principle of the first
lever ; — boldly denied it all and
wondered " what they should be
told next." And certainly the
result of the Great Exhibition
has been to disabuse the mind
of much of this stupid prejudice,
handed don-n from father to son,
and repeated by traveller after
traveller, of the infinite superi-
ority in point of taste of the
foreign producer. In furniture
we certainly have made a very
good stand, in respect of appear-
ance alone, to say nothing of
solidity; .and if in every point
we have not equalled the quieter
classicism of the French (the
classicism of the Louis Quatorzc
periods, we certainly have not
ijeen guilty of the excessive and
misplaced decoration of the
Austrian, nor descended to the
ci-ude conceits of the northern
German artificers. As to our
hardware and our machinerj-,
we need hardly say, that we

have shown ourselves, as we
were always esteemed to be,
without a rival. But we will
not be led into making compa-
risons on other points, as this
will be better timed when we
have to review the awards of
the juries in the several depart-
ments.

To return to the point from
which we set out. What are
the great social advantages which
we expect to result from the
Great Exhibition of 1851, and
in what manner will they con-
duce to that unity of purpose
and interests among men which
is so desirable? The advan-
tages which we anticipate are,
first, increased knowledge of our
own resources, and of the re-
sources,of our neighbours, which,
whilst it inspires a just confi-
dence in ourselves, will also
create a feeUng of respect for
othera ; secondly, recognition of
the importance of the principles
of reciprocal dealing, by which
the pecuhar advantages of one
comuiimity maybe interchanged
for those of another ; fin.ally,
an enlarged field for commerce
and the infusion of a more libe-
ral spirit into commercial trans-
a,ctions, by which commerce will
grow, and with it cirilisation
and peace be extended as the
connecting bond of the whole
human family.

ViaLF.n SL.iVF. IN Tin', ^t,\RKrT, BY r. MOXTI.

SCULPTURE.
The Austrian Sculptm-c Room contained, amongst other remarkable
productions, a marble figure of a " Veiled Vestal," and a " Slave in
the Market Place," also veiled, by RaffacUe Monti. In both of these

IN-XncnXCE PROTECTED TIT FIDKI.ITT, BY Br.V70N-T.

faces at once, one
under the other,
in a hard and im-
penetrable mate-
rial ; a trick, how-
ever, in which
Truth, as relates
to both surfaces,
had been disre-
garded. We shall
enter upon this
subject at more
length when treat-
ing of Sculpture as
a department ; in
the meantime, we
give an engraving
of the Slave in the
Market.

Beneath arc two
very pleasing spe-
cimens in the
t/cnre style, by
Benzoni, of Rome.
In the one ("Inno-
cence pi'otectcd
by Fidelity)," wo
observe a little
lass asleep, and
her canine com-
panion treading
upon the head of
a viper, which
would otherwise
have stimg her. In
the other, entitled
" Gratitude," we
find tlie girl care-
fully abstracting a
thorn from the
foot of her pi-e-
.servcr.

works the illu.sion was carried so far as to be completely deceptive
until the spectator came almost within arm's length of the statue. He
then, upon examining the marble, discovered that he had been made the
victim of a very ingenious trick, which pretended to represent two sur-

l|[j|f 1 1 .i.li \^22Aiasm!tiu»'^

nn.^TiTrDK, by be%'?oxi.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

No. 5, November 1, 1861 CARVED IVORY THRONE, &c., FROM INDIA, EXHIBITED BV HER MAJESTY.

Pr.icE OxE Pexxt.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

FOREIGN AND COLONI'AL DEPARTMENTS.

THE EAST INDIAN DEPARTMENT.
"THE contributions from the East Indies were considerable in amount and

variety, ;md occupied four or five distinct compartments in the Great
Exhibition Building. They were in great measure sent in by the East
India Corap.-my, but some were exliibited by her Majesty, and not a few
came direct from native princes and others of the East. These objects
comprisa natural products, native manufactures for domestic use, models,
and a rich display of articles of jewellery and luxury. We shall devote
Boyeral articles to the description of this collection so varied and interesting ;
restricting ourselves, on the present occasion, to some of the most splendid
objects which caught the attention of all visitors to the Crystal Palace.
1V0HY THRONE.

The Engraving on the preceding page represents the magnificent throne
of carved ivory, which was one of the chief objects of admiration and wonder
in the East India Company's room or tent. The carving, both back and
front, is most elaborate, and of exquisite fmish ; the seat and lower part of
the back being covered with rich gi-een velvet embroidered in gold. The
footstool is of like materials and workmanship. This splendid seat is
a present to her Majesty, from the Rajah of Travancore, and was
used by Prince Albert as President of the Royal Commission, at the closing
ceremony, on the 15th October. The chairs on either side of the throne are
beautifid specimens of Bombay carving, in black-wood, the boldness and
lightness of which are equally remarkable. We shall speak of this branch
of industry in a future article.

POYAL DRESS OF STATE AND JEWELS.

Our second Engraving page 68, shows that portion of the East Indian
collection which was contained in a glass case, enclosed wdthin an iron
railing, on the north side of the nave and near the transept. It at first
attracted attention by the gorgeous coat of a Sikh chief placed at the top.
This coat is of kirikkob (cloth of gold), with epaulettes in pearls, and on
each two very large valuable emerald drops, and a deep border of rich gold
embroidery, beautifully overlaid with peai-ls, rubies, and emeralds ; it was
made at Delhi. Each epaulette is valued at 5000/. In front of this dress
of state are seen the trousers, also of cloth of gold, and the cap of an Indian
chief' and on a crimson velvet saddle-cloth a board and set of chessmen
in bloodstone and cornelinn. In front of these, in embossed or lilagree
gold with a sort of fan of bird of paradise feathers, are a pair of raoorchals,
the insinnia in India of the highest offices, and which not more than half-a-
dozen persons are by native custom entitled to bear in the preseiioe of the
Govenor-General.

There is also a princely girdle of gold, studded with not less thflfl nineteen
emeralds, each about an inch and a half square. They are all cut thin and
flat, and .some of them have inscriptions from the Koran engraved on them^
which, though it depreciates their value in this coimtry, renders them almost
inestimable in the eyes of the Mohammedan chiefs. The girdle has, besides,
a row of diamonds at the top and bottom, and the value of the whole must
be enoiTOOus.

Whatever the worth of the foregoing may be, they are altogether sur-
passed by a pair of armlets with three large rubies uncut, but sufficiently
polished to show their extreme brilliancy and depth of colour. Tliesc rubies
were formerly the property of the Emperors of Delhi, and. independently
of their enormous value, have a traditional importance attached to their
possession. The largest rubies in the collection of Hunt and Roskell, or of
the Russian jeweller, are pigmies compared with the.se unique gems.

In the centre front of the case lie.s, set round with ten largo diamonds,
the famous Lahore Diamond, known as the " Dmria-i-NodT," or sea of light
— ill cut, ill get, but of great size, purity, and value. Near it is a necklace,
containing 240 very large and fine Oriental pearls, and which, with a similar
string on the right hand side of the case, are valued at not less tlian 7000/.
One of the curiosities of Indian mamifacturo here displayed is a cannon
of white coi-nclian; the giui-wheels, carriage, and mounting.*, lieaHtifutly
worked and put together. The barrel is of a solid piecs, boted, and tbe
limberer of blood stone.

More beautiful and elaborate still are some vases, cups, and bowls of^
rock-crystal, bcautifidly transparent, and mounted iu gold ; they might be
taken by many for mere glass vessels of indifferent (juality, and yet their
value is from lou/. to 200/. each ; there is ono little jewel box in shape of a
swan, cut in this crystal, which is as brilliant as a diamond; and there are
caskets in a vai-iety of shapes in jade stone, a semi-opaque milfcy crystal,
something resembling opal. The forms of these are very elegant, the
aiTangement of colour is beautiful, and they are set and inlaid with flowers,

HEART-SHAPED DISH OF .7ASPEE, .TEWELLED. — EAST INDIA
COMPAKY.

emeralds, rabies, topazes, and other precious stones. One of these little
boxes, heart shaped, might well serve our jewellers and workers in enamel,

and tho newly
discovered glass
mosaic, for a study,
so beautifully are
the colours and tho
setting contrasted
and harmonised.

Close to it lies
another lesson for
jewellers, in a neck-
lace of exquisitely
wrought gold, set
with several rows
of rubies, and iu
which the very pat-
tern of tho gold,
somewhat like the
edges of point lace,
seems to harmonise
with the stones.

The gold and sil-
ver filagree chains
in this compart-
ment are also won-
derful specimens as
to minute and deli-
cate workmanship.
Among them are
two massive neck-
laces, which might
be termed lacework
of solid gold, and although these are made of gold wire, they have all the
appearance of being chased or chiselled from the solid mass. Some of
these specimens are from Agra, Delhi, and Trichinopoly, the latter of
which places sends ono of its peculiar manufactures, a silver chain, so
' closely knit and wrought together, that it resembles a solid rod of silver,
and yet the joints are so minute and perfect that it bends with all the flexi-
1 bility of the softest cord (if silk.

INDIAN PRESENTS TO HER MAJESTY.

In a compartment on the south side of the nave were arranged a gorgeous
and varied collection of articles of Oriental luxury, which were sent as a
present to hor Majesty by the Nawab Nizam of Bengal, with a view of
their being displayed at the Exhibition, should such be her Majesty's
pleasure. The various commodities, which were his own property, were
forwarded entirely at the suggestion of his Highnes.s — made only some ten
or twelve days before they actually left India — with tho concurrence of
the Oovernor-General.

The principal article is a splendid reception seat, a kind of throne ; the
" shamiana," or canopy, is supported by four silver poles, resting upon a
1 platform raised one foot from the ground, and aboiit twelve feet square.
! Th© body, or groundwork of the canopy, c(msists of purjile velvet, with a
deep border upon each of its four sides. The corners, as well as the centre
piece, are formed of the most exquisite gold and siver embroidery. Tho
ceiitre of the seat eonsists of rich scarlet velvet, of about eight feet square,
surrounded by a splendid border of embroidered gold and silver, of about
18 or 20 inches in width. At the head of the seat is a large scarlet velvet
pillow, for the body chiefly to rest upon, with a pair of small pillows,
reqviired for the support of other portions of the body, when reclining in
the eastern fashion. Behind the larger pillow is a massive frame-work of
silver, to prevent its slipping away, and which also serves to support a pair
of the most elegant and costly " looorchals," or emblems of diguity, used
only by a few of the Indian potentates when in the presence of the
Oovernor-General. The princes of India privileged to use them are the
Emperor of Delhi, the King of Luckilow. the Nabob of the Carnatic,
Scindia, and ono or two others. These emblems consist of hollow cases,
of about ii feet in length, and abotit six inches in diameter at the upper
end, tapering down to a handle of two inches in diameter. The whole is
formed of pieces of piire gold most curiously fitrtened together by gold
thread, and are intended for the reception of the feathers of the beautiful
birds of paradise. Of the beauty of the i'lut ensemble which this specimen
of Eastern magnificence presents, it would be difficult to eotivey any
adequate idea.

The second article consists of a state palanquin, the body of which is
formed of ivcrry ;• the canopy, of rich gold embroidery and cjeep fringe,
being supported tipon four ivory poles. This jralanquin was exclusively
employed for tho purpose of conveying his Highness the Nawab to the
houses of his particular and most intimate relations upon grand levee days.
It is provided with poles, covered with crimson velvet, for tlie benrcrs to
convey it. In tho front of the palanciuin is a " purdah," a kind of canopy,
supported by two projecting and .sloping ivory pillars, and which is only
allowed to be asod by persoas of the rank of his Highness. Tliis dcscrijition
of projecting canopy applies not merely to state purposes, but extends to
every inferior conveyance the property of hia Highness, even down to the
smallest cart or vehicle belonging to him.

AN ILLT'STIIATED CVCL01M:rMA OF T!FE CHKAT EXIIIBITIOX 01' |^.-,|

Tlio tliinl articlo consi.stH of a " iiiilki'o," or ]>aliiiiijiiin, uhccI only wljim
tho suii in below tlio liorizoii. It in f'c)nMC(J of ivory, niicl ruHcinblea tlio
dtato imlim<[Miii in every respect, witli tho oxe«|itioii of tlio cjuiopy. Tliii
" nalkee " was first used by tlio aiioostor of hi» Higlmos-t on tlio occiwiion of
ft visit of Loril C'livo.

Tlio " liowilah " resembles to a great extent the slate palanquin ; it hna
a Kort of (loubU) ilomo canopy, wliieli, like the others, i-; formed of rieh
Rolil anil silver embroidery, and, instead of being carried by beiirerx, it i-i
intontled to bo borne by .an elephant. Tho "jhool" is a nia^ificent
covorinj; of scarlet velvet richly embroidered, intended to bo pla<vd on llie
back of the elejihant, and n[>on which the " howdah " rests. The other
trappings of the elephant consist of n gorijeous bead piece and two oide-
pieuos. 'I'lierc are also a variety of horse aod camel «tnte tiajipings, which
wo need not particulnri.se in dotnil.

It is not PMy to form anythin>c lilio an estimate of tho value of thene
presents. We believe that the amount of duty paid in re-;pect of tlietu in
tlicii' transit throngli tho Deseit was loviod upon tlieni as of the valuo of
10,000/. -but thi-s sum ii aaij to bo eon.siderably under their value. Too
much jiraiso cannot bo aecorded to Dr. Vonn?, for the energy and care
which ho liiva displayed in the perl'onnanee of tlio critical duty Kith which
he was ontrnstcd by hi.5 Highness tho Nawab, (to whom lio is phvsician) of
superintendinc their conreyance, and for tho activity which he must have
shown in makliiK all tho noccssai'y arranKoinents for leaving India with
bis v.iluablo consignment at so short psriotl m ten days' ncrtice.

SOME ACCOUNT OP THE NiWAB KIZAM Of BKtOAU
In connexion with these m.agni "icent preseuta, wo giro .s.>me account of the
Xawab Nizam of Bengal, and his ancestors, and tho territory from which
they derive their i-oyal title, and over whicll they ruled uutil tho establish-
ment of tho British authority in India.

The present Nawab's ancestors ruled for .several ccuturies as iudepcudi nt
"vcrcigns over the districts of Bengal, Eehar, and Oris.sn, and thtir resi"
.Icuce— at least for a cousidei-able time previous to the British oouque.st of
liidia— was the city of Moorsheilabad, which is situated on the banks of the
Uoeglily, about 150 miles north of Calcutta. It occupies a perfectly level
site, and is destitute of fortifications, its streets ai-e narrow, irregular, and
dirty, and the houses, for the most part, are only one st'jry high, and of
mean appearance. Of these the nmjority are built of earth mixed with
chopped straw, and thatched with dried grass, and are called iurcha ; others
are constructed of mud and bricks— a kind of masonry which is styled
piiH-a J-H/r/w— while some, called puhia, are built entirely of brick. The
dty contains many curious old mosques, but the only public edifices of any
magnitude and architectural bcanty, arc the Emaumhara, or House of God
—to the construction of which the British Government contributed
15,000/.,— and tho new jial.aco built for the late Nawab. The latter is a
spacious edifice in the Doric style, and was erected from the plans and
under the superintendence of General Duncan Macleod, at the cost of
66,000/. There is a large model of it in Hampton Court Palace, which
occupies a pretty large room. The population may be estimated at about
150.000, tho bulk of whom are employed in the cultivation of rico and
indigo, and the various processes of silk manufacture. Of the numerous
factorie.^ and filatures, those of Messrs. Lyall and Messrs. Watson are the
most extensive, mauy thousands being daily employed by those houses in
spinning and hand loom weaving. Moorshedabad is also .an important
mart for cotton, an.l mauy of its native merchants have acquired great wealth.
The late Nawab, who died in 1837 or 1833, was the last person
on whom the Guelphio order of knighthoo<l was conferred. His
successor, the present Nawab, attained his majority four or five years
ago, and is now about twenty-three. He has a son by each of his three
■wives, with whom he lives in his harem, about a quarter of a mile from tho
new palace, which is only used on durbar, or levee days. Of these there
aro six or eight yearly. On such occasions he ia generally borne by
eight men in a palkee, or howdah, with poles, like that presented to hei'
Ma.)esty, and is escorted by the principal officers of his hou-ehold on foot
while ho IS followed by a numerous train, mounted on elephants, camels'
and horses, all gorgeously c.apai-isoned. Those who have seen the rich
elephant-trappings at the Exhibition, will be enabled to form some idea of
the miignificent spectacle presented by fifty elephants in full .state equip-
ment, followed by about a score of camels, and a similar number of horses
with housmg? of correspondmg splendour. The sumptuous canopied coueii
m whach his Highness reclines on reception davs, was accurate^ represented
by tliat at the Exhibition, of which we have already given a detailed
descrq.tion. The natives who attend the durbar leave their shoes at the
raitrance of the reception-hall, and, with head covered, according to the
Eastern custom, advance with a series of salaams to his Highness" who is
surrounded by his attendants and guai-ds, and on whose left, the place of
honour m the East, sits the agent for tho Governor-General. They then
present him with a mohur-a gold coin 1/. 12s. in valuo— and if the person
OBenng it enjoys his favom-, he accepts the coin, and pours a few drops of
attar of roses on his handkerchief. After-this ceremony it is the custom
to retire backwards with a repetition of the salaams. Besides the respect
and affection with which tho present Nizam is regarded on account of his
personal qualities, he is also held in great consideration as the head of the
sect 01 bheahs, who are much looked up to in Lower Bengal

TUE CUYSTAL PALACE BY MOONLIGHT.
(rnoM TnK tiues.)
I'O thoM who have scon the interior during tho daytime, 61]ed with
thou'ands of spectators, and agitatol by all tho bustle of sight-seeing, it
is dilBouIt to realise the a.<iiect which th" mime scene presents when tho
crowds liavo doparte<l, when tho gates arc closed, and the police liavc taken
nn kr their entire control that Tast collection of tbo trophies of liuuau
iiiiliistiy. One can scarcely comprehend the strength of tliat confidence
ill the law and in the security of property which reconciles 1 5,000 cxhibitorp,
gathered from every civili.scd country in the world, speaking different
languages, and brought up under different forin.s of government, to trust
tho uiu t valued evidences of tlieir skill, their wealth, their enterprise,
night after niglit, to a body of about fifty policemen, paid little above tiio
ordinary wages of labour, and armed against dangers from without with no
weapon more formidable than a baton. A liusJian jeweller is the only
person Wo have heard of as showing any uiie.xsinesa in Die exorci-so of this
confidcuco. Ho wanted to be convinced that his diamonds were cafe, and
atcordingly ho applio<l for an order to visit them liy niglit His request
was giaiitod, and ho soon h.-vl a practical test of the watchful care t.aken of
his property. Standing in front of his gla.s3 case and satisfying himself that
all was safe, lio happened to turn round, and there to his a-stonishment he
found that ho had a const.ablo at either elbow aup<-rintending his move-
ments, and tiy no raeiins disposed from their looks to take his honesty for
granted. Wo visited the Crystal Palace two nig.'ts ago, but in a less scep-
tical sfiirit than the Russian jew-llcr, and for a different purpose. We
wished to sec tho aspect of the interior under the influence of a fine clear
moonlight, to observe how each object of interest varied in expression
when looked at through a new medium, to contrast witii the bustle and
thronging excitement of the day the effects of silence, solitude and darkness.
Let the reader accompany us in our survey and share in the impressions
which it produced. In the centre everything was plainly revealed ;
the pinnacles of the crystal fountain appeared tipped with silver, and in
the basin below the ribs and sash-bars overhead and the sky beyond them,
and portions of the adjacent galleries, and the occa.sioiial glimmer of gas-
lights, were all reflected with marvellous distinctness. An air of solemn
repiise pervaded the vast area; the very statues seemed to re.-t from the
excitement of tho day, and to slumber peaceably on their pedestals. Some
were enveloped in white coverings, which in the doubtful light gave them
a ghostly appearance; others remained unprotected from the night air,
and brnvcd exposure to cold as they have already done to criticism.

At one point of intersection between the nave and transept Virginins,
under the fliu-e of a ga-s-lamp from the China compartment, brandished the
knife with which he had sacrificed iiis daughter. At another corner, and
under a similar dispensation of light from Persia, a cavalier leaned upon
his s.Toid, and appeared to be calculating the number of people that had
passed him during the day. Of Turkey and Egypt we could see f^nly at
the entrance the faint glitter of Daina.seus blades and of brocaded mu'Iins
and trappings. All beyond was buried in darkness and mystery. The
shades of night, too, fell heavily upon Greece. Spain, aud Italy, though
behind them, through the open gdrders, gleams of unexplained light- were
seen rising. The zinc statue of the Quem rested in grateful obscurity,
and Lemonniere's jewel-ca.se had cautiously been stripped of its attractions.
On the metal pipes of Ducroquet's organ some stniggling moonbeams
played, though without evoking any sound. The colos.sal gi-oup of Cain
and his Family looked well in a gloom which seemed suited to his expres-
sion of guilt qualified by the traces of human affection. So it was all down
the eastern nave. The shadows of night, which fell heavily on some points,
were strangely relieved at intervals by gas. which carried the eve forward
over intervening objects to those immediately around it. Instead of looking
at those things whicli lay nearest, attention was directed to distant and out
of the way spots, brought into prominence by the light streaming upon
them. Policemen in list slippers might occasionally be seen flitting
noiselessly to a point whence the strangers might be reconnoitred, or
suddenly emerging from behind some d.ark object where they had remained
for a time cautiously stowed away. If a court was entered, or a divergence
made to the right or to the left, the quick eye.s and the scarcely di-scem-
ible footfall of some member of " the force' followed. Over the

whole

interior a profound silence reigned, broken only at intervals as the clocks
of the building nxug out slowly the advancing hour. Turning towards the
western half of the interior, huge envelopes of calico concealed most of the
objects facing the navo. hut the large trophies in the centre remained un-
covered, and looked solemn and grand in the dim neutral light which
prevailed. The Indian shirta of mail and the model pralius of the East
were favoured bj' the beams of the moon. The chandeliers of Apslcy
Pellat and Co. caught the eye in passing, and glistened .as if anxious to have
their illuminating properties tested. Glimpses were again caught of remote
galleries brougiit into prominence by gas-lamps. In some places light shone,
though whence it came appeared a mystery. In others there was almost
a Cimmerian darkness. The contributions to the carnage department were
swathed in calico, while the gigantic locomotives disdained any covering,
and reste<l in grim repose. The activity of mules, spinning-frames, and
looms was hushed, the whirl of driving-wheels was silent, and .amidst the
whole of that usually noisy department dedicated to machineiy in motion
the only sound we heard was that of a cricket chirruping away merrily
amiilst Whitworth's tool?.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

rOLLF.CTION OF,;iNDIAN JEWELS, &c. EXHIBITED BY Till: ZX^l INDIA LUMI'ANY.

AN ILLUSTllATKD CYCL01M;DIA OP THE OUKAT EXHIBITION OF 18.-.1.

THE KOII-l-;,-OOB, Ol! MOUXTAIX OF LIGHT, IN" ITS ORIGINAL SETTING. (For History, s« No. I. pajo 8.

STATE IIOWDAH, &c. FKOM INDIA, LXmBITi:D CY IILK MAJEoTY.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS:

TEXTILE MANUFACTURES.

COTTON.

'THE manufacture of cottou, now the most important of all our Ijranclies
of industry, is of comparatively recent growth in thia country ; not
dating earlier than the 17th century. For a long period after its fir.st
introduction, it was carried on upon a very limited .scale ; the weaver.?, for
the most part, working at their own homes, purchasing from time to time
the materials upon wiiich they worked, and then selling the produce to the
dealers in the newest market. The material employed, also, at this time
was only one-half cotton, the warp being of linen. About the middle of
the ISth century — scarcely one Inmdred years ago — the merchants of
Manchester began to employ the weavers, furnishing them with the materials,
and paying a fixed price for their work.

This movement, which laid the foundation of the "Factory System," was
greatly favoured, indeed made inevitable, by the iaveution of complicated
machinery for aocomplishing various processes of the manufacture, which
could not be used in the email dwellings of the weavers, and reijuired the
co-operation of many hands. First in order of these were the carding-
maohine, for straightening the fibres of the raw cotton, and the spinning-
jenay for spinning a number of threads at once, and after some little
jealousy and opposition, displacing the old spinning-wheel. These were
both the invention of James Hargreaves, a common weaver. Then followed,
in 17d9, the spinning-frame of Arkwright, by which cotton-yai'u could be
woven strong enough for warp threads, thus displacing the linen-yarn; and
from this time our manufacture of calicoes and twills went ou daily thriving.
Still, however, there was something wanting to enable our machinery to
compete with the foreign hand-producer in the finer muslins ; until, in
178tj, Samuel Crooipton brought oat his mule-jenny, by whose delicate and
ingenious mechanism yarn was produced of a fineness and softness never
before attained in this country.

This invention Arkwright followed up by many others, either of new or
improved processes ; whilst others, stimulated by his example and his
splendid success, added their quota to the general stock of practical
achievement. In 1785, Dr. Cartwright made the first successful attempt to
weave by machinery ; which was subsequently improved, upon a lai'ger
scale, by Monteith of Glasgow.

These brief statements comprise the bare facts of the first stage in the
great industrial movement which has since brought about such mighty
changes, not only in our social and commercial relations, but in our inter-
national policy.

Some reminiscences of the individuals connected with this moTement are
given by a writer in the Illustrated L'mdon News, Oct. 18, ou the occasion of
her Majesty's Progress in the manufacturing districts of Manchester. These
reminiscences, though they introduce other names and other branches of
the subject than those intended to be comprehended within our first article
upon "Cotton Manufactiu-es," are so graphically illustrative of the whole
subject, that we cannot do better than insert them here.

LOCAL REMINISCENCES OF THE COTTON HANnPACTPEES.

Lancashire is less famous for its fields of cliivalry than some other
counties. When war came in the way of its people they fought, but,
except to keep the Scotcli at a distance — ^judging it was better to meet them
in Cumberland or Northumberland than in Lancashire — they were not
accustomed to go in search of strife by free consent. The infertility,
coldness, and excessive moisture of their soil and climate, were not favour-
able to then- country being selected as the camp-ground of contending armies.
But its excessive moisture gave birth to streams, which, running from the
hills, offered water-ix»wer in great abundance ; while its treasures of coal,
and proximity to the sea, with the habits of fi-ugality and energy which
came by nature to a people inhabiting an infertile soil, led to results,
on both the Lancashire and Yrjrkshiro side of the hills, which no other
space of ground of equal extent has yet been marked with — the triumphs
of industry ! — is not Lancashire covered with their fame!

To the left of the railway, coming out of Preston, there is a place called
Bamber-bridge. There, about 1763, some perisons named Clayton first
attempted calico printing in Lancashu-e. Near a place called Knuydon-
brook. about two miles east of Blackburn, a tall, robust man, wearing a
woollen cloth apron, a calf-skin waistcoat, wooden-soLed clogs, whose hair
was a grizzly reddish colour, who owned forty acres of poor grass land, bearing
eight or ten head of stock, and whose three eldest sons worked eacli at a
loom in the dwelling-house, was seen by the father of a person still living
(the informant of the present writer), standing hehind a stone wall, watching
the country weavers' return from Blackburn market, to ask them the news
on market days, when he had not been there himself. That man, about
1765, went to Bamber-bridge to the Claytons, with a piece of cloth made
of cotton and linen thread, by one of his sons, which w;is spoiled in the
weaving, aud, therefore, unsaleable. He asked to have it printed in apatltrn,
for kerch'wfs, which was doTK, and the articlet worn by the family. The high
price charged for the printing of that piece caused him tu attempt the art

himself, which lie did in a concealed apartment of his house, now used as
a daily room, at Peel Fold, by the present tenant of those forty acres of
laud. TJiat man was Robert Peel, father of the fii-st Sir Robert Peel, the
great-calico printer of Bury, in Lancashire, and of Fazely, in Staffordshire.
Such was the beginning of calico-printing and the fortunes of the Peels.
The females of the family ironed the pieces of cloth in the same secret
room, to prevent any prymg person— like James Hargreaves, of Stanhill-
moor (their nearest neighbour) — from seeing what they did. But that
Robert Peel did more. He was the first to supersede the hand-carding of
cotton wool, by using cards, one fixed in a block of wood, the other slung
from hooks fixed in a beam. These remained in the beams over the kitchen
at Peel Fold in 1850, as the present writer witues.sed. His carding-machines
were broken by a mob of persons from Blackburn, at Peel Fold, aud after-
wards at Altham. He was at last driven out of the county by the violence
of his neighbours, aud took refuge at Burton-on-Trent, iu Staffordshire.

James Hai-greavos, of Stanhill-moor, just named, was a weaver. He
saw a hand-wheel -n-ith a single spmdle, then used for spinning cotton wool,
overturned. Wlien it fell ou its side, the spindle, which was before hori-
zontal, was vertical : and, coutinuing to revolve, he drew the roving of
wool towards him into a thread. The thought seemed at once plausible,
that, if something could be applied to hold the rovings as the finger and
thumb did, and that something to travel backwards on wheels, six or eight,
or even twelve threads, from as many spindles, might be spun at once.
This was done. The machine was called the spinningjenny, and, combined
with the roller spinning machine claimed by Arkwright as his invention, has
been brought to that perfection seen at the Exhibition in Hyde-Park.
Hargreaves, like the first Robert Peel, was expelled from Lancashire partly
by the mobs, but also by the magistrates and local gentry, who, fearing
that the machines would throw the workpeople ou the poor-rates, en-
couraged the mobs to violence. He went to Nottingham, and, giving the
Strutts a property in his jenny, laid the foundation of the opulence of that
eminent family of manufacturers.

At Leigh, about half way between Manchester and Liverpool, north of
the railway a few miles, lived a mau named Thomas Highs. He claimed to
be the inventor of spinning by a pair of rollers revolving fast, drawing the
rovings through a pair which revolved slowly. Preston was the birthplace
of Richar<l Arkwright : and Bolton (in a house still standing) the place where
he carried on the business of hair-dyer and peruke-maker. In travelling
the country to collect hair, he found a wife at Leigh, aud, visiting
•tliat place frequently, he, it has been alleged, wormed the secret of the
roller spinning out of Thomas Highs. This might be so ; but, if not, the
inventor, Arkwright, was still the practical improver of those machines;
aud the places w-liere he contended with poverty, difficulty, and the com-
bined opposition of every class of men in Lancashire, even of those who
used his machines, cannot be looked upon without present interest.
Coming by the railway from Preston, a branch is seen leading to Chorley
and Bolton. Chorley was the scene of Arkwright's contention with Ids
unkind neighbours, and Birkacre the name of the place where his first mill
was attacked, sacked, and burned to the gi'ound. A tall, thin building, too
narrow for the machinery now in use, and now used as a store for cotton
waste, is seen on the left hand, passing over the inky river Irk, at Manchester,
by Ducie Bridge : this was Arkwright's next mill. But his fortune was
chiefly made in Derbyshire, about twenty miles from Manchester, wdiere the
workpeople hailed him as a benefactor, not as an enemy, and where water-
power without limit was found to drive his wheels.

At Bury, where the first Sir Robert Peel established his print-works, and
where the late statesman, his son, was born, the fly -shuttle was invented
by two brothers named Kay, At Stockport the power-loom was first used.
Between Bury and Bolton, a farmer named Samuel Crompton, resident at
Hall-i'-tlie-\Vood, was mowing hay with others one day, and suddenly
throwing down his scythe, went home aud left them. He shut himself in
an upper aiiartmeut, and was not seen out of the house for some days.
The neishbours took a ladder, and ascending to the window, .saw him making
a machine for spinning. This, when completed, was the "mule," which
combined the roller principle of Arkwrigl it and the "jenny" of Hai-greave.s.

At a place called Mosney. near Preston, one Alexander Bell, employed
by the firm of Liyesy, Hargreaves. Hall, and Co., was the first, about 1783,
to introduce calico-printing by rollers. The effect of this invention and its
improvements has been incalculable.

Coming through Kendal from the north, the Royal visitors to Lanca.shiro
passed the place where a humble schoolmaster, named John Dalton, lived
about the year 1780. In the grand procession through Manchester, they
passed the end of a new street cut through a thicket of old lanes, which
has been named "John Daltou-street," in honour of that man, and it is but
a small homage paid to his memory in comijarison with the commercial
benefits derived from his scientific researches. He discovered and taught
the theory, now amply verified, that all matter exists in atoms, which in
weight bear an exact mathematical proportion to each other ; that in
chemical combinations these proportions are absolutely obsei-ved ; and that,
consequently, the dyer and calico-printer can only make "fast colours" by
using the mathematical proportions ruled by tliis law of atoms. This much
in brief; but it is an imperfect outline of that discovery of Dalton, so
momentous to all chemists, and pai'ticularly to the bleachers, dyers, and
pi'inters. The economy iu labour, material, and time, the extension of
their trade, and the liigher excellence in their productions, are such, that
the v,alue of this truth in chemistry, expressed in millions sterling, if known,
would startle us alike iu ^^•riting and reading its sum.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS; AN ILLUSTRATED, CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION 01? 1851.

COTTON MACHINEKY OF MESSES. HIBBETT, TLATT, AND £03(S..'

7-i

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

LITERATURE OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

THE EXHIBITION AND ITS MANAGEMENT.

(I-ROK TOK ILLUSTRATED LONDON KEWS, OCT. 18.)
IF the novelty of the undertaking occasioned tho promoters of it to be
altogether impreparod for the vaat success, iu a pecuniary point of view,
which has attended it, so It m:iy excuse them for many erroi-a of omission
and commission, by which the opportunitioa which euch an undertaking
might have afforded, have not been turned to the very best account ; and
if we now pi-ODced to review the monageoicnt of the Executive of the Great
Exhibition, it is simply bj way of providing a lesson of experience for the
regulation of future undertakings of the kind which may occur in this
country or elsewhere. JMiuiy of the sins of the Executive may be trap:ed to
the simple fact of then' want of means iu the outset, and their doubt as to
amount of means which the sympathy of tho public might place at their
disposal. The project had to work its way into the favour aud into the
pockets of the public, and that against a strong tide of prejudice aud oppo-
sition. And in this they had still a double task : they had to promise an
allai'ing Exhibition to the sight-seeing public, and they had, at the same
time, to canvass the mauufacturerB and producere for contributions in aid
of the geiieral display ; and we know that in very many instances it was not
till the very laat moment that the local committees succeeded io inducing
proprietors of goods to send them in, and then it was very often done as a
pereonal favour to the energetic agent. In the mid=t of all this doubt and
struggle it was that Mr. Paxtons letter cauie out, which to all the world
ooemed very Idie a tender of resiguation of busines.*} on behalf of the whole
body; and by many of the Mrs. Caudour aud Backbiter families was ex-
aggerated into an actual declai-ation of bankruptcy. Added to this was the
rumour that the Building itself was not water-tight, and could not possibly
outlive the heavy rains at that time prevailing.

In this critical position of atfiirs, the Pi-esa, whose agents had been
admitted to the inside of the Building, and who reported its actual con-
dition, aud its gradual furuiahing forth with goods of all sorts, from all
parts of the world— the Press, we say, came to the rescue of the apparently
devoted enterprise ; and many British producers, who had hitherto held
aloof, found themselves forced or shamed into sending in contributions to
compete with those so abundantly transmitted by foreign rivals. One little
mouth of tolerably fine weather, oua little month of newspaper bi)(jon-
feedmg, changed the whole aspect of affau's. Season tickets were eagerly
bought ; aud when it was announced that her Majesty would give her
solemn sanction to the great prmciple iuvolvoJ at bottom m the project,
and honour tbe World's Industrial Congress by inaugurating its proceed-
mgs m person, the public, as publics will, became worked up to the wildest
pitch or excitcment^and filled with anxiety to obtain iiigces* within the
walls uf the Crystal Palace, which now prbmiBed to bo fashionable. And
here the Commissioners committed, or meditated the commisHJon of, two
grave en-ors. oue upon the other; though tiicy were fortunately prevented
tirom cai-ryiug either into execution by tho iuud and uuammous voioe of
public opmion, and the good sense and good feelmg of the Queen and the
Prince Consort. Tho one wa* the proposal tUat her Majesty should
inaugurate the greatest public institution of modern history in private
attended only by the Commisaiouers and a retinue of beef eatur.^ and police-
men in pnvate ! Let those who reeoUect the va.t and animated usaembln^e
which cheered and roared with ecetacy when the Queen of " Merry Euglaud '
walked along the main aveuues of the Cry«tal Palace on that glorious 1st of
May. and then the shout of exultation when she deulared the Exiiibiti.»n
open contemplate the amount of leae majaU and tho depth of ignonunv
wluch would have been involved m denying her Majesty and her luyal
subjects and foreign guests the heartfelt pndo «ud satislaction of that UaVs
ceremomal ! ih« otucr error of the E^ocutive at this tunc, when it was
deternunedt^at the public should be admitt^-d. was the attempt to make
a show ot Koyalty, by raising the pnce of aeasun tickeU-au attempt which
a« .oon as xt came to the knowledge of the Prioc* Piwident of the Com-
mi^ion, he very promptly reprobated and prohibited.
The exclusiou of exiubitor* was an error-

.„„^„.^.^^ „»^^.„^,^,, ^ae an error— a serious error, as regarded
the enjoyment of the public, the result, of the Exhibition, aud the iu tercets
of the exhibitors. And this injustice, this stupid blu.ide;, was peipetTate^
and pei;s.sted m, m the same p.^ltry spirit which devised the id^ ofsett m-

a premium upon the gracious .luiles of our Queen ; which fanned out the
responsihdity audpriydegesconneeted with the publication of the CataWe
as a property, m.tead of working upon it as a labour of love tendh^^to fhe
whXf Tr'iTfh^^' °' '\' ''}''''' undertaking ; the same spirit^penury
which farmed the monopoly of retailing tea, coflee, ices, and " other lilt

Tt^ST^^ 'f ^"^1 '^^' "' ^V--^^' ^"^^ '^ eaterei. who insisted S
fi^fe f^". ^ ®'^ °^ "'^ ^^■^^^'- " ^^ ^-^^ down a thimblefutl of

rous industrious classes, aa policemen, omntbxis drirers, public schools, Ac,
who had but few opportunities of participating in the intellectual enjoy-
ments of their fellow-citizens ; the same spirit of penury and peuce gathering
which originated many a little job, to the dispai-agemcut of the pubUc
interests, the lessening of then* enjoyment of theirown Exhibition — for waa
not the Exhibition tho public's outi. when it was made up of voluntary
contributions from the manufacturing comuiunity, stored in a house built
upon public property, and rescued from all risk of failure by the shillings
of tho multitude? All that the Commissionei-s can lay claim to is tho
glass-houae. and that they only had through a happy accidf-ut: aud that
they wanted to got oft' their hands before the tiino arrived for openiug its
doors. The bare walls were thrown open to the pubUc, and the public
provided the eutertainmcut, and found the company and the moupy. How
little the Comminsiouer.-* have done to reciprooata the liberal spirit of the
public— to promote the uiterests of exhibitoi-s, which was a secondary
inducement — aud the interests of scienoe aud knowledge, which was tho
par.imount uiducement to the undertaking — arc quostions which are'vcry
fairly debatable by public journalists.

In aaseinbluig together the richest a«fiortmout of natural products and
manufactured wares, of machine^ and philosophical instruments, from all
quarters of the globe, which the world ever saw collected together, tho
first step was taken to the acquirement of a full knowledge of the state of
human science and industry over the whole face of the globe ; and tho
materials so obtained, if properly made use of, would have formed a com-
plete store of practical knowledge, a perfect encylopa;dia of human intelli-
gence, which would have been invaluable as au authority — a starting-point
for the future. But how if half these productions wore promiscuously
thrown together, badly classified, and therefore unattainable without guides
or direction-posts ' how if many of them were bo inclosed under glass casea
that it became impossible to oxamtuo their properties! and how if the
peculiarities of nine-tenths of them were uu intelligible tn the general
observer, Mithout explauation from tho owuer or producer 1 aud how if
the owner or producer was exclutled from the privilege of presiding over
the portion of the intellectual banquet which he h,id provided ! Why, in
all suoh cases, the Exhibition became on unprofitiJjle and jirovokmg blank
and a delusion— unless, indeed the Executive, who had driven away the
legitimate aud natural guardians of tho various objects had takon the tudk
of expounding their properties upon themselves. But they did no such
thing. They sold their birthright in the Catalogu* for a mess of pottage
(3200/., and "a Royalty" of twopence upon every copy sold in the Building),
as a Commercial speculation. And when, in the oicitement of catering for
ftdvortisements, the coutiuctors forgot to take the necessary steps aud
engage tho necessary assistance to collect and ari-ange the contents of the
Catalogue ; when the Catalogue was discovered to bo a heavy humbug,
from which no information could be obtained; aud when the "second
edition," and the "eecoud corrected cditioo," and each succeeding "cor-
rected edition," was found to be as uuiutelligibU as the original Simon
Pure; when, in despair, the public — having speut successive shillings in
successive visits and successive purchases of catalogues aud guides and
hand-books — still rushed wildly and hopelessly about, inquiring for
Class A 096. or the Naval Architecture depaitmeut, or the Haw Produce
departmont, what did the Cominissioners do ( They issued a hand-bill, ia
which the^ announced that they had found out another job, involving
another ahilling's worth at their disposal, and had idready farmed it to an
enterprising commercial company. This document, which deserves to be
kept as u matter of history, ran as follows :—

' Cbvbtal r a i,acb.— Approved and qualified pereoiis to act as giiidei), sliovrlng visitors
Ihrough the Uiiilding by the hour. Particulara :— Parties aot exceedins three— Firat
hour, 2s.; every other hour, 1».; Purticii not exceeding aix— first liour, (U.facli person;
every other liuiir, id. each peraon. N.B.— The jieraoii acting as guide will show all the
principal ohjucts in the Building. Apply (o the Suiiedntendent at thu south entrance.
Otfice, Btreel, Cily."

After this, to ask your way, to ask tho simplest question of a policeman
or any functionary in the Building, was constructively an infringement of
the rights and privileges of the Guide Compaiiy, and such application.^ wero
very properly met with the reply—" There aie guides appoiuted, and if you
want information you must pay for it."

The foreign exhibitors, particularly the French, with their older experi-
ence m expositions and bazaars, perceived the importance of having some
one on the spot to disjilay and explain the merits of their wares, and have
generally done so at the cost of a season ticket; and, as a consequence, a
very stnkmg contract has been presented between tho aspect and atmoBphero
of the loreign and the British departments. In the former you were greeted
with the bhindest of -■smiles, welcome to examine, invited to touch— we will
not say urged to purchase, the varioa* beautiful sbjects, which, without
such means of scrutinising, might have lain as dead lumber in an outhouse,
tor all the spectator care I : iu the latter, with few exceptions, all lias been
still life— a huge toHn of shops without a shopman amongst them ; and if
you did but look a little closely, and pull uu'. your pocket-book to
make a note, one of the thousand extra policemen anpointed for Jixhibition
purposes interrupted you with an auth.jritative " Vou must not copy any-
thmg;" and if you did but lay a finger upon pot cr plough-handle— good
gracious ! Scotland-yard forbid ! We do not exaggerate one iota in tliw
statement, for annoying incidents of this kind have occurred frequently to
us in the course of our critical vocations. And witi respect to the locking
up of goods , we will only instance one branch of mattufacturcj that of Locks

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

Though these be some of the more prominent incidents which mark the
memorable spots in Lancashire, they are but few, a verj' few of the whole,
which have reared up that matchless prnductive power of machinery, which,
ftt the date of aix centuries after the Norman Conquest, found Lancashire,
though not A wildernesB, still a comparative waste, thinly peopled, which
has since covered the surface with humiui life and wealth ; which, gathering
together the rude products of that olime, diffuses them as comforts and
elegancies to every race— the material for a printed calico worn by the
ploughmnn'a wife at 4d. a yard being cotton from America, iudigo from
Asia, madder from Europe, and gum from Africa ; a power of production
which attracts, by the abundance of the merchandise it creates, the luxuries
of all tho world in exchange, which in Lancashire and elsewhere in the
kingdom gives an ability to bear taxation that in turn confers on Britain a
military and naval strength tiiat ^vithstood tlie most successful commander
that ever led armies to battle, his armies su-tained by the plunder of all
Europe ; a power of production and financial strength which endorsed the
bills of nearly every European uatiou opposed to France, aud gave them
Bvibsidies in addition, from British taxes, to induce them to rise ngainat their
invader, when prostrate at his feet ; a power which, more recently, when
tho nations were shaken by revolution, gave firmness to Britain, as it this
day enables our Queon to move among a free people with a sense of safety
and joyousness of welcome unknown to any other Sovereign. Such are
the triumplis of industry, the conquests of scieuce, whose fields of succe=s
aro found through all Britain, but in greater number in Lancashire than
elsewhere -such the high t;erviccs to civilisation wliich industry and science
have rendered.

The quantity of cotton imported into this country in 17G4 was about
4,000,000 lb. ; in 1780, about 7,000,000 lb. ; in 1790, about 30.000,000 lb. ;
and in 1800, about 50.000,000 lb. There was little increase during the
period of the wai-; but since the restoration of peace, the consumption of
raw cotton, and with it the employment of our factory labour, ha? increased
witli ft rapidity almost beyond the power of conception.

In 1815 the imports were .... 99.000,0001b.

,> 182.^ „ 229.000.000 „

t, 1835 „ .... 364,000.000 .,

» 1846 „ 722,000,000 „

The value of cotton manufivctures produced In Great Britain in 1841, was
estimated by Mr. Porter at 49,000,000^; and of tlieae about one-half were
exported.

The number of luinds employed in tho cotton factories of Great Britain
may be roundly sot down at half-ainillion but upon this aud other
statistical details we shall enter more at large in a separate paper.

COTTON-S FIN NINO MACniSEHY DESCRICED.

"We now proceed to give a doflcriptinu of some of the works in cotton
monufiicture, aa illustrated in tU« Oreat Exhihitjon ; and towards this end we
we think we cannot do better than ask the realer to accompany us in an
imngiuary reminiscence of theoitremo west end of the Crystal Palace, where
& very complete series of this olasa of mac'iinery was extiibited by Messrs.
Hibbert, Piatt, and Sons, of Oldham, showing the processes of manufacture,
from the cotton as it is taken out of tho bale on its arrival in this country,
to the time of its completion in tho form of woven calico, twills, &c. (See
large Eugraviug, pages 72 aud 73.)

First in the Korics is an opentug -mochino, ou Calvert's principle. It is
fed by au en.llesa cloth ; on which tho cotton is -pread, aud is drawn into
tho machine by a continuous moveraent of the cloth towai'ds two rollers,
anned with coarse but not very sharp teeth. These seize the cotton, and
draw the entangled locks apart, and tne-i pass them on to other aud finer-
toothed rollers, which still further open and straighten the fibres ; aud the
clean cotton is thrown out at the other end of the machine, while the seed
and dirt fall out below.

The cotton is then taken io a second opening and.Bcutcliing-machine ;
here it is again put on a moving, endless apron, aud Introduced into the
machine by being drawn between a pair of rollers, and delivered slowly
out to meet the blows of the " beater." which rcvulros with great rapitlity,
and drives all the heavy particles of dirt, sand, Ac, down through a grating
— which, however, is too fine to allow the flakes ol' cotton to pass through.
These are carried through to an iron roller, rouud which they are led. and
as the roller is kept r«volviug, they ai-e wound ou it so sa to form a con-
tinuous sheet of loose, fleecy textwe, called a " lap." This hip is then
transferred to the fii-st, or breaker oarding-machino, and tho end of the lap
last wound on tlie roller is led iu between two feoding-rolloi-a, and carried
by them into contact with the cai-ds of the machine which draw out aad
straighten the fibres of the cotton.

The large cylinder on which tho cards are fixed is mode of iron, and is
turned perfectly true. The eai-da are fastened to it by nails driven into
amall wooden plugs inserted at intervals iu the circuuiferouce of tho iron
cylindem, and tho patent braukot-slidea for carrying the smaller rollers are
remarkable for the simplicity and solidity of their construction. After
passing over th« surfaces of tha oard-rolloi*s, the cotton is stripped off the
last roller, called a "doffer," by means of a steel comb, or doffing plate,
mounted on an irou stock instead of wood, the whole width of the d'^ffer,
which rises and fulls with a sort of chopping motion, and at each fall catches
a number of the fibres, and, disengaging them from the wires of the cards,
forms them into a looso, open, broad film of cotton, called a "sliver." The
end of this is narrowed, and led into a conical npcrtm-e, about an inch in
diameter, in the top of the coiler. Inside the coiler is placed a paii- of

rollers, which take the end of the sliver first presented, and continue
draw it through the conical hole, and deliver it into a deep can, pkced J' ^
the roUera. until it is full, when the end is broken off". '

The can is then taken to the next machine, called a "lap machine"
is there placed alongside numerous similar cans; and the ends laat bn-k
aro led one out of each can, and introduced between a pair of roUtm *; "^
draw all tho several slivers at one time into the machine, and coil tl
side by side on a small iron roller, so as to make them into a lap— that*^
a long sheet formed of the slivera, which adhere to one another m J "•
degree. **'^

This lap is now transferred to the second or finishing-carder, and U wn
fui-tiier carded, doffed, and coiled in the cans, as previously descnhe'I Tl
lap, which, when it entei-s the machine, is formed of 30 or 40 8uigle->Iive '
is carded dovm in substance so much that, when taken off at tin.- lirjg ",'
roller, it only forms one sliver out of the whole number that enieiyj ^,
thus the effect of any irregularity that may exh^t in any one fcliver im cuLn:!
lost in that which is composed of so many various ones. The cans i^l
the finisliiug carding-engiue are now taken to the drawing-frame, and tht
slivers are first passed tlirough a pair of rollers travelling at a ^low ^^l
and ai-e then seized by the next pair which run faster, and therefuro 'w
away the cotton at a greater rate than it is furnished to them by the firt*
pair. This lias the effect of making the sliver longer and thinaW. ami ^
tho same time straightens the fibres ; and it is still more drawn by a txH
and even a fourth or fifth pair of rollers ti-avelling faster than the mnidlij
pair, so that the slivers are very much attenuated by this procesd. Tlr^
of these slivei-3 are led into one coaical hole in the coiler, and the cam
revolving as before described, coil the sliver inside them. '

The cans containing these last sUvers from the drawing-frame are taken
to the slubbing-fi-ame, where the slivera are to receive a slight JeTee i,f
twist. Previously to this, however, they are led out of the cans, and'pmisi
through three lines of dni.wingrollei-s, to reduce the size of the shvev and to
straighten the fibres still more. After passing these drawing-rollers th^iT
pass down to the " flyers," which, in these machines, are of au impro\Vl
construction, the spindles having two inches' more bearing, and the flyer
having a one-inch shorter le^ — an advantage that enables the manufacturer
to run tlie spindles one-fifth faster tlian by the usual construction.

The flyers give a certain amount of twist to the " slubbing," aud it 15 bj
them wouud ou bobbins, which are tiien transferred to the stcoad jr
Intermediate slubbing- frame. Here the cottou undergoes a proctss
similar to, but finer than, that of the firet slubbing-frame. The roving.
frame comes next, and the bobbins from the second sluhbing-fmme are
placed in it ; the slubbiiigs are here reduced by the drawing-rollers ssll
finer; they are then twisted still more by the flyers, and, lastly, they are
wound on bobbins.

The " mule" is the machine next in order. Hero the bobbms, taken from
the roving-fi-ame, are again passed through three Imes of smaller drawinj.
rollers, aud then delivered on to the poiuts of the spiudles. which. bvtW
rapid revolution at the time the carriage is di'awn out, twist the roving iiiw
yarn. Ou the return of the caiTiage the twisting operation ceases for 1
time, and the newly-spun yaru is wound on to the spindles in the wtH-
known form of " cops."

One of the mules shown is a weft-mule, with tin rollers. The other iai
warp or twist-mule, but with di-ums iustead of the rollers, to showtht
variety of mechauism.

The twist-mule h;is also a back shaft tho whole length of the mxUm,
instead of squaring- bands, as iu the weft-mule, for the same reasoa TiiJ
head-stock is based on the principlo of Sharp and Roberts' expired patcut
All the bearings are constructed with uuusual solidity ou the (laMtrl
principle of Messi-s. Hibbert and Piatt, and are bushed so as to be eaalj
repaired ; as also tlie adjustable spring " camm " for " backing off," and tk
adjustable catch-bos ou the fiont roller for preventing " suaris."

The throstle for spinning warp yarn is an excellent specimeu of workmiD'
ship, the holes being ail tunchiao-djilled atoneopei-ation. The roller-beiiiu
aro all planed true, and the heart-wheel aud rack are in the centre m(ol
of at the end. This de.^criptiou of machiue is much used for tho coir«r
description of yarn, but for the finer numbers it does not compete snccts-
fully with the mule.

The doubling- frame ia the next machine, and is used to twist two yare'
together into one thre;ul for strong warps, iis stocking-yarns, and also f«
scAing-cotton.

The hinding-macliiue follows, and ia shown with two sorts of arraagf
meut — that for wituling twist-mule eoi>s ou one side, and that for tbrosw
bobbins ou the other; both these are wouud on to large bobbins, ready wf
the next raacliinc, which is called the beamiug or warping-machine. It j*
fitted up iu the same superior style as the others, and has KotuvortbTi
patent rods. Here the warp is transferred from the large bobbins co *'*
warp-beama, or rollers, ready for the dressing- machine, which, hoivovcr.
not shown iu this aeries, as it is a macliiue requiring a room to iti;«;l'i"
prevent the steam employed from being a detrmieut to the otiH'
mechanism. .

The dressing process consists in dressing or coating the wai'p *"'^,
with a paste made from flour, to stiffen the threads for the loom- r
first invention for this purpose was that of Radcliffe, in IS04.) »

The looms are the machines which follow, where the yam?, ^'^^ .'^
and warp, are woven iuto cloth. But we shall here take leave of tho siil'J
for the present, with the intention of i-esumiug it, with fitting iUushay*^"*
on au early occasion. j

AN ILLUSTIIATEI) CYCLOP.KDIA OP TIIK OIIKAT EKlIIlUTION OF l«r,].

uicl Koy.i, upon wliicli wo wuro anxiouH to olitiiin all tlio iiifonuatioii wo
:i)ul(l for piililicatioii in tliis Journal ; yot, ftltliough wo liave maila a dozen
ournoya to tho Imi-ilware (Vitartniont, uikI liover-ed anxiously al)out tho
,'las.< ca-iea, filleil witli some Civo liuniiroil illircrcnt kimls of infallililo locltH,
^•o liavo not to tlii.s day licon al>lo to inspect, or obtain any iuforniatioii
oiircrinnj^ any ono of tluMii.

Tlio regul.ition ]>ro[iil)itinf; the afflxiiij; of prices to nrticlos exliil>ite<l,
night iiave luid HonicthiuK to recomniond it in the eyes of the CoinniisHionerM ;
)nt, upon tho whole, it ajii)e,Trs bo elearly to bo at variance witli the gi-and
ihject of tlie Kxhibition — that of obtaining and promulgating information
ipoii all points relating to the manufacturing inferestn and processes, botli
f oiirsclvi'.s and ()f otlier nationn — that it ought not to ha\'e been pernisted
u aCti'r its imjfolicy had been pointotl out. And Hurely tiie price at which
:n}' article may bo produced in an imi>ortaut elouient of tlie value of tiie
trocci-s by which it iti produced ; and to ileny the nianufactvu-er the privilege
f announcing this particular, was as absurcl as it w;is unjust. The exliibi-
ors, however, soon got over this dillieidty by resorting to tlio distribution
f pro.^pectuses, witli priced lists of all tlicir ware.s (we liava one by us
.■herein an Irish Karl recouuueuds his tile bricks), and steam pre.s.ses in ono
art of the Uuilding, were kept hard at work, throwing off reams of puffs
or cxliibitors in other departments ; and tiie Kxecutivc Committee liavc
■een so amused and gratified with this contravention of tiieir orders, tliat
liey have set about collecting, in the Building itself, fifty copies of all the
utfuiongery of the Great Exhibition, for the purpose of being bound up
ud deposited in tho Bodleian and otlier public libraries ! In aidition to
his, tlie agents for the Foreign departments very early resorted to the
xpeJient of printing "priced catalogues" of their goods ; the ZoUvereiii,
tussia, Saxony. Austria, have each their handbook, completed witli tlieir
etails of £ s. d. ; and very interesting they will be as materials for a new
dition of tho " History of Prices ; " but when it came to the turn of tlio
Iritisli exliibitor, ho was referred to Messrs. Spicer and Clowes, "the
ontractors," who demanded a shilling a line for the insertion of tlie de-
criptions and prices of their goods. In short, the Great Exhibition has
een converted into a great job, and all its minutest details have resolved
ito jobs smaller and beautifully less.

We have uot left ourselves space in this article to review the general
onteiits of the Exhibition, and to see how far they filled up the
-■liemc which tlie mind's eye miglit have framed for it. We cannot help ob-
rving. however, tliat they have been wanting m many essential particulars,
ad were too generally not disposed to advantage. The manufacturing
[ipliances of this country, which ought to have been the principal features
f tho whole affair, have been very inadequately represente i ; many branches
f manufacture wliolly absent : and the macliinery which was sent in, con-
igued to a sort of back-.shop, wliere they were crowded together, without
rder of arrangement, without space between them to inspect them in
peratiou ; and many of them, Nasmyth's sieam hammer, to wit, uot in
peration at all. owing to the want of .steam. The collections of raw
laterials, instead of being classed in groups comprising the various contri-
utions from all parts, and those groups in convenient proximity to the
lachinery which respectively related to their manufacture, have been
;attered about in all directions, generally in thebaokways, in such a manner
5 to be utterly useless for the purposes of scientific research. Our vast
avy and commercial marine ; our shipbuilding has been wholly unrepre-
jnted, with the exception of a toy model of the Qtucn iu tlie transept, and
few models of lifeboats stowed very carefully out of sight, in the rear of
le western gallery — a seclusion in which we only discovered them after
lany a fruitless voyage of discovery. The exclu,sion of works of painting
•om the scheme of the Exhibition we have already, in a previous article,
ammented upon, as most ill-judged. If it did notning else, it converted
le so-called Fine Art Court into a mere toy-.shop — an objei;t of ridicule to
11 observers of mature age.

In short, money-getting being the object, overytliing was sacrificed to
low and sound; the most gaudy inutilities and commonplaces were thrust
ito the foreground, and plain usefulness was ordered to tlie rear, to shift
ir itself where it couid. Trophies of silk and tropliies of glass, trophies
f tapestry, trophies of timber, trophies of feathers, astonished open-
louthed gapei-s at every point along the main avenues, who, perhaps, forgot
lat all these trophies were only made up of very common ingredients,
hich might be examined in detad in the shops of Bund-street and Oxford-
ireet. Koh-i-noor diamonds, jewelled hawks, court jewels from Spain and
ussia, and gold and precious stones, the spoil of Eastern dynasties now
itmct, were added by the liberality of their respective owners " to make
p ashow," and to divert the daziiled multitude from the more utilitarian
id instructive purposes of the Exhibition. The foreign departments again
)ok the lead of us in an important element of stage effect ; the national
)lours were suspended over tho various departments, and the "efl'ect"
I delighted the Executive Committee, being an inexpensive addition to
leii- suilling show, tliat they gravely penned a circular to all the principal
mtributing towns iu Great Britain, begging them to send up Hags embla-
nied with their respective arms, wherewith to decorate the British Nave !

Is it to be wondered at, that, conducted after this principle, the Great

xhibition of Industry became, to a great portion of the multitudes who
ironged its avenues, an idle lounge— a huge bazaar— a covered Regent-
Ireet— a promenade concert monstre l Those dread organs— north, south,
^st, aud west, and tliat di-eadest of all in the Foreign Nave, all thundering
perpetual competition; those jingling pianos, iu every highway and

way, and nook and corner of the Building ; here musical bells, with a

mob of idle listeners ; and still prevailing through tho general din tli.it
llerr Timnerre, wlio, Kccurdjng to doily lulvui-tiieoiuotM, daily, for four long
lioiirs, played popular opera airs and polkoH upon hiH T(mncm/[ilirme, on
instrument which (iiuoth the Dailij Ncioi), "although of comparatively
Ruiall sizo, is of tremeixloua power anrl conipaKS — the tones coiiipletoly
lilUiig thu vaxt cdilico." None but tlioau who have been Kubjected to tho
iniluciieu of thin col otual Babel can iiuujjiuu the buwilticrxiig elluct; nono
vvlio liavo, will over forgot it.

Amidst this state of things the Press again camo to tho rescue; — its
various agents prying and scnitinising in all fiuartcrs, and in spite of many
dilllcullies, proceeding to unravel tho web of coiifu.jon in which things left
to shift for themselves had resolved themselves, to drag from concealment
and expound to tho reading public objects of real importance, which ottior-
wiso have Ijcen in a great measure overlooked ; and by their labours they
have preserved materials which will prove of value in airl of the history of
art aud of the progress of society. On the occasion of any future Exhibition
of tlio kind, however, those who have the man:igement of it will do well to
avoid some of the errors of judgment on which we have felt it our duty to
animadvert in the foregoing columns. [Tho above observations, though
severe, we think are just. They are echoed, in all their details, in the
Observer of the following week, aud have obviously given the cue to several
other "organs" for their parting notices of the Great Eihitition.]

THE VEGETABLE PRODUCTS OF SCOTLAXD.
Among the many miles of count'--rs and cases in the World's Fair, tbero
were few more interesting than the collection of tho vegetable productionj
of Scotland, contributed by Messr.s. Lawson of Edinburj^h. The collection
was divided into six classes, arranged in extensive cabinets of mahogany
and glass, thus ; — class 1, plants cultivated for their secd.s aud sti'a.v ;
2, for herbage and forage ; 3, for the roots ; 4, for use in the arts aud
manufactures ; 5, for their medical properties ; aud 0, those cultivated
for their timber. There were drawings of the several plants, specimens
of tho dried, the flowers, the seeds, the various roots — either natural
or facsimiles in wa.x — aud longitudinal and vertical sections of timber
and other trees, showing the same sections both in the rou"h and iu
the polished state, joined in most examples by a hinge, and in some few
similar sections of appendant branches. Not only have Messrs. Lawson
been at the expense of fitting up this portion of the Exhibition,
but they have been minded and desirous to make it as understandable
as possible to all. They are themselves the authors of a Synopsis,
which is divided into sik divisions as above, each of which forms a
distinct quarto volume, or the whole may be had in one. The Svnopsis
includes a short and interesting history of Scottish agriculture. In it we
are occasionally reminded of some curious facts respecting the effects of
culture on some plants. For instance, how tho poisonous Solaiuim tuber-
osum becomes the wholesome jiotato ; the Brassicje, or cabb,i,'e tribe,
attains its remarkable changes ; how, " from the common or wild cabbao'e
(Brassica olcracea), a poor weed-like plaut of the sea-cojiit, it is brougUt up
to be, at will, either the gigantic tree or cow-cabbage, the compact drum-
head, the Brussels sprouts, red-cabbage, caiiUdower, or kholrabi ; " how
the poisonous old peach of India becomes the luscious fruit iu our gardens ;
how, " in short, the parts of even ornamental j.lants extend, those of
flowers multiply aud reduplicate, and colours change, and vary, and
improve under the magic touch of culture." We understand that since
the close of the Exhibition, the interesting collection above described has
been purchased for 70lW. (not much more than a tithe of what it cost), to
form the nucleus of a Museum of Economic Botany about to be established
at Kew.

Products of Peat. — Sir K, Kane has presented a report on the chemical
products of Irish peat. As to the products obtainable, he confirms, in a
great measure, the statements put forth by the patentee, Mr. Reece, as will
be seen from the subjoined table :^

From 1000 parts of Pe.it. Reece. Kane.

Sulphate ammonia 1.000 1.110

Acetate of lime 7oO .305

Wood naphtha 185 .liO

Paraffine . . . loi .125

Fixed oils 7141 , ..q -• i

Volatile oils 37o/ '-^'■'^

With the exception of the acetate of lime, the statements of Mr. Reece
are evidently uot exaggerated, as to quantity. As regards the cost of
production. Sir R. Kane considers that any absolute opinion would be
premature.

Fox's Magnetised Eal.\nce. One of the most interesting objects in the
department of Philosophical Instruments, was Fox's magnetised balauce,
capable, as is stated, of weighing to the y^j^oirtli "^ a grain : what is tho
extreme weight which it will bear is uot mentioned. The most delicate
balance previously in existence, that of the Institute of France, turns, we
believe, with the ^,-5^th of a grain. Various other chemical balances, as by
De Grave and Co., and especially one by Oertliug (performing to the yo'ooth
of a grain, when loaded with 1000 grains, or Yoo'oijaat'i »'' tlie entire weight),
are also worthy of notice. Several balances of foreign make (Luhme of
Berlin) seem very carefully executed. It is to be regretted that these and
various other articles for scientific purposes of foreign make could not
have had their prices affixed for the information of the apparatus-buying
public_ia England.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

THE ARTS OF DESIGN AND DECORATION.

SCULPTURE.
'"pHE works in sculpture exhibited in the Crystal Palace, although they
contributed in no .small degree to the beautiful effect of the whole
display, were not individually such as to exalt our opinion of the present
state of thiit art, and we would fain hope did not pourtray existing art in
its highest development. The contributions, both British and foreign,
were miscellaneous, and
to a gi'eat extent acci-
dental ; and we must be-
Ueve that, the announce-
ment of the purely
utilitarian character of
the Exhibition, deterred
many labourers in the
higher fields of art from
sending in works, which,
though individually
they would have done
honour to themselves
and the ai'ts of the
coimtries to which they
belonged, they fancied,
might be overlooked or
ill appreciated in the
general gathering.

Commencing our
observations in this
department with the
British School, we ai'e
bound to say, that a
careful survey of the
works in sculpture sent
in for exhibition here,
has by no means ele-
vated our pre\'iou6ly
entertained notions of
the status of the plastic
art in this country.
The cause of this short-
coming is a want of ap-
preciation on the part of
artists of the true ob-
j ectsand destinies of art.
Want of patronage is
the common cr^^ with
artists, as with actors
and men of all pro-
fessions who happen
to fail of success com-
meusui"ate with their
own estimate of their
merits. Like Dauae,
the coy genius of sculp-
tui"e is only to be
won by a shower of
gold ; forgetful that
the shower of gold
did not make Danae
what she was when
she attracted the dis-
crimiiiatiiig gaze of tho
Thunderer. Let our
patronage-hunters iu
the plastic art bear that
in mind of the frail
Danae, and let them
also Consider whether
the allegory might not

with truth be carried a littie further, and the inducement of gold be
shown to lead to the ruin of art, as it did of Dauae. But, indeed,
as to the complaint of want of money-patronage, we consider it peculiarly
uncalled-for as regards sculpture, which, having reference to the number of
hands employed in it, is more lavishly lewarded than any other branch of
art, to say nothing of the miserable crumbs which fall to the share of many
more intellectual pursuits. St. Paul's and \\ e.>tinin.ster Abbey, in both of
which whole mines of wealth have been distnbuted amongst the hewers of
stone and the moulders of clay, are witnesses to what we assert. The
squares, too, each has its costly bronze or marble occupant. The Nelson
monument was no mean job after its kind — wliilst the Triumphal Arch
comes like the rod of Aaron to swallow up all the jobs of the preceding
half century. In short, is there a site of ground throughout the country
where a testimony to departed worth can possibly be put up, which will
not one of these dajs be bo occupied ! Is there a single issue of the Times

TilE UUEIiK HUNTSMAN. — J, GIUSON.

without a testimonial subscription list 1 The ancient Greeks, it is time, had
their testimonial-mania; but their tributes were to gods, and heroes almost
deified ; and the men employed in producing the.ie still unequalled works,
brought to bear all the resources of their art in typifying, rather than
embodying, the principal subject in the most perfect and appropriate forms
a deep study of the human figure could suggest, with only such an amount
of accessorial decoration as might be absolutely necessai-y to indicate the
character and state of the personage represented. We, having no plurality
of gods to worship, no old historic heroes to engross our wonder and
exhaust the resources of our art, too generally content ourselves with mere

imitations of gross hu-
manity, individualising
nature in her thousand
imperfect manifesta-
tions, and completing
each new portraiture
ivith the addition of
details which high art
would disdain to notice.
Upon this point we
find some appropriate
observations, so judi-
ciously aud so ably
stated by Sir C. L.
Eastlake, P.R.A., in ai
paper inserted in the
appendix to the Third
Report of the Commis-
sioners on the Fine Arts
(1844), tliat we readily
quote them, in pre-
ference to enlarging,
upon the subject iui
weaker language of our
ovra : —

" The colour of white
marble, which, it ap-
peal's, m.ay sometimes
increase the illusion of
drapery, is not the only
quality by means of
which some substances
may resemble nature
more literally tlian the
marble flesh can. The
qualities of smoothness,
of hardness, of polish,
of sharpness, of rigidity,
may be perfectly ren-
dered by murble. It is
not easy to conceive a
greater accumulation of
difficulties for a sculp-
tor aiming at the specific
style of liis art to con-
tend with, than the
representation of a pei--
snuage in the modern
military dress. The
smoothness aud white-
ness of leather belts,
and other portions of |
the dres'', may be imi-
tated to illusion in
white and smooth mar-
ble. The polish, the
hardness, and sharpness
of metal, and the rigi-
dity even of some softer
m.aterials. are all quali-
ties easily to be attained
in stone ; yet the white
marble flesh is required to be nearest to nature, though surrounded by
rival substances that, in many cases, may become absolute fac-similes of
their originals. The consequence of the direct and unrestrained imi,tatiou
of the detaih in question is, that the flesh, however finished, looks petrified ^
and colourlc--s, for objects of very inferior importance, even to tlie buttons,
are much nearer to nature. Tho objection to the.se details, from their
unpleasant or unmeaning forms, is here left out of the account.

" The boldness \s-ith which the ancient sculptors overcame similar difii-
culties is rem.irkable. Thus, to take an extreme case, rocks, which in marble
can be easily made identical -.vith nature (thereby betraying the incomplete-
ness of the art in other respects), are generall}' conventional in fine sculpture ;
witness the b;usso-relievo of Perseus and Andromeda, and various examples
in statues where rocks are introduced for the support of the figure. In
order to reduce literal reality to the conditions of art, the substance, in this
instance, is, so to speak, uuoharaeterised : the same liberty is observable

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPiEDIA OF THE CHEAT EXIITBITION OF 1«.-1.

in Boiilpturod nrniour 08
troateti by tho iiiicieiits ;
HharpnosH iw avoided, and
tho poliHli does not Hur-
pass, soniotiincs dooa not
equal, tliat of tho flesh.
In liko maniior, HtcpK, or
any jxn'tionH of architoc-
turo, ai'o irro^dar, and
not gconiotrieally true
in their lines and ansloa :
on a similar principle,
probably, the inscriptions
on tho finest antique mo-
dala are rudely formed ;
for it cannot bo supposed
that the artists who could
treat the figures and
licad« HO exquisitely,
could have been at a loss
to execute mechanical
details with presision."

Now mark the contrast
between the past and
tho present. Whilst the
ancient sculptors were so
engrossed with the di-
viner part of their work,
the living figure, that
they studiously avoided
the too accurate delinea-
tion of subordinate ob-
jects, whether of decora-
tion or adjunct, lest by
comparison these should
detni^ct from tho vrai^eiHr
hlancc of the former ;
modem sculptoi's, begin-
ning too often with the
most humble attempts at

\ BRA69 CANDEI.-VBRni. — POTTS.

rXA AND TUK LIOX. — JOHN Bin.!..

seval Court, pointed significantly to
the retrograde path of art. The
first object that struck us iu the
centre, at the extreme end, was a
statue iu marble of her Majesty, by
Francis, which unhappily illusti-ated
many of the eiTors of judgmput
and of taste we have suggested iu
the preceding paragraphs. The
head is as singularly devoid of
dignity as the figure is of grace,
being indeed completely buried in
the cumbersome trappings of Roj'-
alty ; the artist having made no
effort to contend with the natural
heaviness of his material, by indi-
cating through it the bearing of the
limbs. On either side of this figure
wore two other productions by dif-
ferent ai'tists, which afford examples,
though not in equal degree of tur-
pitude, of the diversion of the
scvilptor's art to sxibjects altogether
unworthy of and inappi-opriate to it.
One of these, which is by Mr. T. E.
Jones, presented a very rough, but
not very truthful, portrait of a Shet-
land ponj', upon whose back two
children are seated, whilst a third,
scrambling on the gi'ound, offers to
feed it; a full-gi'own Scotch deer-

CANDELAERA, BY POTTS.

The bi-ass and bronze work ex-
hibited by Potts, of Birmingham,
was justly ranked with the very best
things of their kind, and have ob-
tained for the producer a Prize
Medal, with, in addition, a memoran-
dum of "special approbation ;"
an honour, howevei', which he has
repudiated. The two candelabi'a
which we engrave, one of which is
called the " Stork Candelabrum," are
very elegant and tasteful in design.

portraiture, and other
fcranchcH of imitative art,
are content tn atone for
tho lamentable nliort'
fallings of the living part
of their subject by tho
slavish copying of a )Ait-
ton-hole, or a leather
strap, or worsted hose.
And have they not their
aflmirers 1 Undoubtedly
they have, and the name
of them is legion — a pub-
lic who will stare and
wonder at the workman-
like finish of a helmet or
a jack -boot, but have no
appreciation of tho sub-
lime inspiration evinced
in the various speaking
and all but breathing
relics of the antique.

It would appear, there-
fore, that, as between
artists and the public
there are faults on both
sides, which, when they
both begin to understand
what is worthy of them,
may gradually be re-
moved. With these gene-
ral obser%'ations, we now
proceed to remark upon
some of the works in the
Sculpture Gallery of the
Hyde Pai'k Exposition.

Tho Sculpture Room
was a small, ill-lighted,
and overcrowded apart-
ment,which,being entered
through the gaudy Medi-

TUE STORK CANDELABRUM. — POTT.^,

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

hound completes the already redundant group, which is obviously bon-owed
from Landseer, and spoiled." The other subject referred to is Mr. Bell's " Una,
as Pui-ity." The famale figure, which is of a common-place character, is
seated upon a shaggy lion, which has evidently been the chief object of the
artist's solicitude. In order to distract attention still further from what
ought to be the principal subject, Mr. Bell has decorated the king of the
forest vrith a wreath of flowers, elaborately finislied, and iu remarkably
lugh relief, tlie coronals picked out with yellow, which not only covers the
neck and mane, but extends behind the female figiu-e round to the animal's
stern, upon which a dove is perched, whilst a single rose occupies a prominent
position in the I'oreground of tlie base. Could the force of ingenuity go
fuvtber to destroy tne " purity " of a composition 1 In another part of the
room. Mr. Bell's "Babes in the "Wood" exhibits a similar instance of
mischievous ingenuity : heaps of leaves, and a branch of a tree, upon
which is perched a bird, being prominent above tlie principal objects, and
breaking the graceful outline which in works of sculptm-e is a condition
essential to a beauty.

Still more glaring instances of ignorance of the higher purposes and
legitimate resources of the sculptor's art are to be found iu Sharp's plaster
gi-oup, "Christ's Charge to Peter," wliere tlie sheep and a bunch of keys
are the actualities of the piece, the figures exliibiting a lamentable ignorance
of the structure of the human body ; and in " Christ bearing his Cross,"
where the sculptor has introduced an absolute wooden cross, some seven
or eight feet long, which could not have been carried in the way he has
placed it in the arms of his figure. We notice these productions, not for
any pleasure of faultfinding, but for tlie purpose of emphatically pointing
out to tj}e thou.sands who have visited this room, and who may read these
line--, ^ hat to avoid.

Against the walk are two large bas-reliefs by Mr. Carew, which exhibit
considerable merit of intention, though with much of the qiiality and
weakness, and. perhaps, we might add, carelessness in the execution. The
iirst in importance is " The Descent from the Cro.ss," of whicli it is remarked,
that, although it covers a very largo space, the interest of the scene is
confined to a very limited portion of the base. Tlie upper part is occupied
by the cross, and an indication of rays of light, wliich, pephaps, the artist
designed to turn to effective account on the execution of the work iu bronze
or marble, but which, it must be obvious, only colour or gilding could
realise. Mr. C:irew has sliown less anxiety to find subject-matter to fill his
ground than Rubens, iu his great work, on the same subject, thougli the
latter had all the resources of his florid pencil to fly to, and could have
occupied the whole of the upper part of his canvass with aerial effects, had
he been so minded. In the principal group of Mr. Carew's work, the head
of Christ stands out with remarkable effect, the light fedling upon it so as
to give it all the palor of death. The heads of the Apostles ai'e of less
merit, and dissapoint us by the utter want of sympathy and veneration
which they betray for the precious burthen in their liands. They are all
looking off the picture, in a downward direction, as if calculating the steps
by which they are to descend in safety. The female figures, also, which
are a good deal scattered, appear to be each so overwhelmed with her own
pai'ticular grief, that they none of them sliow any solicitude about the divine
object which has brought them together, and no sympathy for one another.
The boy on his right is an intruder. The consequence is a want of ensemble,
to say nothing of a want of truthfulness to nature,(which must considerably
militate against the success of tiie piece. Mr. Carew has very abundantly
draped his figures, but he he has done it in that broad massive style, which
is sometimes very effective in painting, bnt which, is always heavy in
sculpture, and suggests the suspscion that it has been resorted to to avoid
the trouble of going into anatomical details. The " Baptism of Christ,"
3Ir. Carew.s other bas-relief, is less elaborate and ambitious than the pre-
ceding work, consisting, as it does, of two figures only. Still, in these two,
■we perceive a want of judjment — the build of the limbs being brawny, not
to say hea\"y, a cheraeter, quite out of keeping with the personages repre-
sented, while chore is little attempt at dignity to realise the sublime poetry
of the scene. Mr. Carew is more at home in his smaller work, a pla-ster
figure of " AMiittiugton." The face is very expressive, as in the act of
listening to the distant sound of Bow bells. In the costume, however,
there is the same shirking of difficulties, the wliole figure being buried in
coat and trousers of the thickness and unyeilding texture of leather.

Mr. Evan Thomas's bas-relief, " Tlio Spirit of Science unveiling Ignorance
and Prejudice," has m.any pleasing and creditable features ; as, for instance,
the diizzled and awe-struck expression of *' Ignorance," at the moment of
being unveiled before the light of trutli, and the sitting figure of " Prejudice,"
wrapped in a thick and impenetrable cloak beneath. The rest is rather
commonplace, particularly tlie figures of the two youths receiving instruc-
tion, on the other side of the picture, and who do not sufBcienly balance
the composition.

In the " Greek Hunter," by John Gibson, which is exhibited by its owner,
Lord Yarborough, we have no crude imitation of nature, which artists often
copy without understanding what nature is, or should be ; here is evuiced
a mature study, a ripe appreciatiou of tlio best classic models, which after
all, in the present state ot art. are the be.^t and surest types of excellence.
In physique, the model is well chosen for the subject, nervous, wily, and
athletic. The muscular development is carefully studied, and without
exaggeration : the intent and animated expression of the face is ti-ue to the
cecasion ; and the general finish of the flesh texture — mark alone that above
the instep of the riglit foot — approaches perfection. We need not despair
of excellence in the higher walks of art, when such works as this come from
British hands.

AWARDS.-THE COUNCIL MEDALS.

UNCLASSIFIED COUNCIL MEDALS.

His ROY.S.L Highness Prince Albert, for the original conception and
successful prosecution of the idea of the Great Exhibition of 1851,
joint medal with that granted for the Model Lodging House iu
Class VIL

Chamber of Commerce, Lyons, for the collection which it eshil:>its, in
which is shown the general progress made, thfotigh theif exertions iu
the silk manufactures at Lyons.

East India Company, the Hon.. for the very valuable and extpnsive collec-
tion, illustratiug the natural resources and manufactures of India.

Egypt, the Pacha of, for the very valuable aud extensive collection, illus-
trating the manufactures and natural resources of Egypt.

French Minister of War, for the part taken by him in exhibiting the valuable
collection of raw productions from Algeria.

Spain, the Government of for the valuable and extensive collection of rtiw
products, showing the natural resources of iSpain.

Tunis, the Bey of, for the very valuable and extensive collection, illustrating
the manufactures and natural resources of Tunis.

Turkey, the Government of, for the valuable and extensive collection of raw
products, showing the natural resources of Turkey.

THIiT COUNCIL MEDAL.
JoRT I. — Mining and Mineral Products.

Berard and Co., process for washing and purifying coals.

Brockedon, W., Cumberland lead, condenser and blocks.

Estivant Brothers, brass of superior quality.

Gutler, W., treatment of arsenical ores, and the extraction of gold from them.

Kleist. Baron Von, iron of superior cpiality aud manufaeture.

Krupp, Fried, east steel of superior quality.

Pattiuson, H. L., process of treating lead ores, and separating silver from lead.
Jury II. — Chemical and Pharmaceutical PRODUcrs.

Ouimet, J. B., artificial ultramarine.

Larderol, Count F. de, boracic acid, and method of preparing it.

Longmaid, W., Class I., process for treating copper pyrites with common
salt.

Prat and Agard, salts of potash, and other products of sea water.
JuiiY III. — Substances used as Food.

Borden, Gail, juu., for the prop.iration called "meat biscuit."

Darblay, — , juu., for the gruaux and household ilour, of very fine quality,
obtained by his novel and economical process.

Grar, N. and Co., for the sugar obtained from beet-root by the Barytic
process.

Lawson, Peter, and Son, for their admirably displayed, very complete,
instnictivc, and scientifically-arranged collection of the vegetable pro-
ducts of Scotland.

Masson, E., for dried vegetables prepai'ed by his new aud economical
process.

Serret, Hamoir, Duquesne, and Co., for beet-root sugar, procured by a
method, the result of which is to save valuable substances previously
lost in the manufacture," and consequently to reduce materially the
price of the sugar itself.

Jury IV. — Substances used in Manufactdees.

Belfast Flax Improvement Society, The Royal, the persevering and successful
efforts to improve the quality of the fibre of flax, as illustrated by the
series of specimens exhibited.

Graux, Jean Louis, de Mauehamp, the origination of a new and valuable
quality of wool, giving to the variety of merino the best quality for
combing, and possessing increased strength, brilliancy, and fineness of
fibre.

Grcnet, L. F., a now and improved mode of obtaining a pure, inodorous,
and colourless gelatine from the refuse parts of animals, and valuable
aii<l diversified modes of applying the materials, as illustrated in the
collection exhibited,

Mercer, John, Class XVIII., the process of modifying the fibre of cotton by
the action of caustic alkali, whereby its physical and chemical proper-
ties are altered and improved in a most remarkable manner.

Popelin Ducarre, for the novel and economical mode of preparing vegetable

charcoal from the small branches of trees, .and from annual plants.

Jury V. — Machines and Mechanism.

Appold, J. G., a centrifugal pump, with curved veins.

Cockerill, J., pair of 140-horse power vibrating cylinder engines for river
navigation ; a locomotive engine ; an oscillating cylinder 3-horse power
hmd engine; tubular boiler; a vertical cylinder 16horse power land
engine. The award is made for the whole.

Craniptoii, T. R., two passenger locomotive engines.

Dunn, T., a railway traversing frame.

Fromont and Son, a double turbine.

Penn, John, and Son, two pair of compact marine engines, of light constmc-
tion, for small vessels.

Jury VI. — Manufactured Machines and Tools.'

Barlow, A., j.acquard loom, with two cylinders, simultaneously raising ancl
lowering the suspended wires.

Call and Co., vacuum apparatus for the manufacture of sugar.

Douisthorpo, G. E., double wool-combing machine.

AN TLLTTSTRATTID CYCLOPvEDIA OF TIIK OREAT I'lXTITRTTTOX OF 1851.

Honkin, H., aiul C'n., paper mncliinory.

Dick, r)., varioiirt (Mi^iiKirr's tn<rlM and pressrs.

i'airlKiini, \V.. and Suns, rivetiiiK nmcliino, and a corn-mill.

Hockniann. ('., vaciiiini appamtua for tlio niiinufacturo nfeugai'.

Ilcniiiiini, (■., a Hct uf rhoccilate niachinCf^.

liicli, J!., and .Son, mill ^jcarinK, radial drill, ongioecr'n inndiino tools, hn-

]iruvfd nuuidrilU. ))(irtablo fort;c«.
liibliert, I'lalt, and Hon.s, a complete scrips of marliincH employed In tho
clcatiiiiK. proparation, and npinning of c-ottun, wliowing tho wliolo pro-
cess, to the weaving incluKivo.
Lawaon, H., aud Souk, nnmeriuia machine.s employed for tho preparation of

llax.
Mason, J., woollen combing-macliine, also .•slubliitig and nving frames).
Maudslay, Sons, and Field, coining press, acting by an eccentric.
Morcier, A., and Co., macliinery for carding Mid .spinning woolg.
Xiusmyth, J., and Co., »team lianinier.
I'arker, 0. K.. and 0., power-loom f(jr weavinf? sailulotli.
I'ontife.K and Wood, vacnnm apparatus for tho manufacture of sugar, in

copper luul brass.
Heed, T. 8.. aud ('o., new powor-loom for weaving fringes without shuttlos.
llisler, M.. Fils, ICpur.itor, a machine for cloiuisiug and preparing cotton for

Bpinnin^.
Sharp ISrothers and Co., largo double lathe for railway wheels, slotting
miichine, .and other engineer's machine tools, also a bcautifully-ooll-
stiMictcd ring and traveller throstle.
IThlhorn. II., coining pre.^.i.

Whitwortli. ,!., and Co., a largo colleetion of engineer.?' machine tools of all
kinds, screw stocks, standard gauges, and a Imitting machine; also his
machine for mea.suring less th.au the 200.000th part of au inch.
JuiiY VII. — Architectdbb and Buildiso.
11' Royal IliL^hnoss Prince Albert, model lodging house. Joint modal to !
that grantcil for tho original conception aud successful prosecution of |
tho Eshibiti.in of 1851.
l'"-i and Henderson, great building, for the execution.
I' '-.(..n. .losopli, gi-eat building, for the design.

JuKY VIII. — N.u'.vL Ari'Hitecture, Military En-gineerino, &c.
' 'uiiralty, for hyth-ogi-aphio charts, aud for tho models of the .ships con-
structed by them.
1 '> iMrtemeut dcs Cartes de la Marine, hydi'ographio siu-voys, and maps of

Finance. Algei'ia, Africa, and Corsica.
Drpi'it de la Guerre a Paris, gi-eat topographical map of France.
Geological Survey Departniont of Great Britain, Class I., for their geological

surveys and maps of tho United Kingdom.
Duke of >fortliumbcrknd, for h<a\-ing eau.sed a large number of models of
life-boats to be designed, with the view to obtaining the best fona of
boat for the preserv.ition of life and property in cases of shipwreck.
Ecole des Jlines t Paris, geological map of France.

Ordnance Department of England, for the illustrations of the great Ordnance
surveys of Great Britain, for the copper-plate etchings, and electrotype
process.
Military Topographical Department of Au,9tria, for their survey and detailed

maps of the country in and around Vienna, ami of Italy.
Sir W. Snow Harris, for his .system of lightning eondnctors attached to the
masts and hulls of ships, which have been for several years in general
use in tho navy, as a means of preserving life and property from the
effects of lightning.

Jury IX. — Agriculture and Horticulture.
Busby, AV., two or four horse plough, horse hoe on the ridge, ribbing coru-

drill, and cart.
Croskm, ^\., Norwegian harrow, meal-mill, cart, clod cnisher, and gorse

bruiser.

Garrett and Sou.s, horse-hoe, general purpose drill, 4-row turnip drill on
the flat, improved hand barrow drill for grass seeds, steam-engine, and
thrashing machine.
Hornsby and Sous, corn and seed-drill, drop drill, 2-row turnip drill on the

ridge, oil-cake bruiser, steam-engine.
M'Cormick, C. H., reaping machine.

,TuRY X. — Philosophical I>-.=trume>,-ts.
A., electric telegraph,
ewell, F., copying electric telegraph.
iond, Wm. and Son, for the invention of a now mode of observing astrono-
mical phenomena, &c.
lOurdon, E., for the invention of metallic barometers, and for his mano-
meters.
3rett, J., printing telegraph.

Irooke, C, for the invention of a means of self-registering natural pheno-
mena, by photogi-aphy.
uckle, ,S., Class XXX., for his photographs on paper.
Buron. for his good telescopes, the object glass being of rock ci-ystal.
"'hance Brothers. Cla.ss XXIV., a disc of flint glass, 29 inches diameter.
31audet., A. F., for his several inventions based upon experiments in the

practice of photography ; and for his non-iuvei*ted pictures.
Daguet, T , for the superiority of glass for optical purposes, good specific

gr.avity, clear ; crown glass as clear as flint,
f'elguil, L. .J., for his balance air-pump ; aud for the invention of an
arrangement to keep the charcoal points in electric light at a con.stant
distance.

DoUond, a , for atmospheric rocor'ler, by means of which tho reading of
tho barometer, tho.soof the tliermomctor cvapoMtor, fall of rain, d'lrec-
tion of tlio wind, ii« strength, electric «tato of tho air, tc, arc dimul-
ianoously rogiHtered,

DuboM) Hulcil, J., for a vory Ingenious heliostat, on a new conrttruction, by
,Silbprman ; the invention of an apparatus for fixing the charcoal points
for electric light; a sacchanjineter of dclicatu structuro and much
Injronuity, and an elegant and novel Instrument, by Brevaiii, for
oxlilbltlug the phenomena of polarised light.

Dunin, Count, E.. for tlie extraorduiary application of inccluniiim to his
steel expanding figure of a man.

Fromcnt, O., for tho goodnoaa of tho work of his theodolites aud divided
metre.

Gonnollii, Professor T., pl.anometpr, a machine for meanuring piano Rurfaces.

Griffith. J., for his barometer, with a vacuum capable of complete restora-
tion by an air-trap at the top.

Henley, \V. T., for his convenient and ingenious application of magnetic
electricity to tho purpose of electric telegraphs.

Logeman, \V. M., for the o.Tcallence of the magnets shown by him.

Martens, F., for his talhotyiies on glass by tho alhuminoas proccsu.

Merz and Sons, equatorial, combining cheapness with excellence of work-
manship.

Newman, J., for tho originality, excellence, and perfection of his air-pumps
and self registering tide gauge

Oortling, L., for very delicate large .and .small balances.

Quonnessen, a platina alembic, to liolJ 250 pints, all in one piece, without
solder or seam, Ac.

Ross, A., for groat improvements in microscopes, and for the solidity of
structure, good mechanism, and distribution of strength, great aize,tc.,
of his large equatorial.

Rosa and TIiom"on, Class XXX., for great improvements in photography.

Siemfus and Halsko, electric telegraph.

.Smith and Beck, for excellence of their microscopes.

Taurines, dynanoraeter.

A'idie, for the invention of the aneroid barometer.

JoRY' Xa. — Musical Ixstrumext.s.

Boehm, T., for import.aut scientific improvements of the flute, and tho suc-
cessful application of his principles to other wiml instruments.

Ducroquet, P. A., for his application of the pneumatic lever to a church
organ.

Erai'd, P., for his peculiar mechanical actions applied to pianofortes and
harps.

Gray and Davidson, for their invention in organ building, of a new method
of connecting the great organ with the s well organ by means of a ped;il
and of a new stop called the keraulophon.

Hill and Sou, invention of a stO|j of great power, and for their mode of
shifting the stops by means of keys.

Sax, A., for his invention of several classes of ^viud instruments in wood
and metal.

Vuillaume, J. B.. for new modes of making violins, in such a manner that
they are matured and perfected immediately on the completion of the
manufacture, thus avoiding the necessity of keeping them for consi-
derable periods to develope their excellencies.

Willis, H., for his application to organs of an improved exhausting valve to
the pneumatic lever, the application of pneumatic levei-s in a compound
form, and the invention of a movement in connexion therewith for
facilitating the cU-awing of stops either singly or in connexion.
Jury Xb. — Clock Work.

Dent, E. J., for his large turret clock, on account of the combination of
strength and accuracy of time-keeping attained in it. which are also
accomplished by a cheaper mode of construction than in other turret-
clocks of high character.

Japy Brothers, clock aud watch movements made by machinery, much
cheaper than by anj- other movement aud equally good.

Lutz, C, for his watch balance springs, which were submitted by the jury
to the test of stretching out and heating without affecting their
form.

Wagner, J., Neveu, for his clock with a continuous motion for driving tele-
scopes, and for his collection of turret-clocks, which on the whole dis-
play great fertility of invention.
Juries XI. — Cotton Manufactures. XII. Woollen. XIII. Silk and
Velvet. XIV. — Flax and Hemp.
Xo Council Medal.
A large number of the smaller medals were awarded.
Jury XV. — Mixed Fabrics.
Deneirouse, E., Bois-Glavy, and Co., the discovery of a new and important
process in the production of elaborate designs.

Jury XVI. — Leather, Skins, &c.

No Council Medal.

Jury XVII. — Printing, &c.

Vienna, Imperial Court and Printing Office, novelty of invention, and

the number of new combinations in the art of typogi'aphy.

Jury XVIII. — Dyed and Printed Fabrics.

No Council Medal.

Jury XIX. — Tapestry, Lace, &c.

Ball, DuunicUffe, and Co., velvet and Simla lace, being new patented fabric

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS.

STOVE — JOBSON AND CO., SHEFFIELD,

suitable for shawls, dresses, and for various ornamental and useful
purposes, and of great commercial importance, also for imitation
Valenciennes lace, black and
■white point tulle, of gi'eat
merit.

Gobelin Tapestry, French GoTem-

. ment manufactory of, for origi-
nality and beauty of design of
the different specimens exhi-
bited for furniture, and the
extraordinary excellence of ex-
ecution of most of the produc-
tions exhibited.

JcRT XX. — Articles of

Clothing.

Ko Coimcil Medal.

JnRT XXI. — Cutlery and
Tools.
Spear and Jackson, Class XXII.,
for exhibition of circular saws,
and particularly one 60 inches
in diameter, of marked and
very superior excellence, ma-
nufactured by a process of pecu-
liar merit, the result of a novel
application of meclianical inge-
nuity, recently effected by them-
selves.

JuRT XXII.— Iron and Gene-
BAL Hardware.

Andre, J. P. V., for iron fountain
in nave, and the design of the
alligator and fish fountain.

Aubanel, J., casting of animals,
and gUt cast iron door.

Barbedienne, F., and Co., joint medal with Class XX'VI., sculpture in
metal, bronzes. &c.

Coalbrook Dale Company, cast iron statues, new method of bronzing
steel grates, and dia-
mondflooringforsteam
engines.

Hardman and Co., ec-
clesiastical brass
work.

Hoole. Robson, & Hoole,
for drawing-room steel
grates.

Matifat, C. S., original de-
signs in bronze.

Miller, Ford, casting in
bronze of colossal lion,
and statues of Libussa,
and George I. of Bohe-
mia.

Jlinister of Trade for the
Koyal Prussian Foun-
dry, three va.ses, and
candelabra, with a
group of figures, in ca^t
iron.

Societe des Mines Zinc,
do la Vieille
Jlontague,
specimens of
zinccastingH.

Stuart and
Smith,draw-
ing - room
grates on
.S y 1 V e ster's
patent, and
the novel ap-
plication of a
revolving ca-
nopy invent-
ed by Laurie.
Winfield, R. W., brass foundry work,
rolled pillars, and chandeliers.

JcKY XXIII. — Precious Metals and Jewellery.
Elkington, Mason, and Co., artistic application of the electrotype.
Froment, Meurice, centre-pieces, representing globe surmounted by deities.
Garrard, R. and S., and Co., artistic plate and jewellery.
Guej-ton, A., the variety he exhibits, and his electro-plating.

tiles.

^TOv^:. — fkatiiam, clhfmiiu sT[tK.i;T

and metallic bedstead, with taper

Hancock, C. F., originality and taste in his exhibits.
Himt and Eoskell, v.oae in repousse by Vechti.

Jury XXIV. — Glass.
Mayes, M., novelty of chemical
application.

Jdry XXV. — Ceramic Manu-
factures.

Minton, H., and Co., new applica-
tion and beauty of design.

Se\Tes Manufactory, high art.

Jury XXVI.— Furniture De-
corations.

Barbedienne and Co., ebony book-
case, mounted with bronze.
Joint medal with Class XXII.

Delicourt, E., paper hangings.

Fourdinois, A. G., carved side-
board of walnut-wood.

Leistler, C, and Son, carved fur-
niture in four rooms.

Lienard, M. J., clock case and
other articles.

Jury XXVII. — Mineral Manu-
facture.
Barberi, The Cavaliere, a table in

Roman mosaic.
Demidoff, Mes.srs., malachite ma-
nufactured into various articles
of furniture and decoration.
Society for Improving the Condi-
tion of the Labouring Classes,
sundry improvements in the
construction of bricks, and the
improvements of habitations
for labouring classes.
Minton, H., and Co., encaustic
Joint medal with that given to H. Minton and Co., in Class XXV.
Jury XXVIII. — India Rubber, &c.
Gutta Percha Company, The, gutta percha.

Goodyear, C, India i-ub-

ber.
Mackintosh audCo., India
rubber.

Jury XXIX.— Miscel-
laneous.

Constantin, J. Marques,
flowei"s in cambric.

Milly, L. A. de, invention
of practical methods of
using lime in the manu-
facture of stearic can-
dles, and the use of bo-
i"acic acid in the pre-
paration of wicks.

Jtry XXX. — Sculp-
ture, &c.
Kiss, A., the Amazon, cast

in zinc and bronzed.
Marochetti, Baron, Out-
side, West, Richard
Crcurde Lion, in plaster, j
Pradier, J.,
Phrync, in
marble.
"Wyatt, the late
Richard J.,
Jlain Ave-
nue, East,
Glycera, in
marble.

ORNAMKNT.IL
STOVIiS.

England ha-s
certainly dis-
tanced'all com-
petitors in this
important branch of hardware, including the manufacture of stoves, fenders,
&c. In taste of design, crispuess of casting, and colour of the metal, our
principal manufactures, both in Sheffield and London, leave nothing to be
desired. The stove by Jobson and Co. is a very elegant production, after the
new semi-spherical fashion, wliich has peculiar properties of throwing out
heat. — Featham, of Clifford Street, has several choice and curious works in
the Elizabethan and medieval styles; not the least so is this very handsome
stove, of admirable workmanship highly polished, and enriched with or-molu.

ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA

THE GREAT EXHIBITION

MODEL HOUSES FOR THE LABUUKINU CLASSES, EXHIBITED BY I'KINX'E ALBERT.

PRINCE ALBERTS MODEL HOUSES FOR FAMILIES.

pEW who visited the wonders of wealth and industry exhibited within
the Crystal Palace, can have passed unnoticed a small block of neat,
iheerful-looking houses, newly-erected, which stand at the side of the drive,
I little west of the Barracks, and not far from the south entrance of the
■reat Exhibition. These were the philanthropic work of the Prince
Consort ; who, in the midst of the splendid attractions of a court, and the
jursuits of science and art m their higher branches, has not disdained to
ive a careful consideration to the condition of the hardworking artisan,
n the humbler fields of industry. It was an intervention which was much
,nted, which humanity had loudly called out for in vain, as all know
vho have inspected the abodes of the industrious and poorer classes, not
>nly in the crowded city, but in the rural village ; for neglect for the
iufferings of others, and a niggardly denial of the essentials of health,
cleanliness, and comfort, have been equally m.anifcsted in the town and
provincial districts throughout the country.

This has long been a crying evil, but too long only heard as the wail of
the lowly and defenceless, .and dependent classes, whicli found no way into
No. 6, November 8, 3851.

the cat's, much less into the hearts, of those who shnuld have heard their
complaint, and solaced their rugged course of life, by all means reasonably
within their power. It was not until half-a-dozen years ago that the sani-
tary condition of the poorer classes was forced upon the attention of the
Legislature and the Government, as a matter worthy of public consi-
deration ; and the pleadings of the humane and the warnings of the wise
having been fearfully supjiorted and confirmed by that providential scourge,
the cholera, a Boar-d of Health was appointed, with certain powers, which
have already been put in course of caiTving into operation in nearly two
hundred populous districts, with already very important and salutary
results. The disclosures made by the Inspectoi-s appointed by this Board,
as to the wretched home accommodation of tlie poorer classes, which
existed as a rule, with scarcely any exception, throughout the kingdom ;
the utter want of drainage, of water supply, of the ordinaiy precautions for
the means of personal cleanliness, and the denial of the breath of life,
through a wholesale and almost wilful neglect of ventilation, were such as
to startle many even of those inhabitants of the very towns in which theso
flagrant evils existed. The consequences upon the health of communities
were al.-;o shown to bo most serious, excessive mortality existing in some

PiucE OsE Penky.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

places to the extent of being two and tliivc fold what, with ordinary sanitai-y
lirecaution, it might fairly be expected t.) be : two and three fold what it
aetnally was in some other districts more happily circumstanced.* Added
to this, the chai'ge upon the pubUc purse in the cases of sickness, of
widows and orphans left to burthen the pai-ish, of labour lost by temporary
incapacity during illness ; and a case was made out which convinced all
cool anddispassionate individuals that it was the wealthy who had a direct
pecuniary interest in the he:ilth of the poor; and that as regarded health
itself, they were not altogether exempt from participation in the sufi'erings
of their fellows— the pai-ting breath of the dying pauper not unfrequently
poisoning the atmosphere of his richer neighbour.

Upon this subject, also, contemporaneously with tlie inspections of the
Board of Health, the correspondents df some of the morning papers — more
particularly the Muming Chronicle — lent their iiseful aid, and brought in a
vast mass of coiToborative evidence, thus giving increased publicity to iiiicts
already too well established in professional and official quarters.

The Journal last mentioned states, in a recent article; — "A couple of
yeai-s ago our corre.sjioudents in the metropolitan, agiicultnral, and manu-
faoturing districts, painted a succession of the most melancholy pictures of
the wretched and degradmg tenements in which the poor are lodged, both
in town and country — in London alleys and manufacturing suburbs, and
in inu-al lanes. The dens of lodging-houses in the great towns — the cellars
and garrets where thousands of unhappy creatures are penned, sometimes
three and fotu" in a bed, and very often without the least distinction of
sex — have been amply described in letters portraying the east end of
London and the huge and swarming towns of Lancashire ; while the hovels
and dilapidated cottages which stud the agricultural districts, particulai-ly
in the south and west of Engl.and, have been sketched in colours
just .OS dismal. Turning back to our files of a couple of seasons
ago, we find column after colnnm, and letter after letter, devoted
to the exposition of the miserable, the worse than savage con-
dition of the dwelling accommodation of a great portion of the
peasantry of Entdand. We read again and again accounts of
cottages ciiirnbling into ruins — the cold wind blowing iu at every
chink and cranny — the rain sopping the nmd flooring— the dung-
hill overflowing, and sending its fcetid juice in streams across
the threshold. AVc read of bed rooms immediately beneath the
putrid and leaking thatch —of bed-room.> in which a whole family,
father, mother, adult and infant children, young men and young
women, all slept tog'.'ther like so many pigs in a sty ; of cot-
tage accommodation, iu fact, which made us wonder how there
was any natural decency and feeling, or human restraint of
behaviour left amid a gi'eat proportion of our rur.al population. Iu many
part.s of England it is perfectly clear that tho people are not better, perhaps
they are wor^e, lodged than they wev under the Plautagenets and the
TuJors. No dwelling can by possibility be worse tlian a ricketty cottage, open
to every wind of heaven, admitting r.ain throush roof and wall, a diingliill
piled before the door, and men and women, children and parents, lying down
to sleep together on ragged mattrasses and straw iu the same fcetid, unventi-
lated room. Indeed we suspect that in many cases the condition of our
nu-al population is even worse than it was in the days of the most despotic
of our early Norman kings, because a greater proportional amount of rent is
squee3e<l out for accommodation in nowise l^otter than that possessed by the
'villains' and the 'vavlets' of the good old tim<=s. Rents have risen, in
fact, while cottages have not improved ; and, worse even than that, as our
.agricultui'al correspondents have proved, population has iu many districts
increased enormously, and cottages net at all. It is to be earnestly hoped
that a change in this respect is now at hand, nay, that it ha' already begun.
The beautifully arranged .and substantially constructed cottages in Hyde
Park, to say nothing of the model lodging-houses iu various parts of
London, prove that good houses can now be erected as cheaply as bad
ones, and that the building of such dwellings may be made to form at
once one of the safest, most profitable, ,and most philanthropic means of
investing nioney. Those who would be inclined to sneer at the justa-
po-sition of pihilanthropy and profit in tlie same sentence, know very
little of human motive. Jlen naturally like to get as much fur tlieir
capital as they can — society wouM not hold together unless such were the
case; and men also — the monetai-y advantages being equal — just as
natur.dly prefer realising these advantages through supplying the means
of comfort .and contributing to the well-being, rather than thi'ough a bare
and insufficient ministering to the actual physical requirements of their
fellow creatures. The new houses erected in Hyde Park are calculated
to pay 7 per cent, on the outlay — a very handsotno return — and they are
calculated, at tlio same time to rear a population brought up in decent
household comforts, adapted alike to their physical and moral well-being."

Tho model house in Hyde Park consists "of four dwellings, compactly
put together — two on the ground, two on the first floor; the latter
attained by an outside staircase, which gives a feature of architectural

• The nlwvc siafemcnt is sti startliiif;, tli.at soiiio, facts or i.\U of autUority seem to be
called for in explanation anil cnnfirmaMoii of it. In Liverpool and Manchester it is 33 in llie
thousand of the respvctivc populations. In CanUff ami .Mertliyr Tydvil it is 30 in tlie
thousand; in South Shiolds It is 28 in the thousand ; in Sunderland it is 25 in a thou-
.sand. On the otiiar hand the avcra',-e mortality of " «ixtv-nne more healthy re-'istralion
districts," taken from sevural counties, as Kivun hy .Mr. l.ce, ono of tho inspect'>i-s under
the Hoard of Health, is Ifi in the thousand of the pn|jMUition ; .some (as Tavistock and
Okohampton) beins under 15 in tlio thousand. And as the general result of his ohser-
v.alions ("Summary of E.tporicnce on Discrksc," ]iijl,) .Mr. Lee says :— " I have shown
hy facts and arirumeni.s which I think arc indispulald", that tho inevit-ablc mortalitv of
the kingdom at largo,, is not greater. l)nt most probably less, than tlie proportion of 11 to
a thousand animally of the population.''

beauty to the elevation. Each dwelling (they are all facsimiles) contains
a general sitting-room and kitchen, entered by a lobbj^ (au essential requir>ite),
two small bed-rooms for the male and female branches of the family, a
large bed-room for the parents and the younger children, a scullery, and
a decent water-closet. The whole of the rooms are full of cupboards and
such conveniences ; the building i.s fire-jiroof, tliere being no particle of
wood Jn the whole structure ; water is laid on ; a passage to a general
dust-hole communicates with all the sculleries; tlie kitchen ranges are
models of economical neatness; ventilation has been carefully attended to
on the most scientific principles ; the walls are built of a peculiar species
of hollow bricks, wiiich are cheaper than tlie old ones, and have another
most important requisite, that of deadening sound — and altQgetlier the
cottages ore models of the most ingenious compactness and simple comfort.

The building before us h.as been designed and practically superintended
by Mr. Roberts, the honorary architect to the excellent *" Soci^^ty for
Improving the Condition of the Working Classes," the President, Prince
Albert, having supplied thq nieans, and obtained the advantageous site on
which it stands.

The following additional particulars are from those drawn up by the
architect —

" In its general arrangement the liuilding is adapted for tho occup.ation
of four families of the class of manufacturing and mechanical operatives,
who usually reside in towns, or in their immediate vicinity ; and as tlie
value of land, which leads to the economising of space, by tho placing of
more than one family under the same roof, iu some cases, renders the addi-
tion of a third, and even of a fourth story desirable, the plan has been
suited to such an arrangement, without any other alteration than the requi-
site increase in the strength of the walls.

" The most prominent peculiarity of the design is that of the receding
and protected central open staircase, with the connecting gallery on the
first floor, formed of slate, and sheltered from the weather by the continu-
ation of tlie main roof, which also screens tlie entrances to the dwellings.

SI'EClMEiJ OF IIOLLOW^BHICK-WOHK.

" The four tenements are arranged on precisely the same plan, two on
each floor.

" The entrance is through a small lobby, lighted from the upper part of
the door.

"The living room has a superficial area of about 150 feet, with a closet
on one side. of the fireplace, to which warm air may be introduced from
the back of the range ; over the fireplace is an iron rod for hanging pictures :
and on the opposite side of the room a shelf is carried above the doors,
with a rail fixed between them.

" The scullery is fitted up with a sink, beneath which ia a coal-bin of
slate ; a plate rack at one end, drained by a slate slab into the sink, covers
the entrance to the dust-shaft, which is inclosed by a balanced self acting
iron door. The dust-shaft leads into a closed depcsitory under the stairs,
and has a ventilating flue, carried up above the roof. The meat safe is
ventilated through the hollow brickwork, and shelves are hxed over the
doors. A dresser flap may be fixed against the partition.

" The sleeping apartments, being three in number, provide for that sep.a-
ratiou wdiieh, with a family, is so essential to moiulity and decency. Each
has its distinct access, and a window into the open air ; two have fireplaces.

" The children's bed-rooms contain 50 feet superficial each, and. opening
out of the living room, an opportunity is .aff'irded for tho exercise of
parental watchfulness, without the unwholesome crowding of the living
room, by its use as a sleeping apartment.

"The parents' bed-room, with a superficial area of about 100 feet, is
entered through the scullery — an arrangement iu many respects pi-eferable
to a direct approach from the living room, particularly in case of sickness.
The recess in this room provides a closet for linen ; and a shelf is carried
over the door, with a rad fixed beneath it — a provision which is made iu
each of the other bed rooms.

"The ivatcr-closet is fitted up with a Staffordshire glazed basin, which is
complete witliout any wood fittings, and supplied with water from a slate
cistern, in common, of 160 gallons, placed on the roof over the party and
staircase walls. The same pipes which carry away the rainwater from tin.'
roof serve for the use of the closets."

With reference to the cost of construction, the following statement is made :

" In most parts of England the cost of four houses, buUt on the jilau of
this model structure, with ordinary materials, and finished similar to the
ground floor apartments, may be stated at 440/. to 4S0/., or from llOi. to
120i. fir each tenement, contingent on the facilities for obtaining materials
and the value of labour. Such dwellings, let at Z». Gd. to 4.<. a week, would,
after deducting ground rent and taxes, afford a return of V per cent, on the
amount of outlay. Where hollow bricks are obtainable at a fair price their
use ought to effect a reduction of about 25 per cent, on the cost of the
brickwork, or equal on these four houses to about 40/."

AN ILLUSTUATKD CYCLOIM'IDIA OF TllR GIIKAT KXIIIIJITION OF 1851,

PHILOSOPHICAL INSTRUMENTS AND PREPARATIONS.

|)i)l,l,ONI)'S ATMOSPHEMC RECOHDER,
[\IK. DoljLoNl), tlio uminciiit optieinn, crecteil a .snuill womleii liouao,
ill tlio oiicloBCil nivii, ouUiilo tlio cxtremo western end of the liiiililiiig,
to ooiitiiiii h'n liiKlilycluboriitc'i " AtinoKpheric rccorilor, or solf rcfjistoriug

Hjipai-atuH for tlio various ilmiigos of tlio baroiuetor, tbormomotcr, liygro-
iiicter, electromotor, pliivioiiii.'ter, nnd evaporator, ami of the force and

(liroction of tlio wind." Tliis is tlio most complete and efiicicnt inatnimoiit
which has yet been contrived for this purposo. It cousi.sts of a rectangular
frame, of about two feet by three feet six, firmly Bupporteil ou four pillars.
Near each end of the frnnic is a roller of one foot in circunifcrcnco, to on« of

wliiclu.sattachod au eight-day clock.to drive it round once in tweutyfourhours.

Tlio roller at the opposite ond of the frame acts as a rest for carrying the

the frame, which is placed toward.s the north, is a strong bar. upon wliith

all the fulcra of the iudiealoi'.s. or markers, arc placed ; these markers,
eing arms of a font long, with spring points at their ends, for the barometer,

tberniomctcr. and hygrometer, are struck down to the paper every half

honr by a falling lover. Kor the electrometer, rain evaporator, .and force and
iiroction of tlio wind, ever-pointed jicucils are used, making a continuous

mark upon tho pajiei". Each indicator liivs its proper senle set near the
ine of the rogisturing points and pencils, .so that the last marks maybe
■ompared with their rospootivo scales, with reference to the time at wliich

:he indieation took place.
On each side of the frame is a marker for time, governed by a wheel

ittachcd to tho clock roller, which, by a lever and inclined planes, are made

!o regi.ster tlio time coiTectly at each half hour, and the sixth hour more

itrougly. for eonvenience m counting.
The barometer is on the principle of a syphon of large bore. Upon the

-urface of the meroury in llio shortest leg, is placed au accurately eotmter-
lised float, couiiuuuieating by a thread and puUy with the marker, the
idication.s being given on a scale of tlirec to one.
Tlie theriuometric.al arrangement consists of ten mercurial thermometers
f peculiar form, placed on an elevated stage, and having a corresponding
idieator. They are su.spentled ou an extremely delicate balance, the
lotion of which, due to the vai'iatious in the expansion of the mercury, is
ommunioated to the indicator; they are screened from the wind by perfo-
ited zinc plates.

The liygromoter indicator is acted on by a slip of mahogany, cut across
lie grain, and placed outside the observatory, in a tube open at both ends.

I'iiis slip of wood was prepared by placing it in a cylinder of water, sus-
2oded from its upper end, with a weight attached below, until it was found,
iV i-i'peated examiu.ations, that it w:is completely saturated, its length
'^jing increased to its fuU extension. This length was then referred to an
■curate scale, tho wood being placed near a stove pipe with the same
.eight hung to it, until it contracted to its utmost amount. The difference
etween these two results being then taken, the scale was formed aceovd-
igly. It is suspended and weighted, with full power to act on the
I licator, quite free from the action of the sun and rain, .and shows, upon
1 open scale, every hundredth of its extremes of dryu'^ss and moisture.

i'his plan of hygrometer is the invention of H. L.awson, Esq., F.RS., who
■;i3 one in his possession, made for and used by Franklin, and which is still

L".i accurate indicator.

The arm of the electrometer for tlmuder-stonns and electric changes
i worked by a well-insulated conductor, placed in an elevated position,

lud having a wire brought down to au insulator on the top of the obser-

■ atory, and thence to a standard, through another insulator, to a metal
Use ; between which and a spring'thore is a moveable disc, attached to a
;I;iss arm. In connexion with this arm and disc there is a pencil, carried

■ 'I'vv.'vrd to the line of indication. Tho spring is fixed to a standard, at
ibout three inches from the first disc ; to this a wire is attached, and carried
.;ito the earth. When a cloud, clLirged with the electric fluid, comes
.'.ithin the range of the conductor, the moveable discs begin to pass slowly
rom the first disc to the spring, discharging, each time, n portion of the
•leetricity, and increasing in rapidity of motion, until the discbarge of the
■loud by lightning takes place. It then falls back to the iirst disc, remaining
itdl until again called into action in a similar manner.

The pluviometer indicator is in connexion with a receiver, -which has an

■3a of one square foot, and is elevated clear of anything thiit might

interfere with the fall of the rain. From this external receiver, a pipe

inducts the water to a cylindrical vessel beneath the apparatus. A float

n this cylinder is in connexion with a series of inclines, contrived so that

-.cli shall represent an inch of rain. As the rain falls, the inclines pass

"pwards with the float, acting on the end of the indicator, which is th\is

;aoved over the required distance on the paper, showing as it proceeds, the

i-jsult of each drop to the hundredth of an inch in superficies, until an

'ich is registered. It is then discharged, and returns to tho zero of the

c.ile for another inch.

The evaporator indicator, is actuated in connexion with a square foot
.^ceiver, supplied with wat r from a larger vessel, being connected by a
ijie beneatli. From this connexion the movement is conveyed to the
idieator, from a float in t c larger vessel. The evaporator is covered with
plate of glass, set at an angle to keep out the rain, and yet allow of free
vaporation.

Tlicanemomotricalindicationnaro taken from a vcrlic.d board of ono foot
area, kept in opposition to tho oxiict direction of tho wind by a fcuiinountiug
vuno. ThiK portion of the appanitus in nicely balanced to avoiil all friction,
aiirl in in connexion with a chain pa«."iiig over a pulley with wcighti kiw-
piiided to it. The chain pajiseji down tho tubular vane Hliaft, near the foot
of which it is attached to a act of incliucH acting ujion an indicator. When
tho board is acted upon by tho wind, its motion elev.iles tho wcightu, and
iiioveH tho pencil on tho scale, registering the weight lifted, in onncoH and
P iiind.H avoutlupois. A little jioncil, at the came time, indicates tlio
direction of tho wind by tijo turning of the vane. The paper for tho
' roLMstratiou diagrams is specially made for the imrposc, so that a diflii.-ulty
long felt by meteorologists iu securing a suitable kind, is now removed.

CON.STABLES COMPEN.SATINa FL Y-WI lEEf.,.

Im tho collection of mechanical model.'!, wo ob.^ervcd a curious ono by
Mr. W. Constable, being what ho calls a "compensating fly-wliceL" It in
intended to perfect tho action of the ordinary lly-whecl in its office of
accumulating the irregular impulses of the reciprocating engine, and turning
them into a uniform power. The common fly-wheel is, indeed, usually
described as effecting this, pretty nearly to perfection, from its aptiic8.< in
gathering up all contributions of power in virtue of its inertia; but it
is plain tliat as it is fixed unyieldingly upon its shaft, whatever irregularities
occur, whether from variations in the steam prcssm-c. or in the resistance
of tha driven machinery, they must bo communicated, to a greater or
less extent, through the whool to the machinery. Every one knows bow
palpable this is \vith a light wheel, as being more ea.sily affected by tha
disturbing impulses ; the remedy has therefore been sought, with but
partial sucoo.ss, in increased weight.

As no increase in weight can fully correct these inequalities of motion,
Mr. Constable has given us, in his model, a hint of another system.
Instead of keying his wheel firm on the shaft, he places it loose, and,
coTineots it to the moving power through the medium of springs. Along-
side the wheel is placed a bo.ss, ■with three radiating arm.s, extending nearly
to the periphery of the wheel. This boss is keyed ou the driving shaft,
and to the end of each arm is attached a strap of leather, passing over a
pulley set on a stud in the rim of the wheel. The stud paisses through the
rim, and its opposite end carries a second pulley, to the periphery of which
a .strap is fastened and passed from it to the outer end of a helical spring
carried on the side of tho^fly-wheel arm. It is then cleai', that if tho
moving force becomes accelerated, the three arms fast on the shaft will act
iu virtue of such acceleration upou the fly-wheel springs. These springs will
absorb tho surplus power, or, in other terms, the surplus velocity, so as
to preveut the .acceleration from acting at once on the wheel to urge it
beyond its speed ; whil.st, on the contrary, when the moving force becomes
weaker, or the arms fail in speed, the reaction of the sprmgs gives out
tho surplus power formerly stored up in them, and the original relation
between the impelling arms and fly-wheel is again resumed. In this way
.all oscillations of force will be conveyed through the springs, ■without in
any w.ay interfering with the fly-wheel.

But there is yet something more to be done. If both the strap pulleys
are of the same diameter, the conversion of a fluctuating into a constmit
force -nould still be imperfect. One of tho pulleys h:is its periphery
formed to what tho inventor terms the iiodijnamic curve, so that the lever
of resistance within it, through which the impelling arm acts by the strap,
increases as tho impelling force increases. We are not .aware that this
scheme has yet received any practical trial : but a.s Mr. Constable professes
not merely to improve, but to perfect the action of the reciprocating
engine, we presume it will shortly be heard of amongst practical engine
builders. — Practical ilechanic's Juanial.

English and French Files. — An interesting instance of the superiority
of English over foreign files, was recently given .at the Cutlers' Hall,
Sheffield, on the occasion of tho entertainment given to the Loc-d Com-
missionei's of the town. The narrator. Mr. Overend, himself a commissioner,
st-itcd that there was a French gentleman among the jurors, who veiy
properly showed great zeal in protecting the interests of his coimtrymen.
He had admitted that Sheffield had made the best files, but he maintained
that there was a bouse in France that could make better. He challenged
Sheffield to the trial, and he selected the house with which he would make
'the trial, and it h.appened to be that of which the mayor (JIi'. Turton) is
the he;wl. He sent to France to have files made for the purpose. He
brought over a Fi^cnch engine-:^r to use them, and he challenged Messrs.
Tvu'toii and Sons to tho contest. Two pieces of steel were selected upou
which to try the files, and they were fixed in two vices. Messi-s. T'ai"ton
accepted the challenge, but they did not send to Sheffield to have any files
made specially for the occasion. They merely went to a London customer
whom they supplied with files, and took '31es iudiscrimiuately from his stock.
They chose a man from among the Sappore and Jliners in the Exhibition,
to use their files against the French engineer and the French files made for
the trial. The two pieces of steel being '.ixed iu the vices, the men began to
work upon them simultaneously. The Englishman with Messre. Turton's
file had filed the steel dowm to the vice, before the French engineer had
got one tbii^d thi'ough. When tiie files were examined, Messrs. Turton's
file was foimd to be as good as ever, while the French file was nearly worn
out. The French juror then .s;\id, no doubt he w.as beaten in that trial, but
.Alessrs. Turton's file must have been made to cut steel alone, whereas the
French tile was better adapted for iron. A new trial then took place upon
iron, and the result was still more in favour of the English file.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

FOREIGN AND COLONIAL
DEPARTMENTS.

THE ZOLLVEREIN.
AUR readers are probably aware that tho
ZoUverein — a name which occupied a
large portion of the Foreign side of the
Crystal Palace — is not that of any individual
country. On the conti'ary, it designates a
union of several States of Geiiuany under
one common custom-house law ; — a policy,
not a country, — which brings under one
series of fi.scal regulations, concerning im-
port and export duties, the subjects of
several States of Germany, having in other
respects different laws and lying widely
apart. It embraces Prussia, Saxony, Wirtem-
berg, Bavaria, Baden, Nassau, the two
Hesses, and all the minor States of the
centre of Germany, and comprehends alto-
gether somewhere about 26,000,000 people.
Hanover, Brunswick, Oldenburgh, Bremen,
Lubeck, Mecklcnburgh, on the north ; Bo-
hemia, Austria Proper and other German
dominions of Austi-ia, on the south, are not
member^ of this union. Prior to its being
formed, tlie 37 States, large and small, into
which Germany was divided, levied each its
own duties and tolls on rivers and roads,
and had its own custom-house officers to
levy them. As the rule, uo goods could
be transmitted through any one of these
States to another, or sent from one to
another, without being subject to all the
vexatious delay of a custom-house examina-
tion at the boundaries of every State. The
actual facts were still worse, for many noble-
men and cities levied, till a very recent
period, private tolls; and at their " bars "
all goods were liable to a similar examina-
tion. The annoyance of this system, to say
nothing of the accompanying annoyance of
passports, which still continues, was im-
mense, and fiu- exceeded anything of which
our people, long united under one Govern-
ment, and having amongst themselves inter-
nally a perfectly free commmiication, have
ever practically had to form any concep-
tion of To get lid of some of these vexa-
tions, the States above mentioned, under
the influence of Prussia, united. themselves
commercially about twenty years ago into
one body, abolishing all intermediate tolls
and customs duties, and levymg only duties
common to all, at the one extreme boundary
of tho confederating States, and dividing
the revenue accruing among the difi'ercnt
States composing the union, in proportion
to their size, population, consumption, pre-
vious revenue, &c. All States not comprised
in the Union, and preserving their own
revenue laws, are, so far as trade and customs
duties ai'C concerned, considered foreigners.
The reader will see, therefore, that the
name ZoUverein in the Exhibition is a mere
political designation for a great part of
Germany, separating it from Northern Gcr-
m;my on the one hand, andfi-iUn tlie Austrian
dominions on the other ; and sucli products
of the industry of the 26,000.000 people
comprised in this Customs Union as they
plf .Tsed to exhibit, it is now our intention
to describe.

The department of the ZoUverein was in
the ea-tcrn part of the Crystal Palace,
approximating towards the centre. It ex-
tended on both sides of the Nave into the
galleries, as well as on the ground-floor ;
having Russia on tlic ca-st and Austria on
the west. Intermingled with it, liowevcr,
was tho space .appropriated to Northern
Germany, an aruingcmcnt justified by the

AN IT/LUSTRATKl) CVCLOIMIDIA 01'' TIIH fJllKAT KXlll lilTlOX OV l«5l.

geographical i-oliitioiia of the two, but nt variance with the iiolitical
(loBTgnntioiirt, anil which h(!canio the cause of 801110 confusion. In truth,
disorilor in arningcincnt, singuhirly cnougli for the incthocUial (jcnnaiw,
soeniH to us to hiivu charactcriHod tlicir |iart of the Kxhiljition. Althougli Wir-
tombcrg, Saxony, ami Uavaria liad distinct exhibition rooms on tliu south
side of tho Nave, in which to (Usphiy tlieir clotlis and nliawls ami stockings ;
in tho (Iraml Ccntro Hall of the Zollveroinon the north some of their most
distinguished iinnlucts, and tlie mont distinguished jinnlucts of tho other
States, were mingled with the products of I'russia, which disabled us from
forming a just aiipreciation of the industry of tho seiiarato people, or of
tho whole Z(dlvercin. In the medley, we camiot compare and contrast
what has been ilone by the lively, vain, egotistical and royal I'russian with tho
prod\U'tions of the more soliil and somewhat duller Hessian; nor can wo
convenicntlv distinguish between the industry which is rooted on the Iscr,
and that wiiich nourishes mi the Klbo or tho lUiinc.

For the above reasons the general remarks wliich follow will apply in a
gi-oat measure to tho industry of all the Glermans, not excluding even the
Austrians, though we shall describe separately tho Austrian part of the
I'Jxhibition ; and we must, therefore, make our readers fully aware of the
number of people to whom they apply. The ZoUverein comprises about
'_'!!. 00(1,(1110 ; Nurtliern (lerniaiiy, about 4,0(10,0(10; and Austriiui (jermany,
iili'iut 7,000,000. The tracts of laud inhabited by these people extend
IVom the Baltic to tho Iser and tho Rhine, fn.m the German (Jccaii to the
('arpathian Alps, and embraces a great variety of soil-surface and climate.
It is rich in minerals and raw products, and is traver.sed by numerous
large rivers. It is the best .and principal part of central Kuropo. For such
;i country and such a people, the exhibition of their industry struck us as
roiiiparatively poor and compa.ratively uniform. There was a sameness iu
i( tiu-.iughout, not met with in any other part of tho Exhibition, of equal

inc(, elisions.

1 11 one great natural quality Germany is ileficieut, and tho want of it Ua.'S
Imcii much .aggravated, instead of being relieved, by the policy of its goveru-
iiicuts. It has comparatively a small extent of sca-eoast. Denmark and
1 1 liland shut it out from a direct connexion and communication with two
|i;irts of tlie ocean. It has had. therefore, iu relation to other .states, a small
ind not fivst-growing foreign trade. The many small states into which it
\Mis divided, and the absurd fiscal regulatioiLS in each, added to the want of
(nc;m communication, till very moilern times, limited and hampered its
internal traffic. The consequence wa.s, that the subjects of each state were
[■irlty much confined to their own products for subsistence; and comiJara-
(ivcly little separation of employmciit.s, or little division of labour ousued.
Old, ;vs a cousecpience, little variety iu the industry of the people. The

Germans rather pride themHelvcH on tlio circuniHtancc, that diviiiion of
labour iH not extensive nmonght them — that they arc what they call many-
handed — but that is only an approucli to barbarium, when every individuiil
pioviileil by his own nioaiiM for all bin wants. To natiiffy the cominoii
demands for food and clothing they all neccfsai-ily afloptcd the same or
similar arts ; and the nanio caiLsea continuing to prevent the Be]ianitiou of
cmploynients, they have contimicd the siune or himilar practices. In con-
junction with this, tuo, the reB|]ective governments undertook to a degree
unknown in Enghuid to guide the imlustry of their subjects ; and as tlicy
were gonciidly actuated by a similar policy, and liad similar objects to
attain, they generally directed the industry of the people in sUnilar paths.

After the wants of I'oodand clotliing were
supplied, the great object of the ditl'ercnt
governments, besides the common desire
of military power, wjus to have luxuries pro-
vided for courts, which for a long period
borrowed their ideas of luxury from tho
French court as a ouiimon model. Accord-
ingly, as you pass amidst apartments hung
full of cloth (Uid of damasked linen, with
a profusion of swords and cutleiy, walking-
sticks, pipes, buttons, and coiunion tools,
models of old castles or modern residences,
with some fine porcelain, some exquisitely
carved ivory, some delicate bronzes, and
some admirably stained glass, you iind a
great uniformity in the products of nume-
rous distinct and dift'erent people, for which
you were hardly prepared ; nor is the im-

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T.IE SVJI'U 01' LUHLKIDUKG.— ESGIiLIiAr.U.

GOBLET. COXKAD KS'OLL.

URIXKIXG-CUP. — JOHASJJ KALtIG

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

pression removed by the appearance of some well prepared leather for
diSerent purposes, some valuable mineral and other raw products, several
specimens of wool, and some splendid crystals and colours ; the
result of chemical arts, and a little well-^vrought furniture. What is
called Berlin-wool, raised carpeting scarcely fit to walk on, models
of castles, dried fruits, a multitude of. ornaments in cast u'on, an abundance
of toys, plaving cards, much ordinary jewellery, piles of stockings and
suspenders, " with a few printed books, complete the miscellaneous
assortment.

Many of the articles would excite surprise in any exhibition, but we are
chiefly astonished to find them so many leagues away from the place where
they were made. The Germans supposed they were to sell, as well as
exhibit; they looked on the Exhibition as a market, and thought that the
cheapness of their hose, their cutlery, their common tools, and their cloth,
■would ensure them numerous customers. In fact, many of their articles
have been exhibited avowedly only on account of their cheapness, not on
account of their excellence, theh rainty, or their beauty ; and tlie exhibitors
prepared and published a catalogue in which the prices are mai'ked, for the
very purpose of showing that they can undersell the Enghsji, particularly
in hose, cutlery, and cloth. Till the quality of the ai'ticles can be brought
to a test, this appeai-s to be possible. They imitate our piitterns, and try to
sell their goods as English. We noticed — and to our surprise, in the Saxon
department, and amongst the hose — one or two pair marked very distinctly,
in good English lettci's, " Merino patent," an inscription which used to be
stamped on a favourite English production. We have some doubts of the
propriety of allowing such contrefarons to ajipear in the Exhibition. They
reminded us of what we saw on the Hartz mountains a great many years
ago, where the shot cast at a celebrated lead manufactoiy v,'ere all packed
up in bags, with the names and labels of English makers imprinted on
them. We were told by an American gentleman in the Exhibition. '' It
is quite true the Germans have improved very much in making cutlery
within a few yeai'S. I have had a great deal to do with them iu the matter.
They were anxious to sell their goods iu our markets ; but they were so
clumsy, our people would not look at them. I then sent patterns of your
best London and Sheffield makers to Solingen, and the Germans made their
cutlery after these patterns, putting on them the name of Rodgers and Son,
or some other celebrated English maker. The German cutleiy looked very
well, and was sold cheap ; but, on being tried, it proved to be not half .^o
good as that of the English, and I doubt whether the sale will increase."
In v.irious kinds of cutlery, that can scarcely be proved, the Germans make
a great show ; but it is evident even here, that the bulk of their articles arc
male after English patterns. The display was intended, too, we believe,
more for foreign markets, than for consumption here.

If the Exhibition wer^ a mart, where the artisan could buy a pair of
pincers, a dandy a cravat, a housewife ajar of preserves or of potted larks,
and parents Christmivs presents for their children, it could scarcely have
been richer in the supply of these and similar articles from Germany.
AVith some exceptions, which it will be our business hereafter especially to
not ce, the products of Gei-man industry, taken as a whole, therefore, may
be characterised iis displaying little variety ; and many parts of it were
trivial, neither adding to national wealth nor helping forward national
gi-eatness. Admitting the fact, but implying tliat the Germans have a
richer and more varied iudusti-y than tiicy have shown, which we doubt, a
German writer in the A llyem^ine Ze'iiunrj states "that Germany is here
exhibited to foreigners as b-niall change." Who, then, is culpable for havmg
kept back the large coins and the more precious ingots, if they exist ]

German industry is not only uniform ; it is obviously imitative. There is
as complete a want of independent thought in their art as in their political
reforms.

France had its hijouUrie, its exquisite ornaments, its unmistakeablo
graceful luxuries, its adornmeuts for boudoirs and persons ; England had
its solid and compact machinery, often as neat and elegant in form, though
rigid, as it Wi\3 useful ; the United States had their rocking and their other
chairs, their sewing machine, and their almost infinite application of
caoutchouc: Russia had its furs, its homp, its malachite; even Austria,
witli its Vienna furniture and its Bohemian glass, wliich ai'e German, had
somctliing of its own. Xay, Tunis and India shone out conspicuous and
peculiar. Only Germany, of all the nations of Europe, had nothing
apparently in the Exhibition which could be said to be cliai'acteristic of it,
but its toj-s, a few skull caps, and some useful specimens of domestic wool
manufacture. Borrowing its ornamental arts mainly from France, its u.seful
arts from England, the things it exhibited are chiefly imitations, ve>y often
deficient in the grace, the lightness, the neatness, and convenience of the
originals. Its productions are solid, substantial, sometimes cumbrous, and
generally honestly made, but they are all in the main French or English,
rather than peculiarly German. Perhaps those who have had the ordering
of the matter have wished chiefly to exhibit the success of the Germans as
rivalling other nations, and have rather Tirought forward European than
German productions. They have exhibited no specimen of their dm-able
but old-fashioned furniture ; of their I'raclilwaf/en with their loa'is packed
and secured to resist the jolting of bad roads, like the cargoes of ships,
which move not when tossed about by the waves; no specimen of their
multifarious vegetable productions on which the bulk of the people live, or
of the useful and couifortable garments that their domestic industry still
provides for the gi-eat multitude, all of wliicli are at once peculiar and
picturesque; they are sometimes, too, convenient. Germany has many
peculiarities, but they belong to a past age, and the Royal Commissioners,

who have presided over the German part of the Exhibition, have not been
desirous to exhibit them, *■ I cannot deny," says the WTiter already quoted,
'* that, in general the specimeus of German industry in the Exhibition (the
fine arts are not included) have no peculiar character, and give me tha
idea of its having been the intention to avoid exhibiting what is national.
German industry appears iu every department to lean on something foreign,
or to be an imitation, and nowhere to stand on its own feet. At one place
we see the hand of England, and at another that of France. I may be
mistaken, but this is my veiy distinct impression." If we turn to the
machinery exliibited, we shall find it of little importance ; and the principal
objects, such as the vacuum pan and the Jacquard loom, very imperfectly
improved as compai-ed with others in the building, are borroned from
England or France. The machinery exhibited, and generally too the tools
and tlio cutlery, arc imitations of those of England, and can have nothing
to recommend them, if it be not their cheapness.

Tlie nature of German industry in general is brought into a strong light
by the varied industry of Hamburgh, and the taste displayed in the
exhibition of the articles sent from that city. It has furnished no less than
123 ; while the rest of North Gei-many. the kingdom of Hanover, Lubeck,
the two Meckleuburghs, have supplied only 35. They consist chiefly of
useful and ornamental furniture, such as side-boards, sofas, chairs, &c., of a
very superior description of clocks, musical instruments, specimens of
oil-cake and refined sugar, charts, pianofortes saws, rocking-chairs, looking-
glasses, bird-cages, and a large assortment of walking-sticks. Here, how-
ever, instead of being merely hung against the wall, they were displayed in
a cheerful tasteful manner, so that the Hamburgh room had a light and
elegant appearance, superior to that of the central room of the ZoUverein,
in which were heaped together all the best and richest of its contributions.
On entering the .apartment, the spectator was much struck by a represen-
tation of the sun sending his rays on all sides, placed against the opposite
wall of the apartment. It was composed of walking-sticks, cliiefly fi'om the
workshops of C. A. Meyer, who employs several hundred persons, and
exports walking-sticks to all parts of the world. In Hamburgh, as in
London, it is a considerable trade; and, being a source of wealth, is not
inaptly typified by the sun. Herr Meyer, tlie founder of the house, is a
good specimen of what trade does for men in Germany as well as iu
England. He arrived in the city from Thuvingi.a, with no other wealth
than his skill in carving wood ; and, by care, frugality, and an opportunity
of exerting his talents, he has created a large establishment, and become
one of tlie princ'?ly merchants of the city. He is an individual example of
the general opulence and general industry and skill of Hamburgh. It was,
and yet is, practically and truly free — not merely nominally a free city ;
and the success of its industry a-s displayed in the Exhibition in comparison
witli the industry of the many long-enthralled states of Germany, does
honom- to its freedom.

As we have already adverted to the Sculpture, and intend including that
from Germany, wo do not extend our present remarks to the latter.
German sculpture takes a high place in the Exhibition, but that art,
though treated successfully by the Germans, we need scarcely remark, is
not peculiarly German.

With these first and general impressions we now proceed to make a tour
(from recollection) of the ZoUverein department, commencing with that on
the nortli side. Our attention is arrested at the entrance by an object
which forcibly reminds us of the militai'y character of the principal State
of the Verein, and indeed of all the German States. Pl.anted at the centre,
as if to forbid entrance, or at least to allow it only on conditions, standt
a remarkably well-mounted field-piece. The gun gives you an idea o!'
solid and substantiid work. At the same time it is highly polished ; and
the plain varnished carriage is a perfect model, on a small scale, like one oi'
Maudslay's engines, of compactness and neatness combined with great
strength. The workmanship has the finish of a jewel, concealing in tlio
instrument the power of a demon. Beneath it are polished cuirasses and
otlier instruments or emblems of war, destruction, and death. Tliis is the
shape in wliich an invention of a new process for tiie manufacture of one
of the most useful things shown iu the whole department, cast-steel, i-;
exliibited. We admire Herr H. Krupp's skill, but should have though i,
better of him and better of Germiny had it been displayed iu rollers sucli
as are employed with great success at Munich, for grinding corn, or surgical
instruments, or sometliiug more appropriate to this peaceful age and to the
Exhibition, than a model field-piece.

Close by it, however, inviting you to the confidence which the gun
repels, h.angs an altar-piece, in which arc worked and emblazoned tlie
words, " Gutt ist die Liche ; und wer hi der LitJie bleibt, der blciU in Gull, nnd
GoU in ikm'" ("God is love; and who dwells in love, dwells in God, and
God in him" ). There is not much in the article to admire, but the senti-
ment is very expressive of the afl'eotionate kindly chai-acter of the Germans.
The care tbey take to provide amusement and employment, as well a^
instruction fur their childx'cn, as exemplified in one of their chief m.anu-
factures, and which a rugged hard people would have neither patience to
begin nor the kindliness to continue, is another illustration of the same
characteristic. The more one traces their kindliness in their manners, the
more it is to be regretted that a contrary principle presides over their
atfairs, as typified by the field-piece. The softness of their character seem.^
to allow a long dominion to a harsh political system ; and a little more
rugged energy amongst them would keep better in check the violence
against which they now only dmect a few enigmatic sentences.

Pa.ssing through, with some indifference, rows of arras, perhaps tlie

vN ILLUSTIiATKl) CyCLOIM':i)IA Ol'' TIIK fJillAT KXIUIUTTON OF IHol.

Hiiontotor may linvo lii» ntloiitinii iiKiiiiuntiirily iui'OhUuI hy tlio vaiiouB
nneoimenH of crookory, oiirtlu'iiware, or chiuii inaDiifiictiirccl in tlio npi);li-
iiimrli(i"(l ol' Kniiikloi't on tlio (hlcr. It in clour, holid, nnrl f(. nenilly of
[ilBttsiiig funiiH. a|ipnixiMiatiiiK mum to our KtoiU!\v.-iro tliun to (iiiytliiilK else
tliot woaro iicquiiintml willi, Init is Btipoiior to tlmt in it« rlo;ir iiiiil uniform
Kinzo. For noiitmisH niid utility, it is Rcarocly fiur|ia.sM'it in tlio whole
colli'cUon. 'ilic porccluiii. hotli of .S;ixony unil I'rUHRiii, in, of course, niui:h
nioro spleiicliil ; somo of tluit is very much to ho luliuireil, nml KooniH to
(iuil nunu nius customcrH, for.several of tlio iirticleH of tho iieilin mannfucturc
wcro very nuon marked '* disposed of;" but the porcelain, with its
.admirablu paintings, cornea within tho reach of a few, wliilo tho ologant
;iod cleanlookins" Ihonmidren in attainalilo by tho mimy, and uuist con-
tribute to the pleasures of all wlio use it. This wiiro is largely exiiortod
to eouutries with which Knglnnd" trades ; and we are inclined, tliercfore, to
Knppo,se that it must be as cheap as our ordinary ware, and it is, generally
speaking, mure elegant, and appears less brittle, (vombiued with several
other things vihicli come from Frankl'ort on tho Oder, it gives lis a
unieh higher idea than wo before had formed of that city as a place of
' I niufHeturo.

I'loiu the very eireuiustance that much of tho cutlery, particularly that

■nil .Soliiigoii, is maile after English patterns, it appears very good, and

.iii.;Ii superior to that which was formerly, and is still very nmch in use in

: ia;tny. Some of the surgical instruments, too, are very good — indeed

aid to I'C made better in Berlin than iu any other i)art of the continent.

lie of t'lO common jewellery, tho stipply of which is large, is well set;

Mill the bulk of it, as is to be expected from the cpuintity, is common, and

rithcr tasteless,

(lei'inauy abounds in metals ; all the zinc in use comes from thcro : but,
« illi tho exception of its being applied to roof a liouse, a model of which is
exliiliited, showing some very substantial workmanship, and for spouts, we
n.itieed no other impiutant application of this ductde, and now much used
metal. Those who have visited Germany must be well aware that there
aie many uses to which it might be most advantageously applied, and
^vould contribute more to the health and comfort of the Germans, and the
neatnoss of their houses, than most of the poor articles they exhibit.

Passing to the west and north, opposite the room for the machinery of
'lie ZoUverein, we observe two specimens of ma-ssive safes for money and
Mpers. One is remarkable for the ease with which its heavy doors are
limed, and the other for tho impossibility of opening it without receiving
iii4ruetious from the maker, and both for their many conveniences. Four
I tliem, we have seen it stated, have already been ai'dcrcd from Germany,
11 consequence of their having been seen here.

Tlio machine-room looks bare, and at least is quite spacious enough for
ilie machinery tho Zollverein chooses to place in it. Wo believe that
iGermany is richer iu such contrivances than the Exhibition shows. We
'should pronounco it very backward, wero wo to judge solely of its
specimens here. Cards for combing, made of imported materials, seem to
us very inferior to those made in Manchester. Engines for coining,
1 lunching, and milling are good, but nothing extraordinary. The Jacquard
loiiiu and vacuum pan we have already mentioned.

Civilisation and the power of man are directly in projiortion as he is
enabled by skilfxd machinery to command tlie assistance of nature. As he
makes the expansive power of steam, or tho weight of the atmosphere, or
the i-ushiug of streams, work for him. he is strong and powerful. Machinery
being generally private property, men cannot be constrained to display it
when they fear that the secrets connected with it may be discovered ; and
hence the samples in the Zollverein are not specimens of the best machinery
1 ,of Germany. If thoy were, we should form an unfavourable opinion of the
i Ipast, and a very mifavourable augury for tho future of tliat country.

I Now coming back to the south, we enter the great centre room of the
iZoUverein, crammed full of tho bijoux of German art ; but we must
j Ireserve wl.at wo have specially to say of that and other parts of the
I jexhibitiou of the ZoUverein to another occasion.

ili.usthations in page 85.
the nymph op luhleiberg. bt engelhard.
A IX who have steamed up tho Rhine know the precipice of Lurlei, and
,ts famous echo, which is supposed to repeat sounds fifteen times. There
,3 some legend attached to it, in which a nymph is concerned, though at
the moment we do not recollect the particulai's. M. Engelhard, of Ham-
burgh, amongst other contributions in the plastic art, presents us with
an inspiration of this fanciful creation — a comijosition of some merit of
Iciign, and not deficient iu grace.

GOBLET. ET CONRAD KNOLL, OF BAVARIA.

Conrad Knoll's goblet, the model of wliich, in plaster of Paris, was
^hibitcd in the ZoUverein Hall, and which is intended to be cast in
ironze, is covered with devices illustrative of '* loving and living on the
i&ine." Those who know what a German's enthusiasm is in behalf of his
utiful Rhine, will bo able to estimate the spirit in which this little
decorative work has been conceived, and the laboiu* and care bestowed
iilii.n it.

DRINKING-CDP. BT JOHANN HALBIG, OF BAVARIA.

Here we have another tribute from German art to German natioUiality.
This " Imperial German drinking-cup," or rather plaster model for one, is
-iqiposed to represent "the unity of Germany." On the top stands Ger-
iii,iiiia in the Imperial States ; the figures surrounding the cylinder are the

allegories of tho virtues nocosiiary to unity. Tho coat* of aniin arc those of
the Ke<leral .Statin; on the cover that of tho cnipiro and the kingdoiiiH ;
on tho cylinder those of the smaller German SUitoa. It i.i thun llnit Ger-
man thought and German tispiratioii, denied Wprcnnion through "tho
ordinary channela of intelligence," a» thoy call neWBpaiiorn (for nhortncw!)
in the House of hereditary wimlom, find vent in allegory and |.la«ter of
I'ari.i, In this light the cup beforo iiu in a curiosity; an a work of art, it
has small pretcnsioiLS to adniiiittion.

SMALL NOTABILIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

" PHILOSOPHY in Sport made Bcienoa in Earnest" wan th« title of a
little book which we recollect reafling with very great pleaaure aome
years ago; and, published at a time when the generality of the community
had hardly begun to inquire "in earnest" into tlie important secrets of
natural and physical soicnco, now every day producing such useful practical
results, tho modest duodecimo in question did gooil service l>y the awakeuiug
and inviting very many individuaU to tho pleasures and advantages of
various branches of study, which they would otherwise never have dreamed
of including within their province of intellectual observation.

But " Philosophy in Sport" is not always " Science in Earn03t ; " and indus-
try unguided by the unerring truths of philosoiihy and thooisential dcmanda
of utility, is sometimes nothing better than industi-y "run mad." Industry
is. ono thing, and caprice is another and a very di6feront thing : — iu like

DUNIN'S EXPANDl.NG FIGURE OF A MAX.

manner, we may say that ingenuily is one thing, and whimsicality another;
persevering good sense is one thing, and persevering folly a very different
thing : so of workmauship and the production of a useful article, when
compared with a prolonged waste of human labour iu concocting and
finishmg a trifle, a toy, or an absurdity. These tilings all involve a dif-
ferent species of effort and result, and call for a very different sort of
estimate. Amidst the innumerable examples of well applied labour in tlie
Great Exhibition, it must, nevertheless, be confessed that there were also a
considerable number, amomiting, indeed, to a motley variety of articles, in
the construction of which we are bound to say that much thought, and yet
more labour, have been gi-ievously misapplied.

Foremost amongst these we must place Count Duuin's " Man of Steel."

This is a piece of mechanism, in the figure of a man, which is constructed

of seven thousand pieces of steel. Most of them appear to be either springs

or slides, and they are so put together .and arranged as to be capable of a

{Continued on pa'je !»'X)

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

CLOCK-CASE. DESIGNED BY J. BELL.
Mu. Bell lias contiibutcd more to oruamcntal manufacture, in the plastic
line, than, perhaps, any other artist of the day ; and the present is by no
means the least happy of his productions, coming as it does within the
scope of legitimate sculpturesque decoration of a work of utility. It is
styled the " Hours Clock-Case," from the fact of the face being embellished
with a bas-relief representing the twelve hours circling round the clock ;
which itself has an enamelled dial, '■ representing the .sun, its centre a
flying phmnix, which fable relates is born anew every 500 years." At the
base are two figiu-es respectively illustrative of repose at evening, and the
wakening to labour in the morning. The apex is crowned with a figure of
Psyche, or the soul, looking upward, emblematic of eternity. The whole
is prettily conceived, aud plea.singly designed ; though it might perhaps
be improved in subsequent copies by omitting the void interval between the
figures and the clock face, which produces an effect of flatness which is uot
satisfactory. The connexion between " the hours " and the clock would
also be more distinctly marked by this alteration : the figures might, in
short, be represented as supporting it through space. Some modification
would, in that case, be neces.sary in the clock-face itself, which, instead of
representing the sun, should represent a clock-face tout -pure. This work
has been produced in electro-bronze, by Messrs. Elkingtou, the exhibitor.s,
in their best style.

SILVER VASE. BY WAGNER, OF BERLIN.

One of the most interesting objects of art eontr
Exhibition of Industi-y is a magnificent silver eper
ment of Messrs. Johann
Wagner and Son, silver-
smith'i and jewellers to the
King of Prussia. It is 4 .J feet
in height, and weighs 80 lb.
It was designed and execut-
ed solely by M. Albert
Wagner, to whose artistic
taste aud skill it does the
greatest credit. A luiity
of design runs through

ibuted by Berlin to the
gne, from the establish-
the whole. The artist
has embodied the " Pro-
gress of Mankind to
Civilisation, under the
guidance of Genius."
The group of figures at
the base, which are
designed with vigour
and freedom, represent
man in the first stage of
levelopment, and as the

hunter and herdsman. The female figures above denote the blessings of
abundance attending the more regular pursuits of cultivation and husbandly.
The bas-reliefs which encircle the outside of the vase have a reference to
both these ages. Here closes the external stniggle with nature. From
within rises a palm-ti'ee, sui-mounted by Genius bearing a torch, and strang-
ling the evil principle of ignorance, typifying tlie internal culture of the
soul to its perfectibility. The figures are sculptured, embossed, and cast,
the workmanship of every part being of the finest description. M. Wagner
has been awarded a prize medal for this elegant work.

ORNAMENTAL IRONWORK DOME. BY THE COALBROOK-
DALE COMPANY.
One of the most pretentious works in the Building was this fantastic and
withal remarkably pretty inutility. The casting supports the reputation of

the founders ; but there
are many and grave
obj ections to the design,
wliich is childish and
purposeless. Though
called a dome, it is
merely a rustic garden
house. The foolish-look-
ing vane which crowned
the whole we have
omitted for want of
space. Within is a cast
of J. Bell's "Eagle Slay-
er." The eagle trans-
fixed by an arrow at
the top inside must be
considered an absolute-
ly inexcusable piece of
bad taste.

The pianofortes iu the
Crystal Palace,more par-

ticularly the in-
struments plac-
ed in the Nave,
were a never-
failing attraction
to loungers. On
the more fa-
shionable days
crowds of aristo-
ci-atic and atten-
tive listenei-3
were to be seen
lingering around
and witliin the
east-iron dome
oftheCoalbrook-
dale Company,
listening to the
tones of Col-
lard's splendid
grand pianoforte
whic,h here
found a resting-
place.

.^.-.jlv..Li^ i,y :. i>LJ,i..- JiA.,liA^, ILlw.U UV LLkl.NOlU.N.

SILVEU YAPK.-WAtiXKK, UEHLl.N.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOVMmA OF THE OHEAT EXHIBITION OP 18.-.1

ORNAMENTAL IKOXWOHK DoME.-BY Tlii: COALDKOOK-DALE COMPANV.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

graduated movement, by means of which the proportions of the whole
figure maj- be expanded from the standard size of the Apollo Belvidere to
that of a Goliath. From these colossal proportions it may again be con-
tracted at pleasure to any size between them and its oi-iginal standard, as
now displayed. The mechanism is composed of 875 framing pieces, 48
grooved steel plates, 163 wheels, 202 slides, 476 met;U washers, 482 spiral
springs. 704 sliding plates, 497 nuts, S500 fixing and adjusting screws, mth
numerous steadying pins, so that the number of pieces is upwards of 7000.
The only utility we have ever heard suggested as derivable from this
elaborate piece of mechanism, is its applicability to the various measm-e-
ments of army clothiers or tailors, as it would serve for the figures of men
of various sizes. We do not know whether this is the purpose assigned to
it by the inventor, as it seems a very absurd one ; the same result being
far more easily attainable by the incomparably more simple means of half
a dozen dummies, or wooden lay-figures.

^ But hold ! it behoves us to speali with deference and humility in this
matter, seeing that the Council of Chairmen of Juries, tlie supreme lieads of
wisdom, to wliom the dispensation of the Exhibition honours wa-s
intrusted, have thought jiroper to reward the constructor of this huge
mechanical toy with a " Council Medal." Yes, hear it, Trougliton and
Simms, who talk about novelties in astronomical instruments to which a
councU medal was denied, though recommended by the jury ; hear it,
Clausseu, whose newly-discovered, and nationally important processes in tlie
prepara tion of flax received only a common medal ; hear it, Losely, whose
compensated pendulum, one of the most ingenioiLS and valuable improve-
ments in horology in tlie wliole Exliibition — ; bear it, Applegath, whose
vertical printing machine — ; hear it all ye whose performances liave to share
the common fate of merit in *" a certain degi*ee ; " — tlie Jury in Class X (*■' tliat
of pliilosophical instruments, and processes depending upon their use,")
have awarded, and the Councd of Cliairmen have confirmed to Count
E. Dunin a council medal; — " Fui' the extraordinanj application of mecha-
nism to his expanding Jlifure of a man!"

After reading this result, we began to be somewhat doubtfiJ about all
we set out witli touching " Philosophy in Sport," and nice distinctions
between " ingenuity " and " whimsicahty " and so forth ; and in a moment
of bewilderment and irritation, were almost upon the point of consigning
the notes iipon which the rest of tliis article will be composed to tlie
fire. But fortunately, we were restrained from so doing, by an urgent
application for " copy " from a quarter which is not used to be denied, and
therefore we proceed with the task upon vvhicli we set out.

Still in the Philosophical Instrument Department, we come upon " an
apparatus of a peculiar construction, showing the ebb and flow of the tides,"
exhibited by a Mr. Ryles, of Cobridge. Staffordshire Potteries, who thus
describes the novel theory it is intended to illustrate : — " The artiele I sent
to the Exhibition, is an appar.atus to illustrate the idea of the earth, heing a
living creature encased in a shell, as a snail-house or sea-shell, and by tlie
action of the heart, causing the tide to ebb and flow ! Press down tlie
blower, and the heart (as seen through the ghiss tliat is on the top of the
shell), will contract, causing the tide to rise; let tlie air out of the shell,
and the heart will expand, caitsmg the tide to fall." He adds, " I want a
patron tliat would enable me to show how Me tide causes the rotatory motion
of the earth, which only poverty prevents my doing."

Mr. Ryles has not received a council medal, nor a prize medal, not even
" honourable mention," which, considering the honours heaped upon the
" expanding figure of a man," we consider hard. The lea.st Count Duuin could
do, would be to share his council medal with Kyles, and, thrusting the
model of the " living creature " constituting the Earth, into his " extra-
ordmary application of mechanism," exhibit its expansibility by revealing
" the action of the heart " of the encased monster.

Dr. Gray, of Perth, has invented a medical walking-staflf, containing
instruments, melicines, and otlier professional articles. Would not a small
tin case, or a sandwich-box, have answered tho same purpose far better,
and far more conveniently, as it miijht be put into the pocket, where the
"medicines," not being half so much "shaken" as in the walking-staff,
would have loss chance of fermentation or other injury .'

An "artificial silver nose" has heen invented by Mr. ^V^litehouse. We
will not pronounce rashly upon this; but it strikes us, that, as all artificial
noses, both in shape, size, and the amount of nose required, will depend
upon the amount wanting by aa individual, and the size and shape, in fact,
suited to his particular case, the material also of which the nose was
manufactured would very often have to he regulated by the special circum-
stances.

Art-manufactures in mutton fat are certainly a novelty, and Mr. W. E.
Hall, of Bideford, exhibits "a socio, or kind of vase," made of a mixture
of mutton fat and lard. We should fear that in a tot summer, or in a
cold winter when a good fire is needed in the room, these articles would
be extremel)' liable to a change of form not at all contemplated by th(!
inventor; nay, there might bo occasions on which they would "run away"
altogether.

Mr. MClintock, of York, exhibits a chain in regular links, tho whole o.

which, we are informed, hiis been cut out of a solid block of wood ; to
what purpose, except to the unnecessary length of time such a performance
must occupy, we are totally at a loss to conceive. Mr. M'CUntock has,
however, been surpa-ssed by a lieutenant of the navy, whose name has |
escaped us, and wbicli we do not know where to look for in the Catalogue, ;
who has achieved the same result from a block of wood vnih the help of
no other tool than a penknife. Will anybody endeavour to surpass them
both, we wonder, by doing the same thing with a pin ?

We do not very well know what to say about the " osti'acide," the instru-
ment with a grand name for opening oystei's. and bearing a close resem-
blance to a pair of sugar-nippers. It may be useful, or it may cut the
oysters to rags in the operation ; M'e hope not ; but Messrs. Brown, of
Newcastle, will excuse us if we hint, th.at, to avoid this, it may be neces-
sary to practise opening oysters with the ostracide almost as much as with
the old-fasliioned oyster-knife.

'* The semibreve guitar " of Mr. Dobrow.sky was a good thought enough
for a new name, and for a fresh attempt to prolong the sound of the notes
of the guitar ; but, if the iiiventor would have us understand by the terni
"semibreve" that his instrument will sustain a note of any such duration,
we must plead absolute .scepticism to the possibiUty of any instrument of
this kind being made to accomplish such a result.

Tlie euharmouic guitar, manufactured by Panormo, of High-street.
Bloomsbury, chiiuisforits original inventor and designer no less a personage
than the ingenious Colonel Perronet Thompson, M.P., who some years nc^:'.
invented a new kind of organ. Of the enharmonic guitar now cxhibitcl
it is announced that it is "capable of being arranged in the perfect rati^-
for upwards of twenty keys." We do not doubt this ; we accept it at oncu.
not only from what we know of the scientific capabilities of a guitar, but
of the great scientific attainments of Colonel Thompson ; but after his
enharmonic guitar has been " airanged " for any of these keys, what \vill
be the effect of " plajnng " in them, amidst all this mechanical interference
with the finger-board 1 So much for the impediments to execution, to say
nothing of tone. We must say. in justice to Mr. Panormo, the Qjanufacturcr,
that, benig convinced bis own simple guitars on the Spanish model hav-
more tone in them than any otlier giutars. we regret he should havr
employed so much labour in the construction of this very ingenious
learned, and impracticable invention.

Mr. Jones, of Lombard-street, exhibits "a silent alarum bedstead to turn
any one out o/ ted at a given hour." This is certainly one of the most amusing
inventions we ever heard of. It assumes a degree of density in the sleeper
which no alarum can affect, or else a singular amount of luxurious weakness
of purpose. Tlie bed, therefore, acts the part of Picsolution for the sleeper :
and having been " set " over night for a given hour in the morning, tho
said incorrigible sleeper finds the bed revolve so as to tilt him out ; and a
bath being placed by the bed-side, he may at once be relieved of all need
for summoning a resolution either to get up or to take a plunge.

The Cliinese have long been famous fur their cajirices of invention, and
whimsicalities of workmanship, over each article of which the greater
portion of the lives of several artisans appear to have been expended. We
find exhibited here some of their celebrated ivory balls, richlj- carved out-
side, and containing another, a size less, inside, richly carved also, with
open-work, to show you, th.at there are balls within balls to the extent of
twenty or more, each cut clear of the rest, and carved and capable of being
turned round — the whole of these being produced by means of a vai'iety of
curious tools and instrumonts, out of tho first solid b,"!!!. This, they assert,
nobody else can do ; and it may be true, for the Chinese are capable of ]
wasting any amount of time upon any triviality. But the Chinese are not
the only people who have a love for difficulties, for the sake of the unneces-
sary labour and time thoy involve, which gives the articles so much addi-
tional value in their eyes. If Quang Sing, of Cautun, carves and eugi-a%'es
upon peach stones, and makes baskets and boxes with the stones of
apricots and nectarines, Mr. Jacob, of Coventry-street, displays egg-shells
with carvings and engi-aviugs upon them, aud " views inside." If Shee-kuig,
of Macao, delights in wasting his own life, and the lives of others whom he
employs, in carving a nest of ivory balls out of one solid ball, instead of
obtaining a similar re-sult, (if the world must have these toys) by the
regular tools and simple means of ivory workmanship, we find several of
our own countrymen equally assiduous in substituting a common penknife
in order to perform operations which proper tools would effect far more
easily in a tenth, perhaps a hundredth part of the time. There seems, in
fact, a sort of mania for this )ienknife-work. Mr. Aston, of Chelsea,
executes a model of St. James's Church, South, in cardboard, with a pen-
knife ; Mr, ScoUick, of Birmingham, exhibits a model of St. Paurs Cathe-
dral ; and Mr. DickerL-JOn, of Waterloo-place, a model of York Min-ster. each
in cardboard, aud each employing no better instrument than a penknife.
M. Schnitzer, of Jei-usalcui, exhibits two vases carved, out of a species of
sandstone found in Jerusalem, with a penknife, which the proprietor, Sir
Moses Moutefiore, takes care to inform the world was " an ordinary
penknife."

In like manner, we find an exhibitor who displays a model cottage 1
composed of 20u0 pieces of willow wood (these also are all cai'vcd with a i
penknife) ; and there was a table to be seen which is composed of 2,000.000
of separate morsels, all inlaid in mosaic-work. The practical philosophers
and economists of modern times complain of the great waste of human [
labour in the construction of the Pyramids of Egypt — let thoni consider
the same subject in reference to this table.

Many of our readers were doubtless, like ourselves, much struck with

AN ILLUSTRATIH) (;Y(;1/)IVEI)IA OF THK filM-lAT KXIIIIJITION OF IH.",).

tlio inuilul of ii Hjiip, iiiuilu witli liottlflcurks, iind rigged in tlic Haiiio fiudiiou.
Tiio object of tliin '"euin-ice" \\v i-iitiiiut ratliuiii.

Ml'. Cii.fHeiis, 111' Iliillioni, exliiiiitoil ii iiunlc-l miulo in eMor pith; anil
Mr. C'lifriiril, 111' lOxetrr, ilis|il;iyi!il iiimlel.s niiidu " nl' tlio ]ii(li of tlie eiinunnn
groen nisli," wliicli lio i-arot'iiUy iuforius u^ i.i Hueli a-i i.s " umoiI in luakini,'
ruBlilinlits."

In line of Ifogai-tliH prints tboro is a capital satire uiion tlie uxpomlituro
of oxtraorilinuiy means to proilueo a Binijili! result. Vou see a pile of
OOMiplieateil niaeliinory, wliieli iiiiliuates tliat an operation reipiiring groat
power in aliiiiil to lie iliKplayeil. The skill of the artist in the ilesigii anil
in the lUTiingeniout of light ami simile eausies the eye to travel about and
oxauiine the viu'ious jjarts of tho nnichinery in order to ascertain the work
it is about to |ierfonii. when finally you discover at tho bottom of tho
great machino lUi oiilinary wine-bottle, the neck of which is corked, and
tlie whole of this ni.achinery is evidently employed in " drawing the cork."
Of a similar kind of elaboration in order to effect a very simide object,
wo fufti' wo nuist class some of tho new inventions in horns and flutes, to
tlie former of whit-li many complicated crooks and curves, and to the
latter many scarcely praeticablo keys have been added, merely to enable
the instiiimcnt to produce a certain note which might be omitted with no
great loss, or produced by otlier means. Nothing injures tone more than
a Buperalinndanco of mechanism. Vivier always plays on tho old l''reuch
horn, without any of tho complicated improvements, and Nicholson used
to play on a ihite niueh simpler tlian many now exhibited, and wo have
never heard any performer who gave so much tone to the iustruincnt.

An American inventor of the name of Wooil, exhibited a combination of
the pianofoitc and violin, with which ho assumes that pieces can bo jilayed
with the effect of these two instruments in concert. Something like this,
no doubt, may be accomplished by gi\nng an attaclmient to the piano,
wliioli shall produce a resemblance to the sound of a violin ; but in the
present instimco the inventor has literally attached a violin, played iipon
by four bows, which ai'e put in motion by a separate set of keys on a small
\ipper finger-board, wliich cause tlie bows to "saw" (.as we may truly say)
upwards and downwards, with an effect which we frankly confess to be
indescribable. You can see the whole operation; and a more ludicrous
thing both to see and hear, it has seldom been our lot to experience.
Moreover, there is nothing now in tho contrivance. The " Philosophical ''
Jury, t'lass Xa, however, discovered some peculiar merit in it, and have
awarded the maker " 50/. for the expenses incurred in constructing Ids
piano-violin ; " a slice of " solid pudding," (us Punch describes liis imaginary
award of '20.000/, to Sir Joseph Paxton,) fai' more acceptable than medal or
" honourable mention."

An inventor exhibited "a model of a carriage," which supplies its own
railway, laying it down as it advances, and taking it up after the wheels
have passed over. This is extremly ingenious ; but, unfortunately, it
supposes the existence of a level line for the operatio'^-, so that its utility
becomes r.ather questionable.

A drinking glass v/as exhibited, with a partition for soda and acid, to be
mixed separately, the junction of the two streams effecting effervescence
only at the moment of entering the mouth. Few people could "stand this"
we should think.

In the windows of most of the great cutlers of London may be .seen
knives witli an extraordinary number of blades ; and on the ground floor
of the Grand Exposition was exhibited a large glass case, as big as a hand-
some summer-house, full of all sorts of fine ciitlery and other workmanship
in steel, the most prominent features of which are several of these prepos-
terous knives. Some seem to have 50 blades, of all sorts of shapes and
sizes, others 1 50 blades, and one or two of them, we feel assured, cannot
display less than 400 or 500 blades. To accomplish this capricious feat,
the inventors are always obliged to have recourse to a strangely thick
handle of an utterly impracticable kind a* to all handling : and in the glass
case rcferreil to might be found one in the shape of a cross, thus combining
fom* handles, each one crowded with blades ; another has the handle in the
shape of a star or double cross, thus combining six handles, each one
bristling with lihi.les, and arranged at the end of each handle in the form
of a fan of bright penknives and blades of instruments. But all these are
surpassed in capricious ingenuity by a " knife," the handle of whicli, if we
must call it so, is a combination of three handles, each in form of a cross,
the lai'gest being in the iniddle. The tliree crosses are combined by an
upright shaft, and each of the three comprises four handles. Thus, we
liave twelve handles in one, and from each of the twelve there sticks out a
shining fan-work of blades and steel instruments, of all conceiv.able shaj^es,
and all real or imaginary offices, not one of which could be put in operation
amidst .such a crowd. It is oue of the most wonderfully useless things we
ever saw. As to the number of blades and tools, they defy calculation.
In the same case might be seen miniature knives, which are actually of the
same kind, and present numerous blades from a handle of an inch and a
half in length. Also miniature knives and scissors of an inch long, of
half an inch long, and of a quarter of an inch li;»ng ; and, by way of com-
pleting the wonder, twelve paii-s of miniature scissors, placed in Uttle brass
IBoales, which show that the whole twelve only weigh half a grain. They
require a microscope to be seen properly, when it becomes manifest that
tliey are perfectly fonned scissors. We suppose Messrs. Rodgers would
jSay, in explanation of all this fancy-work, that the use of it was to show the
world what Sheffield could do, not only in work, but in play.

GLASS MANUFACTURES.

71.-

-VaIIIOL'8 KiNIlS 01' Ol,AM T) l^CRlnRD.
CoioullINii.

Or.Ass CirrmtoxND

TN our first arliclo on tho subject of Glass Mnnnf.u;turo«, (No.4,pp. 49-51.)

after giving a history of that useful and beautiful production, we c<jnfined
our observations to a description of the jiroccss adopted by Messrs. C'liaiico
and Co., in manufacturing the ghtss used in the consti-uction of the Crystal
Palace— a process by wliich platoglaus wjis maile by blowing and preuiiiug,
somewhat after tho fashion of broaU-glas.s. Tliis it will be observed in a
new method of procedure as relates to platc-gla«s, and it i» one wliich
could not liavo been adopted if the licavy duties upon glass, which existed
till within the last six years, had still been retained. The rea.son of tlii.t L)
well known to all acquainted with tlie various processes euiployetl in tliu
manufacture, all of which were conducted under the turoeillance of the
exciseman. Hy the rigorous rule adopted by this tax-master, all material
once put in course of manufacture was held liable to duty, even though
broken, or wasted by accidental causes. The conscqiicuco was, that
experiments were out of the question, and all thoughts of attemjitiug new
or improved principles abandoned.

Having explained thus much, we will now retrace our steps B little, and
describe the various sorts of glass, and the processes ordinarily applied to
them, previous to the removal of the glass duties. AVo will aftenvanls
take a review of some important new processes of recent adoption, which
we find exemplified amongst the contributions to tho Great Exhibition.

Generally speaking, there are three kinds of glass in ordinary use : —
Flint-glass, Plate-glass, and Crown-glass ; but some make five soris, viz. : —
Fllnt-f/lass, or Ci'ijvUd ; Plate-glass; Crown^f/lass^ or Oerman shed-ylass ;
Broad ijlass, or romnion Wtinl'/w-glass ; and Bottle-fjlass,

Flint-f/lass, the most fusible of any, is used for bottles, utensils intended
to be cut and polished, and for various ornamental purposes. The best
kind is composed of white silieious sand, pearlash, red oxide of lead, nitrate
of potash, and the black oxide of manganese. It fuses at a lower tempc-
ratm'e thau crown-glass, and has a beautiful transparency, a gi'eat refnu;tive
power, and a eompai'ative softness, which enables it to be cut and polished
with case. On this account it is much used for glass vessels of every
description, and especially those which are intended to be ornamented by
cutting. It is also employed for lenses and other optical glasses. Fliut-
glass is worked by blowing, moulding, pressing, and grinding. Articles of
complex form, such as lamps and wine-glasses, are formed in pieces, which,
are fif forwards joined by simple contact, while the glass is hot. It appears
that the red lead used in tho manufiicture of liint-glass gives up a part of
its oxygen, and passes to the state of a protoxide.

Plate-glass, so called from its bcmg cast in plates or large sheets, is the
most valuable, and is used for mii-rors and the windows of carriages. It is
composed of white sand, cleansed with purified pearlashes and borax. But,
should the metal appear yellow, it is restored to its pellucid ti-ansparency
by the addition (in equal proportions) of a small ciuantity of manganese
and arsenic. It is cast on a large liorizontal table, and all excrescences are
pressed out by passing a large roller over the metal. To polish the glass.
it is h"dd on a horizontal table of freestone, perfectly smooth ; and then .i
smaller piece of glass, fastened to a plank of wood, is passed over the other
till it has received its due degi'ee of polish. But, to facilitate this process,
■n-ater and sand are used, .as in the polishing of mai'ble ; and, lastly, Tripoli,
smalt, emery, and putty, to give it lustre.

It has been already explained that a sort of plate-glass is now made by
blowing and pressing. It was so made for the Great Exhibition Building.

Crown-glass is the best sort of window glass, and differs from the flint-
glass in containing no lead, nor any metallic oxide, except manganese, and
sometimes oxide of cobalt in minute portions, not as flux, but for correcting
the natural colour. This glass is much harder and harsher to the touch
than the flint-glass ; but, when well-made, it is a very lieautiful article.
It is compounded of sand, alkali, either potash or soda, the vegetable a-shes
that contain the alkali, and gener.ally a small portion of lime. A small
dose of ai'seuic is often added, to facilitate the fusion. Zafl're, or the oxide
of cobalt, with gi'ouud fhnt, is often used to correct the dingy yellow of
the inferior sort of crown-glass : and by adding the blue, natural to glass
coloured with this oxide, to convert the whole into a soft light gi'een. 1 ounce
of zaffre is sutticient for lOOOlb. But when the sand, alkali, and lime, are
very fine, and no other ingredients are used, no zaffre, or corrective of bad
colour is required. A verj' fine glass of this kind may be made by 200
parts of pretty good soda, 300 of fine sand. 33 of lime, and from 250 to 300 of
the ground fr-agmeots of glass. AVe had formerly in London t',vo kinds of
crown-glass, distinguished by the places where they were wrought ; viz. : —
1, Eatcliff crovru-ghvss, -fthich is tho best aud clearest, and was first made
at the Bear Garden, on the Bankside, Southwark, but since at Rati-liff : of
this there are twenty -four tables to the case, the tables being of a circular
form, about three feet six inches in diameter. 2, Lambeth crown-glass,
which is of a darker colour than the former, and more inclining to green.

Crown-glass is made by blowing in the form of circular plates of 50 or
60 inches in diameter ; this is efl'ected in the following manner : a quan-
tity of " the metal," in a pasty state, having been collected upon the end of

THE CRYSfAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

the blowiug-tube, is converted by blowing into a globe of
the requisite thickness. This globe is then transferred to
the end of a rod, and after being re-heated, is twirled round
and round, — just as a mop is twii-led, in order to drive out
the water : the effect of this twii'ling, by the centrifugal force
generated, is to elongate the globe laterally : th;it is, to
flatten it gradually from the shape of an orange down to
that of a circular disk. The sheets may be seen in the circu-
lar form in the glass-cutting shops.

Broad-glass is an inferior kind of wiudow-gla.ss, made with
a cheaper kind of alkali. It is blown into a cylindrical form,
cut open, and spread into a flat plate, in the same way as
the jjlate-glnss for the Great Exhibition, described in our
previous notice.

1\xe bottle QT (jreen glass,
usually made of common
sand, lime, and some clay,
fused with au impiu'o
alkali, is very hard, and
resists the corrosive
action of all liquids much
better than flmt glass :
the green colour is owing
to the iron : and it is well
adapted for chemical
vessels.

We now come to speak
of Annealinrj, which is a
process which all glass
requires to undergo be-
fore using. For this pur-
pose large furnaces ai'e
prepared, where the
glass, after being blown
or cast, is deposited, first
in a heat not sufficiently
liigh to melt it, and it
is then successively re-
moved to cooler parts of
the annealing chamber,
till it becomes cold

enough to be taken out for use. If cooled too suddenly th6
glass would be too brittle ; and the effect of cooling without
any annealing, is curiovisly exhibited in what are known as
glass drops, or Prince liiiperCs tears. These are made by
letting drops of melted glass fall into cold water, wlicrehy
they become suddenly solidified without annealing. Their
form resembles that of a pear, round at one extremity, and
tapering to a slender tail at the other. If a part of the tail
be broken ofl', the whole drop falls to pieces with a smart
explosion.

Colouring. The different coloured glasses owe their tints
to the different metallic oxides mixed with the matei'iala
\\hile in a state of fusion. In this manner are made those

excellent pastes,
which so faith-
fidly imitate, and
not unfre<|iiently
excel, in brilli;).ucy
their originals, the
gems of antiquity.
The glass, how-
ever, for this pur-
pose, is prepared
in a peculiar man-
ner, and requires
great nicety. It
combines purity
and durability.
Opaque glass is
made by the ad-
dition of the oxide
of tin, and pro-
duces that beauti-
ful imitation of
enamel which is
so nnich admired.
Dials for watches
and clocks
thus made.

GlasS'Cutthig is
performed by

OKOUl' OF liollEJUA;,- CLAsa.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPyLDIA OF THE C.WY.XT KXIIIHITIOX OF 1851.

),'i-in(linK tlio sui-faeo upon mnM wIicl'Ik of »tone, inotsil, or wood;
tlio gliu'fs licing lield to the Hurfnco of tlic wIicoIh, nncl movod almut
by tlio Imnd of tlio workiniin in the diroctionn ncccn«iiry to produce
tho doMired figure. Tlio first cutting in dono with whccln of Btono ;
tlio sccoikI with iron, covered with Hliiirp Riuid nnd emery; and finally
with brush wheclH, covered with p\itty. Tho cut
aurfaccH nio polished in parts, or left dead ac-
cording to tho reciuirenicnta of the design. A
small streain of water is kept continually run-
ning on tho glass to prevent tho friction from
exciting too much lioat. In tho case of very thin
iuiirlcs, as tho finer description of wine-glasses,
ilh- material is supported by moans of a wooden
rmiii or mould introduced into it; upon which
also aro sometimes marked the principal points of
I the design.

I Wo now turn to a consideration of some of tho
rcniarkablo evidences of our newly developed
industrial energies, in this branch of m.aiuifacture,
presented by tho various collections exhibited in
the Crystal Palace. Of the Palace itself, and tho
Crystal Fountain which adorned its central com-
I'lirtiuent, wo have already spoken, in some detail ;
111- lia\o now to deal with other instances, indi\-i-
■ 111 illy less striking in their appeals to tho eye,
I'ut to the full a.s interesting iu an industrial and
-riontific i^oint of view.

Messrs. Chance and Co. who supplied the glasa
('>!■ tlie E.xUibitiou building, aro also exhibitors of
111 nrticlo which until tho removal of the duty
( \\ e shall never have done referring to that odious
I'lirtlien!) was scarcely ever attempted in this
icountry. One of the specimens of dioptric ap-
jparatus for Iighthou.ses, in the western nave, was
from their manufactory ; the other was con-
structed by Mr. Wilkin.s, of Long-acre, for tho
(Trinity Bo.ard. Tliis optical apparatus is itself a
'distinguishing feature of our improvement iu
glass manufacture. Hitherto all the lenses of this
'order have been supplied from the Continent. The
light-houses on our own shores could only be reu-
|dered efiectivo by the use of French and German
Iglass. Here we have, however, tho most inter-
iesting proof that we can make these beautifully
iarranged lenses and eatadioptric zones for our-
iselves. Fresnel claims the merit of this hast
iimprovement, by which a total reflection of all
the light is effected; but at the s.ame time it
must not be forgotten that the experiments and
-ugf,'e3tion3 of Sir David Brewster, during the
|iuvestigation of the commissioners apjjouitcd to
Ircport on the northern light-houses were the
j5tarting point of the inductive process from whicli
this final deduction was derived. Messrs. Apslcy
Pellatt and Co. .are large exhibitors of flint glass.
They commenced by showing all the materials
iiiiployedin its manufacture, together with models
3f the glass-house furnaces — completing their
icrics by examples of the purest crystal, pai-ti-
iilarly as employed for c.andelabi-a and chaudc-
icrs. The largo chandelier which hung at tho

rner of the north central galleiy and the

uisept, manufactured for Messrs. Perry, is a
l-eiT beautiful example ; it is constructed "for HA
handles, and the prismatic drops are so cut and
m-auged that the general result is the appeai-anco
jf one elegantly formed ma.s3 of ci-yst,al.

The exhibition of the candelabra made for her
aajesty by Messi-s. Osier, of Birmingham, and
ither examples of flint glass from the same firm--
n addition to those already named, and to others
iVliose works we shall eventually examine in detail

prove tho perfection of this branch of manu-

facture. It is not merely in tir\ii'-p:ir'iiry to light and in freedom from
colour that tho beauty of flint gl.wi or crystal conBists— it i« in the diamond-
like jiroperty of sending back the rayH to the eye in greater brilliancy than
it receives them ; and in this respect much of that which wa« hIiowu in the
Exhibition is very perfect. The Knglisli were not formerly micccHsful in giving

i i;\>TAL eAM>l,I.Al;l;A --UriLlLK.

THESE SPLENDID CAKDKLABHA, IN CUT CBYSTAL, WERE SIANTFACTURED FOB HER MAJESTY. THET STAKD Elf-HT FEET

H GIT, AND HAVE BRANCHES FOR FIKTEE;,' LIOUT^ EACH. IN THE S.\5tE GROUf ARE SMALLER CANDELABRA.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

colour to their glass ; there was always a want of that brightness which distin-
guished the works of the Germans, and particulai-!y of the Bohemians. The
colours are given in nearly all cases by metallic oxides, and these vary not
merely in tint, but actually in colour, by the quantity of h" at to which the
fused "mixture is exposed. In the Bohemian glass a ruby, in particular, was
produced offer greater beauty than auythiug wliich our manufacturers could
accomplish. This eo]om- is due to oxide of gold, although reds of much
brilliancy can be produced by copper, and also by iron. Some examples
of the reds produced by those metals were found amongst the productions
of British exhibitors; and upon examining' the examples of Bohemian
glas", it became apparent that we can now produce glass in every respect as
brilliant and as intense in colour as that which has rendered our continental
friends so long celebrated. In tlie articles exhibited by Mi-. Varnish and
Jfr. MelUsh these colours were well sliown. Most of the gla.ss exhibited
by them was manufactured by Messrs. Powell and Co., Whitefriars, and
this itself presents a noticeable peculinrity. All the glass is double, the
object of this being to enable the patentees to fill the inside with a solution
of nitrate of silver, to which gi-ape sugar is adilod, when all the silver held
in solution is deposited in a beautiful film of revived silver over every part
of the glass. This sihmnr/ on the interior wall of the glass (globes, vases,
and numerous other articles are shown to be susceptible of the process)
has the property of reflecting back thruugli the glass all the light which
falls on the surface — whereas ordinarily some is transmitted, aud only a
small portion reflected. This exalts many of the colours in a striking
manner, and not only does it exalt tlie colours, but the dichi'omism of the
glass is curiou.=ly displayed. Much of the red and yellow glass thus
as.sumes an opalescent tinge of blue, which, in some examples, is not un-
pleasing. U'e greatly admire some of the coloured examples of this process,
but we cannot think that the pure white glass — the beauty of which is it.s
ti-anspai"ency — is in any respect improved by silvering.

The illustrations of engraving (m glass were numerous, and many of them
exceedingly beautiful. Vi'e particularly admired some of the specimens by
Mr. ICidd, of his new process for illuminating, embroidering, and silvering
flat surfaces. All the designs are cut on the under face of the glass, and
then being silvered, are thrown up in a veiy pleasing manner, producing
an optical deception of an interesting character. In many of the engi-aved
specimens we have the very beautiful eflfect of cutting through several
surfaces to coloui-ed glass. do\vn to the translucent body. The opaque
glass coating, which may be produced either l)y mixing oxide of tin or
ai"senic with the glass, is first laid over the crystal ; then on this is applied
the ruby glass, and where the ruby has been jiroduced by gold tlie result
is most satisfactory. These, being cut through, present the three surfaces
in any way which may be decided on by the artist. Rice Harris and Son's
pressed glass is of the gi'eatest interest. By pressing into moulds, this
eleg.ant material is produced to the public in uscfvil and symmetrical forms,
at prices considerablj' below those at whicli cut flint glass could possibly
be offered. Many of the specimens of pressed glass exhibitod. have a degree
of shai'pness in all the oraamental pai-ta which renders it difficult, without
a close examination, to say whether or not they have been subjected to the
operation of the gla.ss-ciitter's wheel.

Among other new applications of this process of pressing glass into form,

Messrs. Powell and Sons, of tlia Whitefriars Glass-works, exhibited their

patent pressed glass for windows. There is much novelty and ingenuity in

thi.s. The pattern is pressed in the glass, and then, by a subsequent process,

'.dass of another colom' is flowed into it ; the whole is then ground down

to a imiform surfece, and the result is an inlaid pattern of glass of one

colour, in glass of another. The windows formed in this manner are verj-

cHective; and it appeirs to us that they realise the re.-:ults which in stained

gla^s are only obtained by the long-continued action of the atmosphere aud

light. None of our modern church windows realise that *' dim religious

light" which is peculiar to those older fanes standing as memorials of the

piety of our forefathers. The light permeating tlio modem windows suffers

ordinary chromatic anal}-sis, and falls upon the floor in well-defined colour,

and the outlin" of the design can be easily traced. In those of olden time

the colours fall blended ; thero is a general diffusion of tones ; no one

colour coming out more decidedly than anothei". Upon examining old

gla.ss windows it will be found that the utmost pains had been taken to

secure this effect ; the glass is often purposely roughened ; frequently pieces

of different colours are blended ; but stdl the action of time and the abrasion

of the expo.sed surfece is the important agent to which the harmonious

effect is due. Mes.5rs. Hardman and Co. have had glass manufactured

purposely to endeavoiu- to imitate the i-ec^uired condition of the mediaeval

styles, and in m.iny of their wimlows they have been eminently successful.

The antiquity of pressed glass Is veiy remai-kable. The A.s.syrians, the

Eg>'ptians, the Greeks, aud the Romans all adopted the process of pressing

or squeezing the glsss, when it v.-.-us in a pasty state, into moulds. Some

6ne examples of this will be found amongst the glass series in tlie Museum

of Practical Geologj-.

The examples of plato-glass were exceedingly good. The Thames Plate
Glass-works exhibited at the western end of the building the largest glass
plate hitherto manufactured. The examples of British plate which are
found in the Spitalfiolds trophy are beautiful specimens of this class of
manufacture.

On the whole, the glass manufacture of the Kxliibition — commencing
with the sands, alkalies, and models, and terminating with the great Glass
Palace itself, and its fancy fountain — is exceedingly complete, and of the
Iiighcst interest.

THE GREAT EXHIBITION.-THE AWARDS OF THE PRIZES.

(from the illustrated LONDON NEWS.)

'rHAT a limited number of prizes should be allotted amongst 17,000
cancUdates, by any body of men, however immaculate, however
profoimd in judgment, in a manner to give satisfaction to eveiybody, was
hardly to be expected. Such a result could not have entered into the
widest dreams of the most Utopian votary of universal hannouy. Vi'e
were well prepared, therefore, to find that the awards of the juries in the
Great Exhibition contest should give rise to much animated contention;
but we were also supported by the hope that their decisions would have
been such as, after free discussion, to meet with a general and conscien-
tious support from the majority of the public. Such w-as.our view of the
difficulties inseparable from the case, such our hope of the conclusion to
be arrived at. We regret to say, and it would be useless aud vain to
disguise it, we have in all this been grievously disappointed. If universal
contentment was scarcely to be aimed at, much less expected, such general,
such wholesale discontent, at the closing procedure of those intrusted with
responsible authority in the affairs of the Great Exhibition of Industry of
all Nations of 1851, was hardly to be apprehended, as that which has
.already begun to visit the contents of the ominous-looking packet, delivered
to the Prince President on that cold damp morning of the 15th of October,
when, in almost soleuiu silence, the public business of the Royal
Commission was brought to a close.

Wishing to deal with this subject with the gravity and in the coolness of
tenijier which its importance to the whole industrial community of the
woi'ld demanded, we abstained from making any comment in our last
publication ; considering that what it took thirty-four juries, of five and
upwards each, nearly six months to agree upon aud propound, might well
require as many days for the journalist to examine and understand. It
was hardly possible, we thought, for any man to airive at a correct conclu-
sion upon the value and justness of so voluminous a repoi-t as that
presented, a report comprising five thou.s,and names, without some days'
deliberation; — the malversation must indeed be flagrant and palpaMe,
which could be detecte«l upon a first blush of the document ; and, there-
fore, although many murmurs of discontent on the one part, many sugges-
tions of auccessful diplomacy on the other, in respect to these awards, had,
during many weeks past, from time to time reached us, we preferred
holding our.selves unprejudiced in the matter, in order to form our ultimate
opinion upon an inspection of the actual decisions, coupled with our own
knowledge of the facts. In this spirit we now proceed to consider the
conduct of the Commissioners of the Cireat Exhibition aud their delegates,
in the all-important mattt-r of the Adjudication of Prizes.

Aud, in the first place, a word about the prizes themselves, which,
although the closing honours of the whole proceeding, were, as we all
must remember, held out as a jirimary object and inducement at the
commencement of the undertaking.

We are not now going to discuss in the abstract, whether, in an inter-
national competition of industry, money rewards of considerable value, or
mere honorary awards whose value must dej)end entirely upon the circum-
stauces under which they are allotted, are the most desirable, and the most
likely to bring about the object held in view. Our opinion, however, is in
favour of a certain amount of money rewai-ds in good round sums, iu
conjunction with honorary prizes : the former to be considered as pre-
miums for a contribution of actual value to the whole comnimiity (accom-
plished, perha])S, at considerable cost to the producer) ; the latter as
testimonials of individual merit, conducing eventually to the profit of the
individual producer.

And, whether or not we are right in this view of the case, it was that
adopted as the very ba-sis of the Exposition of l&al ; it was that confirmed
in the most authoritative manner by the patent by which the Royal
Commission was .appointed. And it w,a,s so adopted upon gi-ounds which
are plainly set forth in the minutes of the meeting at Osborne, on the 1st
July, 1849, thus recorded : —

"The Prizes proposed, to be submitted for the consideration 'of the
Commission of Medals, and money prizes sn large as to orercnme the scruples
and prejudices even of the largest and richest manufacturers, and ensure the
greatest amount of exertion. The first prize to be .5000?. ; and, one at lea.it, of
1000/. to be given in each of the four sections. Medals conferred by the Queen
H'ould very much enhance the value of the prizes."

Here lu-e money Prizes announced, and announced as inducements to
individuals to support the project — money prizes to the amount of 9000t
at the least, besi<les '■ medals conferred by the Queen." But that this was
not the limit of pecuuiary rewards at that time contemplated by the pro-
motci-s, appears by the very words of the patent appointing the Royal
Commission (dated Jan. 3, 1S50), th" premises of which, recited that
20,000i. had been actually invested in the hands of ti-ustees by the Society
of Arts for the purpose of being distributed in Prizes, such sum being
named as the minimum amoimt which it would be proper to devote in tliat
manner as an inducement to manufacturers to come forward in competition
with their best and most expensive works.

Such was the original intention of the Society of Arts, such was the
scheme whiidi w.as confirmed by Royal patent ; and we hold that it was
no unimportant feature iu the affair, inasmuch as the estimates of thc
probablo cost or risk of the whole undertaking, upon the strength of which

AN ILLUSTllATMl) CVCLOP.EDIA OF TMH GREAT EXHIBITION 01'' IH'A.

tho pulilio was nppoaloj to for subscriptions, included tliin 20,000/. for
I'rizcs as u spcuific item, tlio gross cstinmtc being about 80,000/. And to
tbat miiH-al tho publio, thouyli not witliuut iniKglvin!,'M, roplicd by fleudinK
ip subsunptiiins to tho .aino\iiit of 7<'.(iO0/., of wliicli li-l.TiOO/. bad boun paid
up boforo Ibo opuiiin^ of Ibi^ Kxliibiliou, and at a time when its profitable
isauo Wivs still a mutter of cpiuation.

Such was tho original schonio ; bow different ha."! boon that actuully
carried out. ovorv ouo knows, as wo said before. Witli rcsiieot to tho
abstract jxdicy of the change decided upon in tbo natvn-o and adju<lication
of the Tri/.c^, wo have not now to speak. It niiL;lit bo (juito competent to a
body of C)i>niuiiK.<ionei'«, noting in a multer jiurely their own, and di.sjOTsing
of tboir own, to d" so iu any way they tliought nio.st conducive to tbo
object tliey eniisiilei'ed it <le.sirablo to atfcun ; it nii;;bt liavo been fjuito
c-i>mpetent to tlicm. in such case, to have substituted an unlimited mimber
of bix>u/o mcduls i'ov a niiainuun amount of mouey prizes, in addition to
nioduls. But luiw stands tbo question with regard to those who contri-
buted their mnuoy to make up tbo rtviuired amount for the Exhibition and
its announced nmncy prizes f how sianils the question with the nmnufnc-
turci's and otlier producora, who at great expense, and at great cost of
labour, wore inducetl to prepare objects for exposition upon tho induce-
ment of a ]>ossibl0 reward in one of those luoney prizes i

This is a very delicate question — money matters always are — and we will
notuowdiscu** it further. We will ouly, with very groat doforeuco, submit
that tho abandouuiont of the largo mouey pi'izes distinctly announced in
tha premises of the Koyai patent is morally, if not legally, a fatal
iloparture from its purpose, at least in as far as the liability of voluntary
f ubsorihers is concerned ; and wo will add, that nothing could justify the
alteration of policy limiting tho rewards to a distribution of bronze medals,
except its signal and entire sucee.s3.

A review of the minutes iu which the altered scheme of prizes was
niinounced, followed by a careful consideration of the address of Viscount
('anning as tho heid of tho jury department, convinces us, tliat, iu this
very important matter — a matter involving the only tangible result of the
whole proceeding — neither tho Comnii-sioners nor the Juries ha 1 arrived
.'it any definito notions either as to what should l;)e reward' tl, or the scale
of rewards to be apportioned. At the very outset uf their labours, indeed,
tiio jurors appear to have been restricted from rewax'ding merit according
to its degree or relative importance. It «as originally intended that there
.s-iiould be throe medals : tlie first, fov the highest (legree of merit, to bo
awarded ouly by tlie general body, the second for superior merit, and the
third for merit in a le.")s degree — botli the latter to be at the disposition
t'i' the scvGi'al jvu'ies. But such a disposition of awards soon became
iuMnsist^nt with an instruction from the Commissiouei-s which at the very
outsat obstructed the proceedings of the juries. Viscount Canning, in his
address, states : —

"The Council of Chairmen, in proceeding to the discharge of their duties,
v,'er© met ."it the outset by a serious difficulty. Her Majesty's Commissioners
li'vl expressed themselves desirous that mcnt should be rcicanlal wherever
!-' pre9«nttd ih<if, buf rtur/ow.i at the same lime to avoid the recognition of com-
pclitinn between iiidimdual e.rMhitor.s. They had also decided that the prizes
sliould consist of three medals of different sizes ; and that theie should
be awarded, not as first, second, and third in degree for the same class of
Siubjects and merit, but as marking merit of difierent kinds and character.

" The Council of Chairmen found, to their regret, that it would be
impossible to lay down any rules for the awarding of the medals, by which
fiie apjiearanre at lea^t of denotiny different degrees of sicecess amoiufst exhi-
hiUjv& in the same bra7ich of production could he avoided. Accordingly, after
fully explaining their difficulty to her Majesty's Commissioners, they
roijuested, as a course by which it might be materially diminished, that
ouft of the medals might be withdrawn. Of the remaining two, they sug-
gC6te(l that ono, the i'rize Medal, should be conferred wherever a certain
.^t'tiMiard of excelleuce in production or workmanship had been obtained —
utility, beauty, cheapness, adaptation to particular markets, and other
e!»ments of merit being taken nito consideration according to the nature
'>f tlie object: anil they recommended that this medal should be awarded
by the juries, subject to confii'mation by the groups."

The Euglisii of tliis is unfortunately too plain. The juries having
obtained authority to distribute medals just as they would halfpence in
1he streets — "wherever a certain {qu. uncertain) stand.ard of excellence"
presented itself — had absolutely abnegated their responsibility as jurors
between candidate and candidate: their value of the "prize" as a test of
" superior merit" was gone, and a general scramble ensued, m whicli the
.".ttainmeut of a medal might be profitable to the small publicity-hunting
trader, but could never bo "honourable" to the man engaged in any of
the higher branches of discovery or enterprise.

The Council of Chairmen seem to have been early aware of this inevitable
result of the abandonment of a portion of their functions; and, accord-
i'lgly. Lord Canning says; —

" In regard to the other and larger medal, they suggested that the cou-
d.tions of its award should be some important novelty of invention or
iipyiHcation, either in material or processes of manufacture, or orirjinality
omkhted with great be.^uty of design : but that it should not be conferred
; Jt. ea:cellence of production or workmanship alone, however eminent;
rnd they further auggosted that this medal should be awarded by the
I'ouneil of Chairmen, upon the recommendatimi of a jury supported by
ilsfirtnep."

The proceeding was still further mystified by a device adopted by
the jurors, at their own instance; who, although they would not imder-

t.iko to apportion two di/itiiu't claHncs of bronzo mcd.-il«, yet attempted to
distinguish between two claxseH of merit. Tho " prine mcdaln," unlinjitcd
in number, alniont unconditional in their application, were not Hufticient
to mark tho very ordinary level of raorit required of tho reclpinntu ; aud

accorflingl}' —

" Tho juries have found it just (cays Lord Canning), in framing their
repojt, to make AoHoiirn/y/c mcn/iwi of certain cxhibitonj whoso contributions
were not such as to entitle them to receive a vicdul."

It only wanted this to crown tlio adjudication of awardii with ridicule ;
and to render then- value nomething moro than questionablo. Ij)t thoHe
wdio feel aggrieved at being denied one of tho 1 70 "• Council inedalii," and
thrown into the common lot of 338-1 "I'rize medal" recipientu, consider
the feelings of tho 2012 who are condenuicd to put up with " honourable
mention."

It will 1)0 curious one day to endeavour to ancortain tho line by which tho
juries separated the " I'rize medal " cla&s from those entitled to " honourable
mention." At present, a few instances of both, the result of a very curiiory
cxamuLttion, must suffice. The exhibitor of " a well-mado sljirt" from tho
United States, of " lamb's tail oil," of a " clay tobacco-pipe," of a " wedding
cake," of a "box of .-wBctmcats," of a " walking-stick," of "a p.iil," of "a
broom,'' receives a m'-<lal of equal value with that awarded for the ciystal
fountain of Me-ssrs. Osier, tho jjianofortcs of Messrs. Broad wood and Me-srfl.
CoUard, the railway break of Mr. Lee. the porcelain and statuary of Jlr.
Copeland, the vertical printing-machine of Applegath, the new motive
power and other valuable inventions of I'^ricsson, the nationally-important
and commercially-valuable processes iu the preparation of flax of Claussen,
tho oompensated balance of Loseby, the wood-carving of Itogera and
Wallis, &o.

Amongst tho crowd of subjects which have been put off with " honouralde
mention," we find "amber cigar mouth-piecos," "canes of ram's-hom."
" toilet soaps," " toys," " clay pipes," guns, pistols, photographs, &c. We
find, also. Fowler's draining-plough. Shepherd's electric clock escapement,
"a violin combining quality and cheapness," Biintiiig's "collection of furni-
ture" (including ono of the best sideboards and ono of the handsomest
tables iu the Exhibition) ; Hcywood, Higgingbottom, and Co., new and
imiiortant process for producing paper-hangings by machinery. We find,
also, Belmes' 'Startled Nymph," and some other of, to our mind, the bee^
pieces of sculptui-e exhibited.

And as we have come down to tho Scnl])ture department, which enters
into Class 30, we shall, by way of making an end to our present article
endeavour to investigate the principles upon which the three cl<i.saes of
awards (including the Council medal) have been made as instanced iu
this branch of production. Now, what tliis medal was intended to effect,
or how it was to he applied, we have no very clear notion from the
official statement of the Chairman of the Council of Juries ; but we are
very distinctly informed by bis Lordship of the nature of certain cases
in which it was considered necessary to withhold it : and this must suffice
as our guide for the present. Viscount Canning states : —

" It was to be expected, that cases would arise in which tho Council
medal, as the higher reward, would be asked for exhibitors whose claims
were only somewhat stronijer in degree, without differing in kind from those
of others to whom the Prize medal had been awarded. In such cases
it became the duty of the Council of Chairmen to refuse their sanction
to the award of the Council medal, without, however, neces-sarily im-
pugning the alleged superiority of the article for which it w,is demanded.
On the other hand, some instances have occured in which they havo
felt themselves called upon to confirm the claim to a Council medal
where the object for which it is claimed L?howed, in itself, less merit of
execution or manufacture than others of its class. It follows, therefore,
that the award of a Council medal does not necessarily stamp its recipient
as a better manufacturer or producer than otiiers who have received the
Prize medal. It is r,ather a mark of such invention, ingenuity, or origi-
nality, as may be expected to exercise an injlutnce npon indvMry more extended
and more important than could be produced by mere excellence of manufacture ^
Taking tliese observations as our rule and guide, we ask what the Council
of Chairman saw in Marochetti's plaster figure of Richard Cceur de Lion
— what in Kiss's Amazon — what in Pradier's Phryne — what, even, in the
late E. Wyatt's beautiful nymph Glycera, to call for a Council medal';
when Debay's Eve, Bell's Falkland, Simonis' Godfrey de Bouillon, and
Watson's portrait statue of Flaxman are sufficiently rewarded with a prize
mediil !— when Behncs' Startled Nymph, Eugel's Ciroup of Amazons,
Klingsby's (Denmark) ivory casket, Miller's Orphan, Neucini's Bacchus,
are got rid of with "honourable mention!' — and when Gibson's Greek
Huuter,* Campbell's Muse, Max's Hagar and Ishmael, received neither
Council medal. Prize medal, nor honourable mention 1

It is impossible to reconcile such glaring inconsi-^teucies as the above
with any I'ule of common sense or common purpose ; and the only
consolation we coiild hope to bring to the irritated and bewildered can-
didates, whose pretensions have been thus dealt with, would be by
recurring to the emphatic words with which Mr. Cole, six mouths ago,
closed his introduction to the Official Catalogue : — " The work is done,
and the collection made of the productions of 15,000 exhibitoi-s, working
witli the ability God hath given them. To these we may siy with St.
Paul—' In lovfiiness of mind let each esteem others better than them-
selves.' "

• In tlie case of Mr. cahson, oar cntcmporiu-v tippoavs to have overlooked tlie fact tliat
tlmt gentleman, being ou the jury, could not receive a prize. — Ed. C. P.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS.

TELESCOPE FUNNEL FOR
STEAM-BOILERS.
Mr. E. T.^ruN, of H.M. Dock-
Yard, 'Woolwich, exhibits a
"Model of a telescope funnel
or chimney for marine boilers.*
By tills design, it is intended to
strike the chimney and waste
steam-pipe of any steam-vessel,
from the highest elevation, level
with the upper deck, or even
below it, if required. By this
means the deck may be freed
from such encumbrance, at tho
particular times when, by dis-
pensing with the usual height,
neither the working of the
engines nor the boiler wUl be
prejudicially affected ; whilst the
vessel, having full command
over her sails, may use them
instead of steam to greater ad-
vantage than has hitherto been
accomplished, the chimney being
entirely removed, and not par-
tially so. 3s is the case with all
steam-ships as now fitted.
Hitherto the chimneys of steam-
vessels have been so constructed
as to admit of but one sliding
part, which, when sti-uck to the
lowest possible position, gene-
rally presents an unavoidable
altitude of many feet above the
deck, thus adding to other dis-
advantages that of presenting
resistance surface to the air
when imder sail. It is presumed
tliat the screw-ship would find
this compound sliding-funnel a
desideratum, particularly when
not only an unsightly funnel,
but even masts, rigging, and
their appendages, might be con-
sidered inexpedient to be re-
tained, and when the hull only
should be seen floating on the
water, in order to achieve some
important enterprise by ap-
proaching an object unobserved.
In such case, a smokeless coal
or coke might be used, the
products of combustion escaping
from tlie chimney, though
struck level with the deck, and
being perfectly harmless to the
crew of the vessel. Tho com-

-<^

-■«%

s- -^

ill

Iliii

■'" .illr'ilii '<■■-• ,^x^

't ,■>

TlIK FAITHFUL MESSENGF.R. — GEEFS OF AXTWEHP.

pound funnel may be composed
of any reasonable number of
sliding parts, and yet the entire
series may be raised or lowered
Bimultaneously, in less time than
an ordinary single telescope
funnel, and this by means of
a series of guide pulleys and
chains, worked by a winch.

HOSKING'S IMPROVED ■
VALVE FOR PLTMPS.

Mr. R. Hosking, of the Perran
Foundry, Cornwall, has an ex-
cellent specimen "of a " valve
applicable for Large pumps,
divided into several parts, so as
to avoid the risk of breaking by
concussion, the different parts
shutting in succession." A ver-
tical section of this valve in its
open state was exhibited ; the
lifting portion in this example
were two in number, the water
passing through their annular
spaces. In this way, not only
is the water-way increased, but
the valve action is made almost
noiseless, and quite free from
objectionable concussion — im-
portant advantages, which have
hitherto been quite unattainable
in one valve, because, to reduce
concussion, the water-way has
always been narrowed. Tlio
water in Mr. Hosking's valve
gets clear away near the centre
of tlie column ; and as the valve-
lift is always in proportion to its
area, the system of division
constitutes each section a sepa-
rate valve, shutting at different
intervals, and the lift is thus so
reduced that the shock in drop-
ping is scarcely perceptible,
Cornish engineers have taught,
us many lessons in mechanicalj
engineering, and this one on
pump-valves is by no means ofi
tho least importance.

PAPER PATTERN.

EY JEFFREY AND ALLE>r.

This is a very handsome frieze™
in paperhangings by Jeffrey and
Allen. The subjects
nvc copied from ]ior-
tions of the Elgin
frieze, and represented
witliout repetition in
the entire length of
24 feet. The effect of
the chiaroscuro is very
good : approaching to
that of actual relief in
stucco.

Ji rf^jftsB

FJ;IE7.E OF PAPKR P.VTTERX DY JEFFUF.Y AND ALLEN

THE FAITHFUL
MESSENGER.

BY .1. OEEFS, OF ANTWERP.

We have here a very
pretty little piece of
sentiment, very pleas-
ingly treated. An ex-
pression of softness
pervades the whole ;
the hair and drapery
are light, and grace-
fully disposed ; in fact,
the material, which is
marble, has been suc-
cessfully handled in
every part.

AN IliLUSTRATEI) CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

SCULPTURE.

THE AUSTRIAN SCULPTURE ROOM.

\X/E inteml in tho pro'ont article to devote our attention to some of the
works of sculptmo liy foreign artists exhibited in the Crystal Palace.

Although old Rouic would of prescriptive courtesy cl:um our atteution

first amongst the foreign contributors, the more numerous and varied

display presented in the Austrian department um-t bo our excuse for giving

tliQ latter precedence on

the present occasion. The

little chamber, with its

ante-room, ' which was

'allotted to the various

j nations owing allegiance
I to the Imperial House of
i Austria, for the exposi-
I tion of then- prod«ctions
I in sculpture, was cram-
' med full of works of the

highest finish, not in
{plaster, but in marble,
' affording very interesting

means of studying the

actual stats and the pre-
vailing tendencies of the

various schools followed
I by nations distinct in
: themselves, and some of
' which have had little

intellectual intercourse

with the older Art-fields

of Europe. Not to go
' too deeply into generali-
ties upon this head, we

may observe, that as Mi-
I lanese art occupies a sort
1 of middle place between
' the colder classicism of

the modern Roman

school, and the w-ilder

fancj* of Germania — tho

more virgin minds of the

central and eastern states,

whilst they are not with-
I out their share of the im-
■ pulses evinced by others

of their day, give a hint

in some of their examples

of working after the

models of tlie mora
I ancient scliools of Greece,

the predecessors of those

of Italy herself. lu many

cases there is ranch tn

condemn ; experimental

conceits, manipulative
No. 7, NOVKMBEK 15, 1851.

SUSANNAH.— BY A. GALLI.

achievements unworthy of art, and incongruities in composition which

sober judgment cannot reconcile either to the requirements of poetrj-
or of common sense ; in short, many instances of art misdirected, and
marble misapplied, some of which it will be our duty to refer to more
pai-ticularly as we go along. But, with all these drawbacks, there can
bo no question, that, viev,-ed as a whole, tho Austrian Exposition in
sculpture was one of tho most creditable and interesting wo have ever
seen brought together by coutcniporancous aiiists.

JIaking our way through
the anteroom, wo were
by no means favourably
impressed by a gi-oup of
"Atala and Chactas," by
Innocenzo Fraccaroli, of
Verona, which was a com-
mon-place affaii- enough.
This artist, we should
mention, had another
work of a much higher
class (in the main avenue).
" Achilles Wounded," the
attitude of which wa-s
striking and effective,
whilst the expression of
pain and horror in the
face, as the hero views his
wounded heel, is well
depicted. An attempt
at exhibiting the more
essential feeling of which
the incident is susceptible
— the full appreciation of
the evil omen attaching
to the mishap, wouM
have heightened the
effect, and given that
touch of historic poetr\
to the character, of which
it is now deficient.

To return to the ante
room of the Austrian Gal
lery : on either side of th
table were tn-o infan
subjects, by Antonio Gidli
of Milan, and Benedett
Cacciatori, of Can-an
True, the gilt ring or hal
round the head of th
one implies that it i
intended for the Infat
Christ, whilst the othe'
lying on a rocky surfac-
is supposed t» be Joh
the Baptist. But thei
is little attempt at in.
pressing the divine ch;
Price One Pennt.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS:

racter upon the covintenanccs ; indeed, how should it be in such mere
babes as they are, and asleep too? And, direstcd of this, what of high or
poetic interest can attach to a marble representation of a hximan suliject
before it is formed, even in the stage of boyhood, and as yet uugiftcd with
the intelligence and impulses of our nature ! In painting we have abun.
dant instances of the introduction of the Infant Saviour, as part of wliat is
called " the Holy Family ; " but, except in some few cases where the child
is depicted as already inspired witli the prescience of his divine mission,
and as in the act of blessing the spectator, the sanctity of the subject is
■Generally realised by the devotional and reverential regards of the mother
and bystandei'S, all which in the single marble subject is necesscu-ily out of
the question.

" The Vintage," by Gaetano Motelli, of Milan, is a very elaborate piece
of carving, representing a whole family of cupids disporting amongst the
branches of a clump of vine, making free with bunches of grapes as big as
themselves, scrambling in and out, between and around them ; some pressing
the gathered grajies in a vat below, whilst one little fellow at the top
squeezes the purple juice into his tiny mouth. The figures were shown in
the round : and tlie whole w:is treated as a block or centre-piece : but wo
submit, with all its unquestionable beauties, th.at the composition is one
better adapted to wood carving, or, better still, to silver, as a dinner table
decoration.

A group, byDemocrito Gandolfi, entitled "Grief and Faith," which stood in
a prominent position at the entrance of tlie inner room, provoked criticism
as much by the incongruities involved in its conception, as by its sins against
harmony of outline and proportion in the arrangement. In the foreground
• — fancy a foreground in a piece of ?culpture ! — in the foreground is a tomb
or sarcophagus of large dimensions, over which leans, covering her face in
her hands, a female figure ; this is '' Grief," accordiug to the commonplace
types exhibited on the walls of eveiy parish church in England, only that
there the artist has generally contented himself with representing it in bas-
relief, whilst here it obtrudes upon the floor in the fullest dimensions of
reality. For the rest, " Faith " is represented upon a circular pedestal in
the rear, in the person of a young female kneeling. This figure, we should
observe, was the only tolerable bit in the whole performance, and would be
pleasing enough if .separated from the rest, with which, even artistically, it
has no connexion. "The gi'oss error against common sense of representing
a real object (the weeping female), and an ideal existence (the spirit of
Faith), in the same material, and that, hard unyielding marble, must be too
obvious to call for much remark. Even lieynolds was criticised forintroducing
in his " Death-bed of Cardinal Beaufort " the ideal presentment of the evil
spirit waiting for his soul in the background ; though by many he has been
held to be justified, as only realising the picture presented by Shakspeare's
lines descriptive of the scene. But if this was a license hardly excusable
in painting, where, by means of the well-known appliances of art. the sop.a-
ration of the actual from tlie imaginative part of a subject may be clearly
defined, it is one totally unjustifiable in sculpture, where the material is
capable of no such modification, either by tlie application of colour or the
interposition of aerial media.

One of the principal show-pieces in the room, and which excited the
wonder of gazing thousands, is " The Veiled Vestal," by Raifaelle Monti,
The ambition of the artist in this production is to represent the eifect of
a face seen tlirongli a veil ; and so ingeniously has he managed it. that at
a distance of the breadth of the room, the face — the marble face — actually
looks as if it were covered with a real piece of lace. This is a triumph of
mechanical dexterity certainly, but upon the value and merit of which we
may have some misgivings, seeing that it achieves a greater vcrisinnlitudc
of the worthless rag of a veil — being to the eye reality — than of the poor
face, which remains still, pale, cold stone. The ancients wouhl never have
been guilty of such profanati'in of their subject. 'Tis true thoy took pride
in representing the soft outline of the limbs as rounding out and supporting
the crisp light folds of the drajierios of their figures, (nhicli, by the way,
they seldom liked to exhibit entirely nude, except when the case rf-ndered
it necessary); but they would certainly have t(mi the vestal's veil from her
face before they took her portrait, or would have abandoned her altogether
as a subject. So much for the ancients, who can well take care of theni-
Belves. Proceeding to a nearer examination of .Signor Monti's performance,
we found, as we suspected, indeed knew must be the ease, that liis veil effect
was a mere trick of art, and a trick practised to the utter destruction of the
beauty of his vestal's face, whether seen from afar or near. Artfully dis-
posing the folds of the veil, and making tliem generally very broad on the
enter pai-ts, and very narrow, nay, almost vanishing, on the inner parts,
being thoEe next the face, he further roughed the surface of the intermediate
KjKiees, as if tlie flesh were actually covered with a vtil : and these surfaces
seen at a distance, take the lights in such a manner, that, blending with
tho.-ie Tin the outer siirfaces of the veil, they produce the general effect
intended, lie form of the face being dimly and indistinctly seen as through

a veil. In reality, portions of it only are seen at one and the same time,
and ui one direction, and the effect so produced is not a genuine cff'ect
quasi, but a delusion ; not a matter lirought to the mind's eye bj^ means of
the sense of sight, but a trick played oft' upon the too credulous fancy at
the expense of the organ of vision. Common sense and legitimate art are
further outraged in this work by the introduction of a basket of real arti-
ficial white roses in the hands of the figure, instead of a sculptured offering
ill marble. The drapery generally is artificial, and the whole character of
the piece unearthly and disagi-eeable.

There were two other examples of the same sort of trickery in the
room. One entitled "A Bashful Beggar," by Democrito Gandolfi, wIkisc
" Grief and Faith " we have already noticed, represented a woman seated by
the roadside, her face covered by, but partially revealed beneath, the folds
of a linen drappry. in which is also wrapped the infant in her arms. More
prominent, and at her feet, are two children begtring. A milestone, with |
'"Dover" on it. informs us that the party are on their travels, and an in-
scription on a scroll upon the ground states her sad case : — ''Jc suis emi-
graute, mere, venve, et j'ai une aneurisme au creur ! " (" I am an emigrant —
a mother — a widow — and I have an aneurism in the heart ! " ) A very poor
subject for emigration certainly ! All tliese points show a striving after
cff'ect by illegitimate moans, which pure art would disdain. The tfiird
veiled figure is smaller than either of the others, and w-liich it may bo
sufficient to ))oint out by ii.ame : it pretends to repre-sent " A Slave in the
Market," by Eafl'aele Monti, the artificer of tiie " Veiled Vestal," (engraved
ill No 4 of the Crystal Palace.) who seems to have adopted this notion as
a sph-ialite. Indeed, it appears he has not been without encouragement,
the " Veiled Vestal " being announced as the property of the Duke of
Devonshire.

But the trick itself has not even the merit of novelty ; it has been tried
before, in a bad school, and at a bad age of art certainly, and has been
condemned by the judicious. Two examples exist in the Church of Santa'
Maria della Piet^, at Naples, executed about the middle of the last century,
at tlie instance of the Prince Raimondo di Sansevero, in honour of the
memory of his father and mother. In the case of the latter, she is repre-
sented in marble, under the emblem of "Modesty." Duchesne, in the
ilnsce di Ptinture ct <Jc Hcidpture, speaking of this work, says : — " This
statue was wrought about the middle of the IStli century, by the Venetian
Corradiui, Bculptor to the Emperor Charles VI. It then acquired great
renown for the singularity of seeing a figure covered with a veil, light
enough to show the full shape of the body and the features, which uiifir-
tunately are not handsome.'' We may add, that we remark concurrently
in this work bad taste in the arrangement of the drapery, and other vices
of detail, as the introduction of a garland lying acr xss and breaking the
outline of the figure. The other example referred to is a still more extra-
vagant feat of art. It is from the chisel of Francesco Gueirolo, a Genoese
sculptor, and is called the " Sinful man undeceived." " It represents," says
the writer previously quoted, "the father of Prince Raimondo, partly
enveloped in a net, of which he is seeking to rid himself The artist
alludes to the situation of that prince, who in the course of his life often
let himself lie carried away by vice ; but who, at a later period, and en-
lightened by his genius (the good genius is represented as an angel in
smaller dimensions), reverted from his errors. The net is in marble, as
also the statue and all the accessories, which must have produced great
ditliculties in the execution, as it adheres but in a very few parts. The
appearance of this coarse envelope contrasts with the high fiiiith of the
flesh parts. The difficulty overcome is the principal, and, it might be
almost said, the only merit of the gi'oup."

We turn with I'leasure from those caprices to other works of more
sterling quality, which the room contains. Adjoining the " Veiled
Vestal " is another work of importance by the same artist, "Eve after her
F.ill." The attitude and character of the figure are full of merit, the
limbs graceful, well-roumlcd, and realising as near as may be the softness
of flesh. The artist has represented the hair in massive and dishevelled
tresses hanging over the face on each side ; and the executive skill
disjilayed in acconi|ilishing this difficult point is worthy of honourable
mention, tlinugh it mu.st be added, that the soft and flexible character of
the human hair — its great beauty — is somewhat sacrificed to attain the
cud in view. The introduction of a little Cupid peering up from amidst a
cluster of roses behind, is, to say the least, a cmiceit rather apocryphal in
itself, and, upon the whole, had better have been dispensed with.

Antonio Galli, a Milanese artist, has three works in marble : — a
" Jephtha's 1 )auglitci'," very pleasing in character, simple yet graceful, and
the head endued with considerable expression; another, entitled "A
Youth on the sea shore ;" and the third, "Susannah at the Bath," which wo
have engraved. The attitude and expression are well conceived, and aptly
illustrate the situation of one surprised at a bath ; and the general treat-
ment is satisfactory, though the hair might have been improved, had the
softness and flexibility of nature been followed, and the draper}', what
little there is of it, by being lighter in material, and freer in disposition.
Marchesi's " Eurydice," is also a meritorious performance ; but, perhaps
the sweetest and most touching cifoi t in the room, was the little cabinet
group of "Hagar and Ishmael," by Emanuel Max, of Pr.ague. The treat-
ment of the female figure is full of dignity and truth ; the hand, thrown
open as in the act of supplication, rests upon the bosom of the dyini.' boy,
whilst the steadfast and imploring look she directs to heaven reveals the
wdiole story. All the points are finished with gi-eat delicacy and purity of
handling. The same ai-tist has a very clever bas-reUef of an Amazon.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOP.TIDIA OV TUK GREAT EXHTRITION OF 1851.

Tho fill''' aiiit fi'-juro wniiM S''i'in tho trim iil'iil cif Aiii,'izoiii;i,Ti ji/ii/sn/ur, mid
ihdvo irt I'Vu'lii^iniis cncrt^y in tlio action botli of lior,^" anil ridci-. 'J'ho
ilotiiii-t uml iH'cos^oiir'i. itliii'li lU'o Kiillicionlly luiiplo, are fininlifil with f»rciit
(jre, Imt ill n Mtyln jniliuiinisly sudiliied ; in slioit. in nlo^t rcapccts. tliia
\TOrk iiidiisitcR a lipi? ft])|ii-ei'iation of the purer nindols of anti'|iiity, wliicti
wo sliunlil bo gliid to linil nioro frocpiently exliil>it«(l liy otiior artists of
our day.

" I.slnnacl," unattenlod by Ha^rar, is a subject filmply puiiifnl— a poor
yciitli in all the aKonira of deatli from thirst ; and this Kignor Strazza, of
Milan, Iia.-i ii'i.rosentcd witli terrililo earnestness and roa)i'y. in a iiro.itratc
iiguru, lil'i' .sizo, which occnpics a prominent position in tho eentro of tlie
room. No Olio eau deny tho wonderful talent displayrd in the working
out of tliis siil'joct : tho features of tlio face are drawn and lirid under the
hand of death, and the whole figure denotes hoIple.sR prostration in ifk last
stage. lint c:ui we look upon it with any feeling lint that of shuddering?
and must wo not resret the ah.senee of the only redeeming and poetic
feature of wliieli tho .story is susceptible, and which M. Max has so
beautifully and with Bueh toueliiug cfi'ect introduced !

Joseph Koekszn.an, of A'ieuna, has a very pretty " Hebe," tho head
eUarmnigly graceful and expressive, and tho whole treatment of high
excoUeuee. We do not like so well his very tall and sentimenttd
"Shepherd," unneces.sarily denuded; nor his " Flora," who is too artificial
in her attitude, and overburthened with a heavy garland of flowers
extending from head to foot. Neverthclcs.s, the faco of tho latter is
pleasing enough. ^

THE EXHIBITIOSr AS A SCHOOL OF INnU.STRY.

(FnOM THE " AnciIITECTDRAL QUARTERLT REVIEW.")

TO pursue the difficult question of the tendency of mechanical pro-
duction, and the induenco of increased facilities upon the condition of
the workman, would involve us iu a greater length than vt-o propose in this
present article. Unquestion.ibly, tho immediate results are often suffering
and hardship to individual workmen, atid often to a whole triide. But Wfe
cannot quite address ourselves to the logic of arguments, that improved
modes of production, which confessedly place the article within the reacli of
a greater mimlier, are to bo retarded In ortler to benefit a minority ; that
the course of science is to bo checked ; thdt knowledge is baneful ; anil that
cither piu-ticular modes of production, Or particular habits and m.inners in
men, are to bo kept up solely for the existence of particular trades and
pai'ticular classes of artisans. Moreover, those who outer into these
arguments are prepared to show, that the social ftiachine rights itself ih a
much shortei' time than might have been anticipated. We well recollect
the fearful prognostications at the commencement of the railway system.
Cai'icaturcs of distracted innkeepers and delighted horses wore to bo seen ;
and what was shown in caricature was true, at least for the time, as to tho

I innkeepers. The coaching glories of Lichfield, Northampton, and St.
Alban's, passed to places which had been too small to dread railways ;
new towns rose with wonderful rapidity, and tho old became melancholy
and deserted. We need not tell what every one knows ; though let the

I artisan class bear in mind, that from the development of tho (railw.ay
system a great amount of new employment has been gained, and families
once struggling against reverse of fortune are now contented and happy.
And if we say that the very innkeepers and horses liad soon more to do
than ever before, and that towns wdiich had rejected railways got looped in,
bitterly lamenting, then we .shall have simply told tho story of the last

I sixteen years. But the moral wo cannot omit. It is, that the antidote to

i these temporary hardships must be supplied by education, liy tho develop-
ment of mind in the workman ; and for this antidote tho means exist in this
Exhibition. By debasing the workman to a mere machine, it has followed
necessarily thiit the human machine was superseded, sooner or later, by the
superior mechanism which springs from mind. Immediate advantages of
concentration of attention and subdivision of labour were the limitation ;
and it may not unreasonably be inferred, that the recent prevalence of
insanity, even has been the result. Improved education, and the develop-
ment of mental energy, would not only lead to the discovcly of new
sources of employment, indispen,sable in a state of progress, but would, at
the same time, substitute an honest pride and pleasure in the perfect
execution of even mechanical work, the increasing want of which is a

I main c.aiLse of tho inferioi-ity of many works of art, and a constant source
of annoyance to architects, and loss in buildings to the public. From

'the brickwork and joiner-s' work, or ironmongery in a house, down to a
chair or an umbrella, lowness of price without the asserted durability, is
universal ; and the ingenuity, and even pleasure, which both dealers
and workmen evinCo in the practice of a deception, is equalled by
the readiness of Ibe public to deceive themselves. As we oauuot grasji
the reasoning of a Chancellor of the Exchequer, that because chicory is
sold, ciifix has been available to a class which had not before used it, so we

iregret the prevaleuce of the delusion which exists iu buihlings as in every

■other commodity. Many amongst the class of building artisans appear to
disregard directions as to work, for the mere pleasure of practising adoocit.
For this pleasure, we mast substitute the pride of producing good work,
.ind this antidote, we repeat, may be found in this Exhibition. Wo could
have hoped that the influence of the Exhibition would have been exerted

in tlie rc-moval of a delusion liefore refeired t^i, namely, that expense and
elalionito work are iinlinpnianljlr to the production of beauty. He.-iutifuj,
indeed, and Huggestive as are many of the objcctH of tho Exhibition, there
appears to bo an entire absenco of that cheap beauty which would bo
within tho roacli of all classes. Tho attnininent of tliis object would have
been the more desirable, since recent attempts to extend the influence of
Art. in association with objects of decoration and utility, liave fostered
ralher than discouraged the delusion, and so have not advanced the objects
of those who liavo mndo Ihetn, What has to be done, in fact, is to ini'cst
every form of utility with the attributes of aiit, and this alike from tho
most olaborato work of (irchiteeturo, to the least important article of
furniture, or the meanest utensil. Certain principles wliich have to bo
kept in view are alike in all these cases. They correspond with those
which tho most enlightened artists are endeavouring to bring to tho
regeneration of architecture ; they are in many respects distinct from those
which determine the forms of jminting and sculpture, and, perhaps, have
never yet been accurately ]ierccivcil .'mil exemplified in the architecture of
any ago. They dcjiend, indeed, upon tho constant recognition of the fact,
that the reason must bo satisfied, as well as the eye delighted ; and tho
want of this recognition is the great fault in the numerous designs for
decorative objects, now held up to notice as excellent works of art. We
think that the Exhibition maybe made tho means not only of contributing
to tho ."jdvaneement of architecture, but of placing it in a position in which
1^. has never yet stood ; but there are particular circumstances in connexion
with manufactured art which should be guarded against, although not
)iivci.sely in tho manner urged by those who deny the value of multiplica-
tion of copies. As for tlie collection of grates, ironmongery, furniture, and
all those objects which afford interest to the architect, they cannot bo
viewed without advantage, — since the greatest difficulty is often felt in
obtaining knowledge of the existence of particular inventions and con-
trivances. As a complete collection of these things, the Exhibition is, of
course, not to be regarded. It is from tho uses of the Exhibition, on which
WG li.ive dwelt above, that its chief value will be felt.

DISPOSAL OF THE EXHIBITION SURPLUS.

REPORT OK THE ROYAL COMMISSIOXERS.

QN the 6fh of Nov., instant, tho Commissioners met. and agreed to a
report to lier Majesty, from which it appears that the total receipts,
including subscriptions, have been .'ifl.'i.OOU/., and the available surplus,
after defraying all expenses, will be l,"iO,000/, Tho Commissioners are of
opinion that the most appropriate purpose to which the surplus funds
could be applied, would be one which would increase the means of
industrial education, and extend the_ influence of science and art on
industry. As yet, however, they have not devised any specific plan for
carrying out the<ie objects ; nor will they be in a condition to do so, until
they obtain further powers by royal charter from her Majesty.

The report states the gross income to have been derived as follows : —

Subscriptions £67,400

Entrance fees 424,400

Casual receipts 13,200

Total .... £505,000

With regard to the future, tho report states : —

"Tho subscriptions were derived, with few exceptions, solely from
your Majesty's subjects, and wore made after a public announcement, that
they must be ' absolute and definite,' but that should any surplus remain,
it was the intention of her Majesty's commissioners 'to apply the same to
purposes strictly in connexion with the ends of the Exhibition, or for the
establishment of similar exhibitions for the future.'

" Wo humbly beg to reiirescnt to your Majesty, that we are of opinion
that it is not advisable to apply the surplus to tho last-named purpose.
Considering that the Exhibition which has just closed has afforded ample
proof that an undertaking of this kind can be made self-supporting,
and that it may safely be left to the public again to provide, when
required, the means of meeting the preliminary expenses — considering also
the impossibility of fixing long beforehand any definite period for the
repetition of such an Exhibition, which requires for its success so many
ooncurreut circumstances— we are of opinion that greater benefit may bo
derived by the public from a judicious application in the interval of the
means at our disposal to the furtherance of the general objects for which
tho Exhibition was designed, in such a manner that the advantages which
may bo obtained should not be confined solely to your Majesty'.s subjects,
but should be shared, as far as it may be possible, by other countries.

" Your jNIajesty's commissioners are of opinion, that no measures could
be so strictly in accordaueo with the ends of the Exhibition as those
which mav increa.se the means of indu.strial education, and extend the
influencf of science and art upon productive industry. We are fully aware
of the difficulty of devising a comprehensive plan to meet these objects ;
should tho view, however, which we have taken as to the manner of fulfilling
our pledges, meet with your Majesty's approbation, we beg to assure your
Majesty that we shall give our fullest and most careful consideration to
this important subject, and we would suggest that full time should be
afforded us to consider and mature such a plan as we should feel wai--
ranted in laying before your Majesty, the more so as from the disproportion
between the end proposed and the means at present applicable to it, much
will depend on the extent of co-operation we may receive from the public."

100

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

FOREIGN AND COLO
NIAL DEPARTMENTS.

• •

THE EAST INDIES.— No. 2.
THE EAST INDIAN COURTS.
THE contents of the East
Indian Courts, situate on
either side of the Western
Nave, at its point of junction
with the Transept, were rich
and varied in character, and
were interesting in the high-
est degi-ee, as illustrative of
the natural resources of a
large territoiy — resources
which, except for articles of
show and luxui-y, have as yet
experienced a very slight de-
gree of development. Turn-
ing our attention to the
Northern Court, we come
first upon a collection of
utensils in brass, copper, and
potteiy, all highly curious,
especially some which are
used by the Hindoos in the
worship and service of their
idols. The utensils in iron,
inlaid vnth silver, amongst
which is a lai'ge hookah, are i
very elegant in form, and of
higlily finished workman-
ship. Proceeding to the
rear, or extreme north of
this department, we were
first struck with a great va-
riety of ornaments, fi-uit,
flowers, &c., in wax. Two
ivory chairs, inlaid, from the
Eajah of Vizi.anagram, stood
conspicuously here. At this
point and around were glass
cases filled with specimens
of agate and jasper, both in
slabs and fa.shioned into a
gi-eat variety of objects of
adornment and titility. In
other parts of this room
were some veiy admirable
specimens of carved furni-
ture, in black wood, from
Bombay, and of carved boxes
and ornaments in sandal-
wood, from Mangalore ; carv-
ings in ivory, from Morsted-
abad ; samples of embossed
paper and illuminated writ-
ings, forwarded by the king
of Oude; and a variety of
aiticles of eminent and
unique beauty, in which the
minute and patient industry
of the native Hindoo is pleas-
ingly illustrated. Against
the north wall of the inner
room were two chaii's and a
couch, of Rajpootana white
marble, the backs of which
were remarkably fine sped-
mensof open carving. In the
centre was a royal state bed-
stead from Benares, the cur- i
tains of which were of pm'ple
muslin, richly embroidered.
One of the most strikinK
features in the Indian col-
lection was a room furnished
in the style of an Indian
palace, in which all that ro-
mance has said of Oriental
luxm'y and gorgeous display
was more than realised.
Aroimd it, externally, were
a large collection of figures,
illustrating the various trades
and castes of the Hindoos:
rich shawls, carpets, mattinj;.

AN ILlJISTIiATEl) CYCLOPvEDlA OF TIIK CWKAT KXIIIHITKJX OF IS.';].

101

mixed fiJ.)iiL'M, &'■., ill-. Noi- imiHt tlio vurious olijeclH <pf liutunil ]pro(Iiicc,
vogetablf, miinial iiml uiiiienil, bo overlookcil ; lor, HiohkIi Ivhh »trikiiig,
upon pictHresquo grouiuls, tlimi iiuuiy wo liivvo iiioro ])ni'ticularly rcfoiied
to in tUo above observations, they uro perbui>H of oven liigher iuteiest to
the futiiro dcstinie.'i of our vast Iiidioii omiiirc.

cii]>,'i1jIu of learning iniprovtincnt« in mcctianicul aiiit oh Kuropcunii ; while
botli in jewellei-y and in weaving there are Hpcciiiiens which the bcHt
Kuro])ettn nicclmnicH woubl liavo great difficulty in equalling. But when
wu turn to the agricultiirid iiiiplementii and tooU used by mechanicfi, at finit
sight it Bccuis extraordinary tliat uo^advouco should have been mode for

II.AY MODELS Of iUKDOO CASTE,

STATE OF AGRIOULTUUE AND LABOUR IN THE EAST INDIES.

The collection of machines, tools, manufactures, and models of the vaiious
trades and callings of the natives of India, afford a series of illustrations of
the condition of that extraordinary country, which cannot be passed over

centuries. The Hindoos of tlio present day seem to have liad handed
down to them an unbroken legacy of the agi-icultural and manufacturing
arts of the ancient Egyptians. A comparison of the models in the East
Indi.in collection with the drawings of the same kind of implements in use

' ^'7/^'///''-y''/- ■//jY/0'/^0j''

m^iMiiiiJiiii!'

l\OKl' CAin'iXG. — rr.OCESPKtX- OF A NATIVn INDIAN litlNCE — EROM JIi'ItSIIEnARAD.

in a few words. Among the manufactures ai-e specimens of purely native
work, and of imitations or copies from Em-opeau models. From an
examination of the latter, it is quite plain that the native Indians are as

auioug the Egyptians, affords a number of very curious coincidences. But,
without tracing back the history of these agricultui-al tools to such very
remote periods, we find, by Abul Fazl's chronicle of the reign of the Mogul

INDIAN 'iTATF EAKGE.— rAUVKD IN ivonv AT M0R3HF.PABAD

102

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

Emperor Akbar, that, 300 ycai's ago, rice, wheat, sugar, iudigo, homp,
sugar-cane, aud cotton were cultivated with at least as much skill as at the
present day ; as high a rent was paid for land ; and the numerous regula-
tions on the subject of irrigation, and the allowances to cultivators under
losses, and the estimates of revenue raised given by Abul Fazl, show that a
great part of central India was imder regular cultivation.

Why this people have made so little progi-ess, why the gi-eat bulk of them
are in the same condition, moral, social, and intellectual, that they were in
300 years ago, is a question too large to be discussed here : but we may
venture to point out. certain obvious reasons. The first is to be found in
tlie narrowness of their wants. Look at the army of little figures, modelled
from life, representing various trades and callings, chiefly in Bengal, wiiich
were exhibited in the north bay of tlie Indian collection, and observe liow
♦ittle these people need, how few are their incentivcsto exertion. Putting
out of the question domestic servants, like tlie butler and groom, whose
clothes ai'e part of their master's state, it will be seen that tlia native rural
population need scarcely any clothes. The gardener, the shepherd, the
village waterman, the carpenter, tlie black.smith, the ploughman, the
waggoner, ami a number of others of the same rank, wear nothing except a
cap or turban (the Hindoos have adopted the turban from their ilahoramedan
conquerors), and a piece of cloth round their loins, which is ciccasioiialiy
used rather as an ornament then a covering, tlirown like a Highlander's
plaid over one shoulder. Oil — to obtain which, linseed, sosamum, and
palma Christi are largely cultivated — is liberally applied to tlieir naked
skins, in the place of those coats, breeches, waistcoats, shirts, and stockings,
which so largely absorb the funds, and employ the population, of the
inhabitants of colder climates.

What would the Great Exhibition have been, in the two great displays
of machinery and textile manufactures, if we di-essed like the Indian
population ?

The Zemindars and gi-eat Indian gentlemen hold the same feelings with
respect to garments as their subjects and tenants. Clothes, with them, are
ornaments, not necessaries. After appearing in public blazing in jewellery,
in shawls of countless price, and gold-embroidered silks, on an elephant or
a prancing Arab, as represented in the model of an Indian fair; an Indian
Prince, Sir Tliomas Munro tells us, will pull off everything, and sit semi-
nude in a calico wrapper, just in the same manner that we Europeans relax
in slippers and dressing-gown. Magnificent embroidered shirts and shawls,
like those hung up in the Indian tent, are often heirlooms in a native
gentleman's family.

Then again, the system of vegetable food, cooked in the simplest
manner, promotes an economy which is very much opposed to the com-
merce and competition on which improvement rests. But the chief
cause of the stagnation of mechanical arts in tlie interior of India (leaving
out the question of religious influences) is to be found in the extraordinary
state of isolation in which the rural population live.

There are no made roads in the interior of India ; where the natural
roads are sufficiently good, carts drawn by one, two, up to twelve bullocks,
coivs, or buffaloes afe employed ; and excellently well constructed for the
purpose are these carta or drays for ascending or descending precipitous
hills, with the small weak cattle of the country, as was to be .seen in tlie
models in the southern bay. But it is only for short distances, or in the
neighbourhood of great towns, where roads have been made, that cai-ts can
be used at .all. The chief mode of conveying produce and merchandise in
India is on bullocks' backs. In the north b.ay, a set of models of loaded
pack bullocks was exhibited. In the rainy season, when for an uncertain
number of months the rain pours down in a deluge, travelling with mer-
chandise or produce becomes all but impossible ; dry water-courses grow
into dangerous torrents, and villages cannot depend on supplies from their
neighbours. The evils of this geographical isolation are to a certain extent
alleviated by a, system wiiich disco\u-ages intercourse between village and
village.

The rural population of India is not spread over the country in detached
dwellings, but lives collected in small villages or towns, for protection
against robbers and wild beasts, and are each in themselves miniature
commonwealth-?. They are like islands, with very little external commerce
and no uiternal competition. The mechanical arts and several other
callings are placed in the hands of parties who are public officials. The
blacksmith, the carpenter, the potter, the ropemaker, the shoemaker, as
well as the water-carrier, the barber, the butcher, the washerman, tlie gold-
smith, the poet, and the astrologer, receive each a piece of land rent-free,
and a stipend in grain or money from each villager, in return for which
they are bound to perform the duties of their respective vocations ; to make
ploughs, build houses, dig wells, shave heads, tell tales, and cast horoscopes
for the community. No system could have been devised better calculated
to render mechanical artsstatiunaiy, and each little population is perfectly
independent of foreigners. Competition is uuknowm — trades are hereditary
—improvements of niachiuei-y never displace hand labour. The land is
the property of the supreme government, and every heaii of a family has
a piece of it. Almost all laws are defrayed by a tax, which is, in effect,
the rent of land. In fact, the condition which certain social reformers
desire to cany out in Europe, is realised, and haa been realised for cen-
turies, among the Indian villages.

Bad roads, rivers, jungles, marshes, tigers, and robbers, effectually fill up
the place of custom-houses and protective duties. Agricultural improve-
ments are useless, where surplus produce would be valueless, because it
would never pay to cany it to market.

Under these circumstances, the quarter of wheat is worth from T-'. to 10s.
Famines are periodical, and improvements are unknown in the intfrior,
while on the coa.^t ships are buiit, furniture is manufactured, and English
goods of many kinds ai'e executed with very great skill, of which examples

, have been sent.

Among the agi'icultural implements, we must note that the Indian plough
is not ill adapted for its intended purpose. The shape is nearly the same
as that of the Roman plough, and le-s rude than that employed by oui'
Saxon ancestors, which was attached to the tails of their bullocks.*

The Indian plough is chiefly used for stirring up and running a fuiTOW
through moist ground, preparatory to sowing rice. It does not answer to
dry up the land by turning a furrow. The mould-board of the English

' plough Jias been used in some tropical countries and abandoned. Dry land
for other crops is broken up with coarse hoes, of which full-sized specimens

I will be found under the table on which the agricultural models are dis-

I played. These hoes, except that they arc shorter in the handle, are of the
same shape as those still in use in the West Indian islands, where the
plough has not been introduced. It is also the imjilement of the modern

I Egyptian peasantry.

The ploughs exhibited in the southern bay consisted of a taper piece of
wood, shod with a sort of spear-head of iron, which forms the share, the
sole being of wood, without either mould-board or coulter. Into the

j wood a handle is fixed, one or two buSiiloes are harnessed, .and the plough-
man, naked all but a bit of cloth round his loins, holding the handle in

' one hand, and the reins in the other, will get over mors ground than could

I be accomplished with an English plough, quite effectually enough for his
purpose. Into the furrows the rice is dropped, and covered by one of the
harrows, of which several models and one full-sized implement are shown,
made with iron, and wooden teeth. These harrows are much more finished
works than those often used in the bush of Australia, where wheat is harrowed
in with a bough of a tree, or by running a flock of sheep over the ground.

I The Hindoos generally get two crops of rice ofi' the .same ground — the

I first for food, the second for straw ; and there is I'eason to believe^ that
successive crops of this grain, which is the staple of the native population,
except in the uoi th-western province, where they live on wheat cakes, has
been grown on tlic same fields for a thousand years. Rice-fields must either
lie on the banks of rivers, flowing at a level where the soil can bo fully
saturated and at a proper time flooded, or artificial ii'rigatiou must be
resorted to.

There ai'e a number of hydraulic machines exhibited of the kind used
for irrigation, on which so much tropifal cultivation depends. It is one of
the arts we have yet to learn and apply to our semi-tropical colonies. In
one instance, in the north bay, six bullocks were to be seen employed in
hauling a leather bucket out of a well in the same manner that we some-
times see a brewer's horse haul an empty barrel out of a cellar. It is
impossible to ituagine a more wasteful employment of power. In the soutli
bay were several endless-chain buckets worked by bullocks moving a gin
or horizontal w'heel round. In another instance we observed the bucket
to be raised by the lever principle.

We would suggest that this set of models might afford the means of a
very useful and interesting lecture on the application of simple machinery
to irrigation. To intending colonists, such lessons would have great value.
Our agricultural schools and colleges, which are preparmg many colonists,
should take up the question. The resources of the very promising colony
of Natal cannot be developed without machinery for ii-rigation, as the
principal rivers run between steep banks.

Five or six models of hoes drawn by bullocks were shown : these are
used in the cane-fields. It is plain that hundreds of years before Jethro
TuU wrote on the sovereign pierits of hurso hoeing, part of his system was
in practice in Central India.

In all these implements iron is used where it can be got ; and no douht,
if we succeed in bestowing railroads on the Indian peninsula, a rapid im-
provement in all the mechanical implements will follow the cheap convey-
ance to new markets which railroads mil create.

The implements variously known as "scarifiers" and " extu-pators," and
" cultivators," which first began to attract notice in this couutiy about forty
years ago, have long been known to the Indian farmer, and ai'e constructed
very efficiently for working in light laud. They consist of a set of teetli
shod with iron, arranged in a heavy bar, and drawn by a bullock.

The sickles with which the gi'ain is reaped were sho\\ai, with a model of
the floor on which it was trodden out ; and on the wall of the south bay
hung a rope muzzle for " muzzling the ox that treads out the corn." This
plan of treading out grain is not confined to the East ; it is practised in
Spain, in .South America, and occasionally, when l.abom- is very scarce, in
.\ustralia. The corn is winnowed by throwing it up against the wind. The
next operation (that is to say, gi'inding) heis been illustrated. Two women
are squatted down opposite each other, having a pair of millstones between
tliem, of which the upper one fits into a hollow in the lower one : a handle
is fixed excentrioally in the upper stone in such a manner that one of the
two women is always pulling towards her. This implement is as old as
the time of Job.

The last operation of Indian agricultural economy to which wo will refer
is the manufacture of sugai'. Two grooved rollers of wood, placed face to

• Tlie act (if tbe Irisli Parliament, fuibiddiiig. under penalty of fine and imprisonment,
" a barbarous custome of ploughing, IiarrowinK. drawing, and working witlt horses, marcs,
geldings, garrans, and colts, by the taile, whereby tlie brecde of horses is much impaired
in tliis kijigdom," was sot paseed until the reisa of Charles II., iu 1G34.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS; AN ILLUSTUATEl) CYCLOP^KULi OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OP 1851.

THE CI,nST>:0 or THK CKEAT EXniBITinN.-PniNCR ALBEET KECEIVINQ THE REPORTS OF THE JURIES. Otv. 1.'. ISr.l,

106

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS.

ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

ARTICLES OF FOOD.
'rHE three great pliysical wants of mau arc Food, Clotliiiig, aud Habita-
tion; and of these, Food way be pronounced the most essential.
Considering that, for aomo thouaand years, auccoasive generations have had
ample opportunity of toiting the values of different kinds of food, it might
be supposed, that, both in tlieory and practice, our knowledge of alimentary
subsUmces would be more complete than tliat of any other subject. Yet the
whole question, in a philosophic point of view, re.juires a high amount of
knowledge, and U bo recondite, that, even at the present time, it is veiy
imperfectly ^mde^stood. The rosearehes of modern chemists aud philoao-
phers have clearly indicated tl.at the operatiomi of external nature aiid the
operations of the functions of man are conducted according to the samo
laws, and that man haa only the power of discovering the principles of
nature, and adapting them to his uae. According to this view, organic
beings, aud even man himaelf, ai-e mere elaborate contrivances, exhibiting
the perfections of nature, but in no whit difformg. in the hiwa under which
they act, from the stfiam-engine, the battery, or the candle. From this
cause, aa organic beings ai'e continually cxhibithig force or capacity to
change the arr.ujgfmeut of matter, it follows that, according to the
universal law of natm-e, soma oiUer matter must be changed within their
bodies, and hence, for that change, food i* requii-cd. The human body
falluig within the class of warm-bodied animals, rc'iuires matter to be
changed or to enter into new combinations for the production of its
natural warmth. It requires other matter to be changed for the capacity ,
of exercising its muscular foroo ; and neithgi* the slightest action of the ;
finder, nor even the winking of the eyelid, can be exercised without a |
corresponding demand for fooiL Lastly, although the production of heat
and the geuei-ation of force ro<iuii-o the gieittwt amount of food, yet
materials ai-e required to build and support the frame of which the human
body is made up. Not a thought can Brii4o, nor a dreamy vision appoai",
nor a determination be arrived at, without a waste of material. In
considering alimentary matter, we shall have to consider, in the first place,
of substances required to maintain tlie waiinth of the body, then of matters
to maintain the muaculai- action, then of that food which is required to
excite the brain; and, lajstly, of other subbtances requii'od to build up the
Etructure which evinces these various proportlgs.

Although it is manifest that we muat take cai« to supply food adequate
to these put2J0ses, yet even the discoverius of modern chemistry do not
enable us to point out precisely the manner in which every kind of food
acts ; and hence we must group a maas of foods together according to their
composition aud those effects which experience haa taught ua they produce.
But even in estimating the value of various kinda of food by their action,
instead of their composition, we are met by many difficulties; for food, to
be useful, must be digested — must be assimilated or taken into the blood ;
and the game material which ia easily digested and assimilated by one
person, is absolutely poisonous to pothers; and there is even one cose
recorded of an individual in whom mutton, the most wholesome and
lightest of meats, invariably, under every form of disguioc, acted as a
poison, and produced diarrhooa, and dysentery, Slc.

The changes which take place in all organic bodies, including man
himaelf, take jilace in fluid mixture. The digested food is absorbed by
vessels in a fluid state aud taken into the blood. The changes of the body
which produce the forcw« occur also in nwteriala ia a state of solution ;
and, lastly, the exontion of the clianged matter i> al-so effected through
the kidneys, .skin, alimoutory canal, and lungs, from fluids.

The supply of water as a diluent fluid becomes therefore a matter of
great importance; aud fur this reu-^on wc shall first consider the coufcriv-
ances by which good wholesome water can be obtained for dietary purposes.
The quality of water xi«ed for food is a matter immediately aud essentially
affect'mg the health. At certain tunes, any contamination with putrid
matter acta 3n a most vinilent poison, and at all times is Habie to produce
diarrhcea. Dm-iug tho prevalonoo of cholera, the evcr-memorablo mortality
of Albion-place in the Wal worth-road was produced by a drain having
effected a communication with the well. At one house every individual
perished. The inhabitant* of the other house?, supplied from the samo
tank, were also great aufforwB ; aud thus it becomes of gieat importance
for evei7 person to examine the character of tho water which he employs.

Chemiata have discovered, that, when water freeaes, the ice, b tiie act of
solidification, squeezes out all foreign mattere, bo really nothing can be

purer than the water from thawed ice. In London, where tho water
supplied is but indifierent, mid tho sources are contaminated with
animal and other refuse, perhaps no better course cau be adopted, by
those who oi-e in a position in life to afford it, than to use that solid ico
which has boou recently imported ; for not only might it be employed to
cool wine aud other provisions, but, when thawed, would form an excellent
bevei-age. All artificial contrivances for freezing water arc, doubtless, not
so economical m theu- application as the simple mode of importing it from
colder climates. At the present day, ioo may bo mado in the red-hot
crucible ; but the best plan, exhibited at tho Crystal Palace, is that
devised by Mr. Masters, and by which wo have seen very beautiful
blocks of ice prepared. Next to the purification of water by freezing,
that by distillation demands attention. In London many persons have
an apparatus which ia attached to their kitchcn-rangos, and which is
capable of giving a considerable quantity of a bright fluid. In this case
some cmpyremeutic oils ai-e very apt to come over with, the water, and
give it an unpleasant taste-
As far as the mechanical impurities of water are concerned, they may bo
removed by hltration, and laigo quantities of dead and putrifying animal
and vegetable bodies may be separated by this snnple process. There can
be no more simple mode of filtration than by using a piece of blotting-
paper placed in a funnel ; and, in fact, this mode is adopted by chemists,
even for their more delicate operations. At the Exhibition many mecha-
nical filters were shown, the majority of which are so contrived that a
pressure assists the more rapid action of the water. The filters exhibited
both by Ml-. Sth-liog and Mr. Slack are said to have the power of filtering
very large quantities of nater.

In many coses filtration may be employed, either through animal
charcoal, or that peat charcoal which has been recently found so cflective
to deodorise aud absorb putrid material. This process is so effective, that
Dr. Garrod ha3 lately pointed out that the most deadly vegetable poison
may be removed from water by animal charcoal.

In using water as a diluent some precautious must be taken, for, after
great fatigue and exhaustion, a sudden draught of cold water is attended
with serious consequences. Quintus Curtius records that Alexander tho
Great lost more men by this means than he had ever lost in any battle.

The active substances which are used for food must consist of various
elementary bodies ; we priucipally use compounds of hydrogen, carbon,
nitrogen, iron, potash, soda, and phosphorus; as all of these elementai-y
matters are the subject of changes, or enter into new combinations, which
produce the forces which the human organisation manifests, and may then
be detected in the changed materials which are escreted.

Of all foods, perhaps, those derived from other animals deserve our first
consideration. Every surgeon knows the beneficial influence of a generous
diet in developing a hi;jhly organised individual. At the London dispen-
saries aud workhouses the baneful influence of an imperfect diet is shown
by a debilitated body aud feeble mind ; and the railway labourer ia kno^m
to require a large amount of animal food to enable him to follow his avoca-
tion. We have aacertauied from many calculations, that amongst the
middle classes the value of the average amount of flesh meat eaten in
London amoimta to about sixpence per head per diem, where the party ia
left to follow his own inchuatious, without resti-ictiou or guidance. Upon
this avei-ago, the butcher's bill for ten persons amounts to about 90i. ayear.
If we consider that this amount of flesh meat is the proper quantity, we
perceive at once the importance of the subject under con(^ideration. And
tliough a small section of the population ai-e pht/top<ipha(fi, or vegetable-
eaters, such iudividuals form the exception, and not the rule ; and to
preserve the integrity and enterprise of the Anglo-Saxon race, the firat
medical authorities declare that a full meat diet luu^t be used.

In the South-west Gallery various samples of milk preserved for voyages
were exhibited. First of all, Moore's concentrated preserved milk comes
before us, with a good appearance aud excellent testimonials from various
Burgeons who have reported upon the subject to Sir W. Burnett. Again,,
we observe milk prepared by other processes. Mr. Fadeuiihe has exhibited
consolidated milk, of a buttery appearance. Some preserved cream was
also shown ; and a single bottle of ai-tificial mdk, composed of yolk of egg
and other materials, to partake as near as possible the properties of that
fluid, is contributed by Mr. Prosse. Milk, being desigiied for the growth
and nutrition of the infant, contains every material for that purpose, and
hence is complete iu itself, at any rate for the infant state.

Butter— the fatty portion of milk separated from it — was poorly repre-
sented at the Exhibition ; aevertkeleas, the Americans contributed several
tuba of tins article of food. Butter, being composed only of hydrogen and

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOP^DLl OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OP 1851.

face, ai'e turned by two men with handspikes, while two or three sugar-
canes are thrust between them : tho small percentage of juice extracted by
this imperfect force falls into a pan below, and is thence conveyed to open
earthenware pans, which aro close at hand for the purpose of boiling. And
yet India sends us a good deal of sugar.

After a very cursory examination of this picture of the mral life of the
Indian population, presented in this very curious set of models and figures,
it is impossible to doubt, that, with the increased means of communication
which roads and railroads would open, the interior of central India is
capable of affording a largely-increased exportation of cottou, sugar, rice,
linseed, hemp, and other staples peculiar to the soil aud climate ; and that
the result of increased intercourse would be to greatly improve the social
aud intellectual condition of tho native population, and to render them
better customers for the manufactures, which we can produce so good and
so cheap.

At present we shall not say anything respecting the set of looms exhibited
for weaving cloth, shawls, and carpets (the la-st is on a working scale), but
be content with observing that .since, by the powers of our mechanical
inventions, we are aide to import cotton from India, manufacture it, and
re-expoi-t it at suck a price a^ to undersell by 75 per cent, the half-naked
rice-eating producer of the fiutst muslins, it is as much our duty as our
interest to assist in stimulating the growth of cotton and other agiicultui-al
produce of India.

MACHINERY AND MECHANICAL CONTRIVANCES.

FAIRBAIRN'S PATENT RIVETING MACHINE.

This is a machine lately mvented aud brought into (tee by the Messrs.
Fairbairu, of Manchewter, for riveting tlie seams of boilers, ic. It ov.es
its origin, we believe, to a tuni-out of the boiler-makci-s in tlic employ of
the exhibitor, about fifteen years ago. The principal advantage attributed
to it u tliat it does noiselessly, at once, and with unerring precision, by
pimple compression, that which was foiTuerly done by means of repeated
blows of a hammer ; and that before the rivet ha^ lost its heat, so that by
its contraction in cooling it grips the plates still tighter together. This
machine is capable of fixing in the firmest manner eight rivets, three-
quiirter inch diameter, in a minute, with the attendance of two men and
two boys to the plates and rivets ; whereas the average work that can be
done by two rivetei-s, with one " holder-on " and a boy, is forty similar
rivets per liour — the increase in quantity of work done by the machine
bemg at the rate of twelve to one, exclusive of the saving of one man's
labour. The work, also, ia done better, for reasons already stated, the
boilers being more secure from leakage than under the old method.

The construction of this machine will be easily undei-stood by thoso

IO3

conversant with mechanical and engineering contrivances, fi-im an in^pe*.
tion of the Engraving. The large upright htem is made of malleable irgT
Tiie rirethig dies are of vm-ious descriiitions, adapted to every dcHcrirtioB
of flat or circular work ; even tho comers arc riveted with the same caw
as other parts, so that vessels of any shape may be completed without
recoui'sc to the old process of hanimuring,

MIDDLETON'S CENTRIPETAL WHEEL-PLATE.

Among the various improvements in carriage building exhibited, wa» 1
contrivance of tlie Messrs. Middleton, for leSHening the di-aught of carriacM
and shortening the lock — two impoi-tant considerations, which have at
different times attracted the attention of some of the firtt builders. R ha*
been considered that a sliding perch bolt, as connected with the whe«i
plate, would certainly be better than the fixed one in ordinary use. Yttit
is a matter of considerable difficulty to keep the " under carriage" alwir*
under the centre of the body, wbicli isaserious objection, as, if the carriage
is cur\-ed away from the centre, it not only makes it very difficult to luok
round, but renders it Uable to accident from being over-turned, owing tgj
want of sufficient bearing.

By the accompanying diagrams— 1 and 2— it wiU be seen tUt the
inventora have overcome the difficulties alluded to. A plan of the carriage,
as it would appear when running iu a straight line, is shovra by Fig, I
Thus, tho wheels are brought much closer together, as the under carriage
ia full ten inches nearer to the centre of the body than usual.

The carriage is shown on the "full lock" by Fig. 2, when the bolt A
has been moved down the full length of the groove B, being guided both
smoothly and equally by means of tlie pin C running in the gi-oove D of
the transverse plate, thereby allowing the wljeels to work under the body.

The eUiptical form given to the wheel-plate is both ni.vel and onia-
mental, and the wliol« arrangement seems calculated to tusure ei^ and
safet}'.

CLOSING SCENE OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION.
— ♦ —

The Engraving standing across the next two pages represents the iuttr-
esting and memorable ceremony of October 15th, when Prince Albert, ai
President of the Royal Commission, received the Reports of the Juri«
from Viscount Canning, and read a reply, in which, on behalf of the Kojtl
Commission, he thanked the members of the Juiies, the Foreign and hocti
Commissioners, and others who had esei-ted %ftemselves in promoting the
objects of the Great Exhibition. The proceedings took place uptjn a tem-
porary platform erected on the site previously occupied by the Crystal
Fountain in the middle of tlie transept. For further particularB, our
readers ai-e referred to No. 4, page 59.

Jfujt

m^pisxoy. i cMiatrvz^ VBUb-ciOT^

FAIBBAiaK'S FUTSMT SIVSTIMa JUCmVB.

AN ILliUSTRATED CYCLOPiEDIA OF THE GllEAT EXIirHlTION OP IHr.l.

107

ciii-hoii, in iii!iii(riciciit of itsi'lf to maiutiiiii tlie vital functions. Tlio Mini-o
iiii]iort!Uit conntitiiyiitu of iiiillc, wliicli nro Ht'piinitoil from it .ami Kulidilioil
into cliceso, form (I concentrated kind of food, wliicli in ko well adapted
for koopin;', so easy of traiispoi't, and yet witlial so woU eulculiiled to
iiirlicate nkill in ilM ninn\ifaetiM'u. that wo nii;,'lit reaflonaljly expect tliat the
Cl'yi<tal I'alaco would liavo bee?! iiiiindiitcd with exaniplcH.

Next to milk, hlnod must ho regarded aK a material having all tlio
oonatituontH roquinite for food. It is but litllo used in any country. Tlio
Jjovltical law so strictly forbids its uso, that it orders it to bo thrown upon
the grounil. This in carried out to the present day by tho Jews, ftnd wo
can but think there is .some meilical reason for its not being used. To our
mind, tlioro is soniothing revolting in the usts of blood, and wo .should bo
■\'i'rv indispf)sed to try tho blood bread of either the ox, cow, t-alf, lamb, or
Bheop, all of which aro exhibited by Mr. Hocohiore. Amongst those articles
of food, ,and jilaeod in tho section for food, are specimens of the [iroserved
b!t)od of healthy mm ami healthy women, for the oxeollonce of whicli, as
articles of diet, not being cannibals, we can give no opinion. We have no
ex[>erienee of the use of blooil to any extent as an article of food, and,
therefore, w^ould not recommend it even under tho title of blood bon-bons,
which aro shown amongst these articles. Of course, in times of famine,
thoy might possibly be of great Msistance.

h'rom the consideration of tho blood foods, wo now I'ass to the more
pleasing criticism of materials derived from the muscular fibre, or meat.
iu this department the Americans have shown large barrels of beef and
pork prepared for ship purposes. The same people have shown specimens
of hams aud spiced beef; and our Irisli neiglibours, represented by Mr.
Smith, have cureil a whole pig, to exhibit their skill in this department of
the preparation of food. A few other hams were shown, but in this matter
the ilisplay was not good. In these cases salt is naeil in considerable
exoe.ss, and it has become a matter of great impoi-tance to prepare meat so
that it will keep without that material. Napoleon ofl'tred a large reward
foi' any person who should provide this desideratum, which we believe was
firat discovered and used iu France. Subsequently, Mr. Cooper also suc-
ceeded iu linding out how to conduct the same operation, and his discovery
was rewarded by a handsiime fortune produced by the sale of jireserved
meats for ship crows. Neither lie nor his descendants have contributed
specimens to the Exhibition, although Captain Parry and Captain Ro^s have
spoken of them as being "ni flavour and quality superior to every other."

The important department of prepared provisions was extremely well
represented. Messrs. Gamble sent, amongst a large number of tins, one
canister of boiled mutton supplitd to the Arctic expedition iu 182-1, and
found by Sir James Ross iu Rriuco Regent's Inlet, in 18i9, iu a perfect
state of jireservatiou. Jlr. Leonard showed beef said to keep good for any
time ; and a large quantity of foods from New South Wales was also
exhibited. The principle of the preparation of the foods is the total
exclusion of the air, and hence no putrefaction or other change occurs. It
is impossible to tell to what extent this manufacture will eventually be
carried, for iu some parts of the world animals are kept for thtir skin aud
fat only, the meaty, or nutritious part, being useless for any purpose. We
aro told that the large navy contracts for these preserved meats are taken by
persons who procure the materials from foreign countries, aud thus are
enabled to supply tliem at a very moderate price. If so, we see no reason why
thousands of tons of such provisions should not be imported for the use of
our industrial classes ; for already their excellence is well known to the
bachelor students of the inns of court, who keep a supply by them to use
when required. This iuventiou will, doubtless, by degrees, amply develope
itself. Of course, of the relative excellence of the things exhibited we have
no means of judging from simply looking at the canisters. Mr. Whitney
showed beef preserved in a dry state, in fact, as a powder, without salt :
doubtless, if well prepared, it might become a good breakfast viaud. A
more important material was exhibited by Mr. Warriuer aud M. Soyer. It
consists of the gravy of meat, containing, probably, all lt,i soluble matters in
a concentrated form. It is procured from Australia, where the carcases of
sheep are positively worthless. In tho department of chemicals, Mr.
Bullock has furnished a beautiful specimen of both kreatine and kreatiuine,
two alkaloids which Liebig has lately discovered in the tiesh of animals.
Perhaps we dare affirm that such specimens as these have never been pro-
duced before, and that they aro the largest and finest examples that have
ever been made, aud, therefore, well deserving of cai-eful study.

Madame ,St. Etieune has shown specimens of combinations of animal
food with vegetable ; so as also Mr. Gentile, apparently from the same
works at Totues ; and tho Americans have sent over some meat biscuits.
These latter we have had an opportunity of tastiug, and they appear to be
a very excellent compound of flour w-ith tlie gravy of meat. The whole
question of the preparation of food is but in its infancy — a mere germ,
which, perliaps, in future years, will be fully developed.

The flesh of meat is particularly valuable as au alimentai-y matter, inas-
mucli as it supplies the substance which enables us to evince muscular
action; and, though we shall hereafter point out that some vegetables con-
tain a .similar principle, yet animal food seems, upon the whole, with due
deference to the vegetable feeders, to be the best lubstauce whigh can bo
employed for that object.

Fish is somewhat less digestible than meat. Preserved salmon and various
other fish were exhibited by the same persons who have shown the preserved
meats. We need hardly remind our readers that we owe isinglass to fish.
This material was well represented by Mr. Simpson, who has shown an excel-
lent case of samples of this material. By tho machines it is cut up into fine

riiiboiiH, Hitch iw those which aro §olrl in tlio groccn' nhopii. AmongHt

the Indian curioHiticH a lish wim hIiowii which aUo yields a good ittinglajM,

and a number of nhark's fins which arc aluo employed by the native" for

a similar object. Of lute yeaiH, gclntiue liuH been procured not only from

fish but also from animal Hubstanccri, an<^ voriouH Kpeeimeu.'i of geUtiiio

I Were shown. In purchasing this substance the [tubllc must rely upon tUc

' honesty of the vender ; for, although homo nro oh good or i-tronger than

I iaitiglasH, otlitrs are almost as bud as tho better hortJi of carfienter'ft glue.

1 Mr. Hatty has bIiowu some beautiful glassc-s of enlven'-fcot jelly, which will

keep for any time, and yet piijservo tho tlavount which have been iuipurto<J

I to them. In England fish does not form so coiiiiiion an article of diet an

1 fttrmerly, when imlentiires of apjirentiees ma-le in the towns on the bor-ler.;

of the Severn coiitaineil stipulations a.s to the number of days to which the

eating of baliiioii was to bo restricted, or in those ancient ]»erioda of history

when iloredotus reeordb that there were two or three races who lived

cxeliisivoly on fish, and Iienco were called Ichthyopophagi.

In the Swiss dcpaitnieiil sonic dried trout, ilried mutton chops, cutlets,
&c., weru exhibited ; and in the French department various articlcif pre-
served in tins, but not deserving any special de-criptioii.

Tho preparations of gelatine were formerly m high repute ; but modem
chemistry seems to indicate that they are serviceable for the tendon.^, fasciie,
and skin, and do not oommunieato to tho system matter which supplies
the changes which aro rciiuired for muscular action ; and certainly the
practical surgeon knows that the}' arc incomparably inferior to the soluble
parts of muscular fibre, or flesh meat, for restoring strength and mtuicular
energy.

Amongst preparations from fish, we must not omit the fish oils. These
during the last ten years have come much into use as a medicine, thoui^h,
perhaps, they must be regarded more in the light of a food than a remedial
agent. By the u.so of the fish oiks, such as cod-liver oil, and the oils of a
similar character, the surgeon can fatten his patient at discretion, and can
even, by their agency, remove the tubercular matter which, when deposited
about the joints, Cdnstitutes scrofula — when deposited in the lungs consti-
tutes Consumption. The judicious use of these oils, combined with other
proper treatment, has so very much increased tlie duration of life in con-
sumj>ti\e cases, that this malady is now, in a great miijority of instances,
cured, or stopped ill its progress before it has fatally disorganised those
organs so absolutely necessary to the right performance < 'f the vitd functions.
Amongst the articles of food, there were some furnished by the Chinese
aud Indians which we think are almost new to England — these ai'O edible
slugs. They have a most uninviting look, and are large, dried, black
masses, which aro eaten by Ea.stern nations ; bub with their excellence,
flavour, and properties we arc not acquainted. Amongst the Chinese aud
Indian collections, we had also such a display of edible birds' nests as we
never saw before iu this country. These nests, as exhibited, were in two,
if not in three varieties ; the tii-st being quite white, and somewhat re-
sembling dried wliitc of egg ; the second being mixed with feathere. These
are used ftir soup, and, according to the analysis published by modem
chemists, they contain the highest amount of nutritive ingredients ; in fact,
containing a highly nitrogenised substance, they must be considered as
I being one of the most concentrated kinds of food which can be employed.
j Amongst the luxuries which doubtless in lime will be rendered much
cheaper, is preserved turtle, aud we see no reason why the delicious
calipash and calipee should not be abundantly prepared in regions where
I these creatures abound, sealed up in tins and sold at a moderate price. It
I is now largely imported, but not to the extent which it deserves.

Perhaps there is no more curious feature connected with animal food
than the economy whieli is practised with such portions as are unfit for
; food. The very refuse in making candles fetches comparatively a higli
price in the shape of greaves ; and, in fact, every portion is turned to some
account. Some time ago, when experimenting on various foods, the writer
called at a large retail sliop, aud offered to purchase all tho fragments of
cheese which necessarily occur iu cutting it. Tlie man asked what seemed
to be a preposterous price ; but. wiulst debating the matter, a respectable-
looking female, who overheard the conversation, turned round and ex-
claimed, ''Ah, sir, you little know the value of those fragments ; if you
had a family like mine, you would be glad indeed to get pieces of such
good cheese for supper ! " Of good food every fragment is sold; and when
animal matter is unfit for food, it passes into the manufacturer's hands to
be changed to other substances.

In taking a review of the animal .substances used for the food'of man, it
will be seeu, that, without there being anything positively new in the Great
Exhibition, there were many materials which are but very little known,
not only to the public, but even to those who have deeply studied these
subjects. The most important aud suggestive examples are, doubtless,
those in which meat is preaepved to keep for any period, and is capable of
being transported to any distimce. The legislator and the philanthropist
must for ever regard the proper supply of tlie industrial classes with nutri-
tious food as a matter of the utmost importance. Our workhouses are
filled with inmates on account of bodily maladies produced by insutiScient
or improper food. Our hospitals aud disfiensaries are crowded with sup-
plicants for aid from the same cause. For the full development of the
intellectual fivculties adequate nourishment was absolutely necessary ; and
consequently, both physically and morally, there was no subject of moi*e
importance at the Crystal Palace than those specimens of food which were
exhibited, which are likely to tend to the more extensive supply of animal
food to the industrial classes.

108

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

FURNITURE.

THE display of furniture in
the Great Exhibition, al-
though extremely showy and
co3tly, and calculated to excite
the wonder of the millions who
beheld it at the bare thought of
the value of the materials em-
ploy ed, and the labour bestowed
upon the various ai-ticles, has,
after all, done veiy little to
promote the interests of that
homely idol, "comfort." Luxury
has been studied, ostentation
has been courted, wealth has
been propitiated, but to the
many thousands who have to
consult economy of space, of
material, and of outlay, scarcely
a suggestion has been oifered for
the improvement of the "style"
of then- homes. The poor man,
therefore, has gained veiy little,
if anything, in tin.? respect by
the Great Exhibition ; — he must
put up still, with the same rat-
tle-trap, clumsily made chaii'S
and tables as heretofore ; — or
resort to the broker for the
cast-off finery of his richer neigh-
houre, much of which he ^vill
tind unsuitable both in dimeu-
.sions and fashion for his pui--
jjose. And even the man of ta.ste
and wealth, curious in articles
uf rtrtu, has not found all to
admire in this gaudy display.
Invention, guided by reason, has
not been at work ; mere copying
of established, not to say obso-
lete, models has been the rule ;
and the sole object of ambition

with each competitor seems to
have been, how much of decora-
tive device he could crowd with-
in a given space, without any
regard to its suitableness in a
ntiUtarian, or appropriateness
in an artistic point of view. At
the same time there were excep-
tions, many of which we shall be
glad to note from time to time,
when continuing these remarks ;
and to make a beginning we
lu'e happy to fix upon two vei-y
creditable exhibits in this line.

MONOCLEID CABINET.
BY SOPWITH.

Sopwith's Monocleid Cabinet
is a very serviceable and well-
made piece of furniture. It is
made of black walnut wood — the
upper panels being of silvered
plate glass, ornamented through-
out with carved gilt mouldings.
This cabinet contains a gi'eat
number of drawers and parti-
tions, so arranged as to be es-
pecially serviceable for the
keeping of various papers sorted,
and the whole of them are
opened by one turn of the key,
therebeing but asingle lock and a
tingle key -hole situate externally.

.\1U.\0CI.EID CABlNiiT. BV SOI'WITH.

BEDROOM FURNITURE. BY TROL-
LOPE AND SON.

The Bed-room Set.by Trollope
& Sou, is in very good taste :
the material is satm-wood, inlaid
with various-coloured woods.
The bedstead and dressing-table
have turned spiral legs; and
the ornamentation throughout,
without offending by redun-
dancy or undue prominence,
is remai'kable for its admii-able
finish.

BE i-itoc'ii rup.xiTvnT:. — rv troi.t.oie anp son

AN ILLUSTRATKI) CYCLOP.KIHA OF TIIK GRKAT KXIIIIUTIO.V OF 1H51.

10!)

THE KENILWOnTH BUFFET.

ur coOKi'3, WAnwiiK.

Ov thin very carufully studied
and ambitious woi-k, wliicli lias
been oiiG of tlio cbiof lions on
tho British sido of tlic Crystiil
Palnce, wo iirefcr giving, in an
abridged form, tbo description
by tlio makers : —

Tho wood of whicli this buffet
wn3 made was olitaiuod from a
colossal oak treo, which grew
near Ivenilworth Castle, in War-
wickshire, measuring 10 feet in
dianiet'sr. and containing about
GOO cubic feet of wood, wliicU
was lovcllcil in ISl'J, and .after-
wards inu'chased by tho cxhibi-
tora. The subject of tlio design
ig the Kenilworth Pageant of
1575, in honour of Queen Eliza-
beth's visit to tlie Earl of Leices-
ter, described by Lancham and
Gaseoigue, two attendants on
tho Queen in this " royal pro-
gress," and vividly reproduced
by Scott. The design of the
centre panel, carved out of one
solid block of oak, represents
Queen Elizabeth entering Kenil-
worth Ciistlc, in all the pomp
usually displayed on these occa-
sions. The cavalcade is seen
crossing the TUt Yard, and
;i]'iaoaching the base court of
tlie building by Mortimer's
'r(>\ver. Leicester is bareheaded
and on foot, leading the horso
upon which his august mistress
is seated, magnificently arrayed.
The Queen (then in her 42ud
year) wears her eromi, .and has
around her neck the enormous
I utf in whicli .she is alw.ays
ijiiresonted. Two pages and a
long train of attendants follow
the Queen and her host, com-
posed of ladies, statesmen,
knights, and warriors — some on
foot, othei-s on horseback. In
the distance are soldiers and
a mixed multitude of people.
A portion of the Castle is seen
in the back-gi-ound. At one
end, the gateway through
which the cavalcade is about
to pass, is Mortimer's Tower,
tho remains of which are still
in existence, and considerably
heighten tho romantic beauty of
the Kenilworth ruins. At the
opposite end of the panel, the
Earl of Essex, Leicester's rival
in the favour of Queen Eliza-
beth, is conspicuously seen,
mounted on a charger. On tho
table part underneath the centre
panel is displayed the Tudor
rose, and surmounted by tho
royal crown, with the famous
motto of Elizabeth, "Semper
eadem," on a ribbon. On the
ppandrils, supported by water-
flowers and rock-work penden-
tives. are marme subjects taken
from the " Pageant," namely, a
Triton on the Mermaid, and
Alien on the Dolphin, con-
nected with Mike Lambourue's
mishap, in the novel of " Kenil-
worth." The panel on the
right or dexter sido of the buffet
recalls the scene in the same
wark when Elizabeth meets
Amy Robsai-t in the grotto,
in the grounds of the Castle.

J 10

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

The subject of the left panel of the buffet represents the interview
of Queen Elizabetli and Leicester, after the exposure of the deceit prac-
tised upon her by the latter, and his marriage witli Amy Robsart. Leieestet
is'showTi in a kneeling po=^ition, with one baud on his breast, and the
other extends towards Elizabeth, as if appealing to her sensibility. The
four statuettes at the corners are emblematical of the reign of Elizabeth. At
the extreme corner of the right is Sir Philip Sydney, the nephew of the Earl
of Leicester, whose character combined all the qualities of a great poet.
warrior, and statesman. He died in 15S6. The shape of Sir Philip's
Bword (which is still preserved at Penshuret) is singular, the handle being
about sixteen inches long. On the opposite side of the .same pedestal will
be recognised Sir Walter Raleigh, who attained eminence in almost every
branch of science and literature. He is arrayed in a courtier's dress, and
the figiu'e represents hini in a thoughtful attitude, with a scroll and pen in
his hand. Raleigh was behca<led on a charge of high treason, in 1618. On
the left pedestal at the inner side of the bufiet is a figiu'e of Shakgpeare,
who is shown in reflective mood The last figure is that of Sir Francis
Drake, the first Englishman who circumnavigated tlie globe. An anchor is
appropriately introduced, emblematic of his naval career ; and the costume
chosen is a court dress. The ragged staff mouldinsrs of the Kenilwortii
buffet are imitations of the best examples in the Beauchanip Chapel,
"WiU'wick, where the Earl of Leicester was interred. The supporters to the
projecting shelves also represent the proud crest of this splendid noble, the
bear and ragged staff, bnrne by the Earls of AVarwick from the most
remote times. The small panels of the buffet behind the Leicester cog-
nizance contain monograms of the date of Queen Elizabeth's visit to
Kenilworth Castle, and the eventful year 18-51, with the cipher of the
reigning Monarch, designed to record the era <'f the Great Exhibition of all
Nations. Around the door-panels of the Kenilwortii buffet are copies of
architectural details still .seen on the Gate-Hcnise. The upper part, above
the shelf of each pedestal of tiie buffet, displays the monogram of the Earl
of Leicester, encircled by the insignia of the Order of the Garter, and .=nr-
mounted by his c M-ouet. The decorations on each side are specimeus of
Elizabethan on.imeuts, designed by the proprietors." An important
feature in the pro Inction of thi- work is the introduction, by Mr. Walter
Cooper, of pohitinc/, the process adopted by sculptors in stone and marble,
and by which greater accuracy is secured.

CLAUS.5EN'S IMPROVED MODE OF TREATING FLAX.
'IS^HETHER wo. 1 or Flax were first spun into threads and woven into
cloth, is left d'Hibtful by history ; but the art of spinning is one of
the most ancient, and one of the eai-liest materials spun, if not the very
earliest, was Flax. The mummy-cloth of Egypt, chemically and micro-
scopically examined by Dr. Ure, was ascertained to be wholly composed,
both in warp and woof, of Flax, and contained no cotton whatever.
Though cotton was probably fii-st spun in Egypt, and was certainly spun
at an early period, it was much later used than Flax for the purpose of
making cloth. We may indeed infer that iho art of spinning must have
made considerable progress before cotton was spun. No doubt, the art
took its rise from jilatting rushes together, then went to platting the finer
fibres of the Flax plant, and from platting tliem together to make a long
thread. The downy and almost pulpy nature of cotton, keeping its fila-
ments obscure to unaided vision, would not bo likely to suggest the pos-
sibility of twisting it into a string, till tliat art had been learned by twisting
together the long visible natui-al threads of Flax. Similar argiunents
apply to woo! ; and while history assui-es that Flax was spun long before
cotton, we may infer from theory that it was also spun before wool.

After being applied to making cloth upwards of three thousand years,
the same me;ms of preparing it for this purpose having been in use for the
whole time without nuich change, namely, rotting the plant in water, and
separating by the lieckle the woody and glutinous matters with which the
fibres of the Flax stalk are united, an improved method of preparing Flax
has lately been intri'duced. Many reasons, such as the unwholesomeness
of the rotting process, the offensive qualities it imparted to the water, the
weakening of the fibre, and the discoloration of the Flax, induced people
yeara ago to turn their attention to the subject ; and, though several
patents were taken out, it remained to our time to effect any considerable
improvement in tlie process. Latterly, the failure for two successive years
of the cottnu crop in the United States, the large increase of our cotton
manufacture, and the repugnance felt by some persons to have so much of
the national prosperity dependent on the product of slave labour, has
sharpened the wit of inventors, and Chevalier Claussen, a Belgian, has
recently brought before the public a scheme by which Flax, the product
of our temperate climate, for tlie growth of which Ireland and a large part
of England are peculiarly well adapted, may be made to a considerable
extent to supply the place of cotton. On the great adv.antages of extend-
ing the cultivation of Flax; of ihe immense quantity of vei-y fattening
food it supplies for cattle ; of the hcaltliy employment it gives both out
of doors an<.l in doors, we need not speak at present. We shall now only
describe the additional advantages likely to accrue both to agriculturists

and manufacturers from Claussen's improved method of preparing the Flax
for being spun after it has left the bauds of the agricultm'ists.

t'rom the nature of Flax, considerable difficulty is experienced in spin-
ning it by machinery, and tlie greater facility with which cotton can bo
spun in tills way is the principal reason why cotton cloth has come so
extensively into u.-'e. and has in many cases superseded linen. Its peculiar
properties, however, must always make it acceptable, particularly in warm
climates, to a great multitude of people. Tlie problem to be solved in this
case was to make Flax as easy to spin by machinery as cotton, .and to
adapt it to the macliiuery already in use for spinning. It has been ascer-
tained by microscopic observations that the fibre of Flax is of a cylindric;il
form, while that of cotton is flat like a ribbon, a little thickened at either
edge. It is also shorter than the fibre of Flax. The process, therefore,
mainly consists in converting the cylindrical and tubular fibres of Flax into
flat ribbons, without destroying their texture. To cleanse the Flax tho-
roughly, it is first boiled for about three hours in water containing one-
half per cent, of common soda. It is then placed in water containing
about a 500tli part of sulphuric acid ; and this destructive agent being
neutralised by the soda remaining in the Flax, merely cleanses the fibre,
without injuring it. The process is equally useful whether the Flax bo
spun by the ordinary processes into linen yarn or be converted into cotton-
flax. It requires mucli less time than the old plan of cleaniug, does not
impart a bad colour to the Flax, and lessens by one-half the labour required
to scutch it. To convert it into cotton-flax, it is cut by a machine into
suitable lengths, and is saturated in a solution of bicarbonate of soda
(common baking soda). The solution penetrates into every part of the
small tubes ; and when that is effected, they are immersed in a solution of
sulphuric acid, in the proportion of about one part to 200 parts of water.
The acid combines with tlie soda of the bicarbonate, and liberates the car-
bonic acid in the form of gas, which, bj- its explosive force, bursts the Flax
tubes, and reduces them to the flat ribbon shape of the cotton fibre. Tlic
process is so gentle, yet decisive and rapid, that it has been compared to
itfligio. It is an extremely beautiful application of tlie power of explosion.
as we see it bubbling and forcing its way through soda water. " The Flax
fibre," says Mr. Hudson, the Secretary to the Royal Agi'icultural Snciety,
*}io reports tlie experiment, "soaked in the solution of the bicarbonat" of
soda, was no sooner immersed in the vessel containing the acidula'^d
vrater, than its character became at once changed from that of a Uamp,
tigid aggregation of Flax, to a light, expansive mass of cottony texture,
increasing in size like leavening dough or an expanding sponge." The mas.s,
tlov.- become of tlie consistence of cott'iu. soft and silky, cau be bleached
either in tlie ordinary method, or by being placed in hypochlorite of mag-
iiesia ; it may be carded in the same manuor a-s cotton, and is as fit for
spinning. In this condition, it has already been spun on cotton machinery
—as an experiment, but with great success — by the Messrs. Bright, at
Rochdale ; and there is every reason to believe that it may be used, if
necessary, as a complete substitute for cotton.

M. Claussen has been awarded a common prize medal for this important
improvement — an honour, however, which he repudiates in the following
protest : — " Upon an examination of the awards made by the juries
appointed by you under the authority of the Royal Corami.ssinn, for the
purpose of securing an impartial distribution of rewards to exhibitors in
connectioii with the Great Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations, I find
that what is termed a ' prize,' or second class medal only, has been awarded
to me by the jui'y in Class lY., in which I exhibited my new process of
preparing flax, so as to adajit it for spinning or weaving, either upon the
ordinary flax machinery or alone, or in combination with cotton and wool
upon the existing cotton and woollen machinery. As I consider this
award to be totally at variance with the spirit and letter of the instructions
given by your lordships to the Council of Chairmen of the Juries, I beg
most respectfully to decline to receive the medal so awarded."

THE SMOKE NUISANCE.

The public may not be aware of a clause of very considerable importance
which was introduced into the City of London Sewers Amendment Act, of
the past session ; and which comes into operation on January 1, 1852, viz :—

" That from and after the First Day of January One thousimd eight
hundred and fifty-two every Furnace employed or to be employed in the
working of Engines, by Steam, and every Furnace employed or to be
employed in any Mill, Factory, Printing House, Dychouse, Iron Foundry.
Glasshouse, Distillery, Brewhouse, Bakehouse, Gasworks, Waterworks, or
other Buildings used for the Purpose of 'f'rade, or Manufacture,
within the City (although a Steam Engine be not used or employed
therein), .shall in all Cases be constructed or altered so as to consume the
Smoke arising from such Furnace ; and if any Person shall, after the First
Day of January One thousand eight hundred and fifty-two, use any such
Furnace which shall not be constructed so as to consume or burn its own
Smoke, or shall so negligently use any such Furnace as that the Smoke
arising therefrom shall not be effectually consumed or burnt, or shall
carry on any Trade or Business which shall occasion any noxious or offen-
sive Effluvia, or otherwise annoy the Neighbourhood or Inhabitants,
without using, to the Satisfaction of the Commissioners, the be.st prac-
ticable Means for preventing or counteracting such Annoyance, every
Person so oftendiiig shall forfeit and p.ay a Sum of not more than Five
Pounds uor less thim Forty Sliilling.s, for and in respect of every Day j
during which or any Part of which such Furnace or Annoyance shall be so
used or continued."

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPiTlDIA OP THE GREAT EXTITRITION OT ]H:,].

Ill

MEMOIRS OF WORKING MEN.

•
TTNDKll tlio above licail we iiilctirl from time to time k'^'iiK lirief memoii-.i
of " working men," wlio, by their well-directed industry and inj^cmiit}',
havo distin^'uisliod tliem«elvc« ivbovo tlioir fellows, and eontribiited new or
improved principles of iniportoace to the mamifactnrin;,' renourccs of the
world. Siicli a sericH of ekctclies wo consider to bo strictly in aecordanco
with the spirit iu which tho Great Exhibition was founded, wIioho varied
wonders were not the work of a day, nor an atce, but the fruit of tho accu-
mulated laboiirs and discoveries of a century and nioro of such men as
Watt, Arkwrifjht, Hargrcavcs. Dalton, Peel, Wedfjewood, &c. Those notices,
therefore, whilst they will bo intei'osting a.s illustrative of the progress of
Art-cultino, will also servo ns an encouraging incitement to thousands of
" working men " of our own day, any one of whom may jiossibly have it in his
power to add his niito to the general store of viduable experiences, .and
to rcooivo his reward in fame and fortune for himself and his descendants.

JACOB PERKINS.
Jacod Perkiks wa? descended from one of the oldest families of that
ancient portion of the state of M.assachusetts, the coimty of Kssex — a region
of stubborn soil, but rich in its production of men. JIatthew Perkins, hi.s
father, was a native of Ipswich, and his ancestor was one of the first settlers
of th.it town. Matthew Perkins removed to Nowburyport early iu life, and
here Jacob Perkins was born, Jidy 0th. 1766. He received such education
as the common schools of that day furnished, and nothing more. What they
were in 1770 may be guessed. At the age of twelve he was put apprentice
to ft goldsmitli of Nowburyport, of the name of Davis. His master died
three years afterwards : .and Perkins, at fifteen, was left with the manage-
ment of tho business. Tliis was the age of gold beads, which our grand-
mothers still hold in fond remembr.ance — .and who wonders ? The young
goldsmith gained great reputation for the skill and honesty with which he
transformed the old Portuguese joes, then in circulation, into these showy
ornaments for the female bosom. Shoe-buckles were another article in
great vogue ; and Perkins, w-hose inventive powers had begun to exp.and
during his apprenticeship, turnei) his attention to the manufacturing of
them. He discovered a new method of plating, by which he could under-
sell the imported buckles. Tliis wa.s a profitable branch of business, till
the revolutions of fashion drove shoe-buckles out of the market. Nothing
could be done with strings, and Perkins put his head-work upon other
matters. Machinery of all sorts w.as then in a very rude state, and a clever
iirtis<an was scarely to be found. It was regarded as a great achievement
to effect a rude copy of some imported machine. Under the old confede-
ration, the state of Massachusetts established a mint for striking copper
coin ; but it was not so easy to find a mechanic equal to the task of making
a die. Perkins was but twenty-one years of age when he w*as employed
by the Government for this purpose ; and the old Mas.sachusetts cents,
stamped with the Indian and the Eagle, now to be seen only iu collections
of curiosities, are the work of his skill. He next displayed his ingenuity
in nail machinery, .and at the age of tweuty-four invented a machine wliich
3ut and headed nails at one operation. This was first p\it iu operation at
Jfewburyport, and afterwards at Ame.sbury. on the Mcrriniac, where the
nanufacture of nails has been carried on for more than half a centurv.
^erkins would have realised a great fortune from this invention, had hi.s
:nowledge of the world and the tricks of trade been in any way equ,al to
lis mechanical skill. Others, howerer, made a great gain from his loss :
.nd he t\irned his attention to varioas other branches of the mechanic arts.
n several of which he made essential improvements, as fire-engines,
ydr.auUc machines, &c. One of the most important of his inventions w,as
u tho engi-aving of bank bills. Forty years ago. counterfeiting was carried
n with an audacity and a success which would seem incredible at the
■resent time. The e.aso with which the clumsy engravings of the bank
ills of the day were imitateil, was a temptation to every knave who could
er.atch copper .; and counterfeits flooded the country, to the serious detri-
lent of trade. Perkins invented the stereotype cheek-plate, which no
rt of counterfeiting could match ; and a security wa.s thus given to bank
iaper which it had never before known. There was hardly any mechanical
eience in which Perkins did not exercise his inquiring and inventive
pint. The town of Newburyport enjoyed the benefit of his skill in every
■•ayin which he could contribute to the public welfare or amusement.
)uring the war of 1812, liu! ingenuity was employed in constructing
lachinei-y for boring out old honeycombed cannon, and iu perfecting the
=ience_of gunnei-y. He was a .skilful pyrotechnist, and the Newburyport

reworks of that day were thought to be nnrivalled in the United States.

'l'\)(: boys, wc ri'iMcinlicr, looki'd up to liim ai a K.-coud I'aust or ("orncliiu
Agrippa; and tlio writer of this article linfi not forirotteri thu delight and
auiazcmint with which ho learned from Jacob Perkins the mystury of
(!ompounding s<'rponts and rocki-tx. Al)oiit this time a person named
Undhfffer made l>rctensions to a diiieovcry of tho perpetual motion. Ho
was traversing tho United Htatcs with a machine cxhiliiting his iliHcovery.
Certain weighu moved the wheels, and when tljey ha'l run down, certain
other weights restored tho first. The oxpcHment scoincd perfect, for the
machine continued to niovo witliout ccsi-ation ; and Redhcfler waj*
trumpeted to the world ns the man who li.ad solved the great problem.
Perkins gave the machine an examination, and his knowledge of the powers
of nu'chanism en.ablod him to perceive at once that the visil.le appliances were
inadeq\iato to tho results. Ho saw that a hirlden power existed somewhere,
anrl his skilful calculations tletected the corner of the machine from which
it pniceoded. " Pass a saw through that post," said he, " and your per-
petual motion will stop." Tho impostor refused to put Lis machine to
such a test ; and for a sufficient rcn8(m. It was afterwards discovered that
a cord passed tlirough this post into the cellar, where an individu.al was
stationed to restore the wciglits at every revrdution. The studies, lab urs,
and ingenuity of Perkins were employed on so great a variety of subjects
that the task of specifying and describing t.hem must be left to one fully
ae<pi,ainted with the history of tho mechanic arts in the United States.
Ho discovered a method of softening antl hardening steel .at pleasure, by
which the process of engraving on that metal was facilitated in a most
essential degree. Ho instituted a .series of experiments, by which he
demonstrated tlic compressiliility of water, a problem which for centuries
had baffled the ingenuity of natural philosophers. In connexion with
this discovei-y, Perkins .also invented the bathometer, an inatnimeut for
measuring the depth of the sea by the pressure of the water ; and tho
pleonieter. to meivsure a sliiji's rate of sailing. Perkins continued to reside
in his birth-place till I.SIO. when he removed from Newburyport to Boston,
and subsequently to Philadelphi.a. His attention w.a.s now occupied by
steam machinery which was beginning to acijuire importance in the
United States. His rese.ai-ches led to the invention of a new method of
gener.ating steam,, by suddenly letting a small quantity of water into a
heateil vessel. After a short residence in Philadelphia, he removed to
London, whei-e his experiments with bigh-pre.ssurc steam, and other exhi-
bitions which he gave of his inventive powers, at once brought him into
gcnenal notice. His uncommon mcchanicid genius was highly appreciated;
and his steam gun was for soma time the wonder of the British metropolis.
This gun he invented in tho United States, and took out a patent for it in
1810. It attracted the notice of the British Government in 1823, and
Perkins made experiments with it before the Duke of Wellington and a
numerous party of officers. At a distance of thirty-five yards he shattered
iron targets to pieces, and sent his balls through eleven planks, one inch
thick each, and piaced an inch apart from one another. This gun was a
very ingenious piece of workmnnship, and could discharge about one
thousand balls per minute. Perkins continue! in London during the
remainder of his life. He never became rich. He lacked one quality to
secure success iu the world— financial thrift. Everybody but himself
profited by his inventions. He was, iu fact, too much in "love with the
excitement of the chase to look very strongly at the pecuniary value of
the gamo.

LACE.
'J'HIS beautiful br.anch of manufacture was very extensively and creditably
represented iu the Great Exhibition, both by British and Foreign pro-
ducers. We shall give several samples of the more striking patterns from
time to tim6. Meantime, a few words upon the history of this art may not
be unacceptable.

Lace is a species of net-work, made of silk, thread, or cotton, upon
which, in old times, patterns were embroidered with the needle, after the
constractions of the f;^br^c. The patterns are now generally formed
during the knitting itself.

The invention of l.ace knitting, as distinguished from lace embroidery, is
attributed by Beckmaun to Barb.ara, wife of Christopher Uttman, of St.
Annaburg. in 1561, and was followed by the wives and daughtei-s of the
miners, whose business was then not so productive as usual. It may be
however, that she introduced the manufacture rather than invented it.
Point lace, being th,at worked by the needle, is of far older date. It is
found abundantly iu church furniture of great antiq\iity, and is supposed
to have been originally made in Italy, particularly at Genoa and Venice.

In the lace knit by the hand, sometimes called cushion or pillow lace, as
many threads are employed as the pattern and breadth require. These
are wound upon the requisite number of bobbins (made of bone, whence
the name sometimes given of lone lace), which are thrown over and imder
each other in various w.ays, so th.at they entwine roimd pins stuck in the
lioles of tlie pattern (a stiff parchment stitched on a cushion or pillow) and
by these means produce the openings which give the desired figure. The
best laces are made .at Brussel.s, Mcclilin, Antwerp, Ghent, Lisle, Alen^on,
and Valenciennes, abi-oad, and in Devonshire, Buckinghamshire, and but-

112

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

rounding counties, in this
country. The former i-
known as Honiton, the
latter as Buckinghamshire
lace.

The peculiarities ot
some of the yai-ious kinds
of lace ma}' be worth
mentioning here. Brvs-
sels Point has a network
made with the bobbins,
and a pattern of sprigs
worked in the middle.
Brmsds r/round has a six-
sided mesh formed by
twisting four flaxen
threads to a perpendi-
cular line of mesh. Brus-
sels wire ground is of silk,
the meshes being partly
straight and partly arched,
thepattern beiugwTought
separately with tiie
needle. Mechlin lace has
a six-sided mesh formed
of three flax threads
t\visted and plaited to a
perpendicular line, the
pattern bemg worked
in the net. Lisle lace has

iu •.LL^ u u. ^toK. i^ti.1, ijt« EN'iLISII l'ILL')\V LACE. BY 1;. HH.I ,

a diamond-shaped mesh

formed of two threads plaited to a perpendicular line. Alenfon lace has a | (women

^Ti'^'fiTii^'"^--

'I.m:v, IT' KS. '" '

and children) employed in making

six-sided mesh of two
;! threads. Alen^on point
-' is formed of two threads
J to a perpendicular line,
,- with octagonal and square .
1 meshes alternately. Ho-
^ niton lace is distingui.shed' !
J by the beauty of the de-
; vices worked with the
i needle. Bucl'ivghamshire
i lace is mo.stly of a com-
s moner description, and
i somewhat resembles that
-i of Alcu(;on.
.1 Mr. B. Hill, of Olney

1 exliibited several speci-
i mensof ruckinghamshiro

2 pillow-lace, of very pleas-
C; ing patterns, and all ad-
J mirably executed. Ladies
'4 who cheapen a collar or
fl a piece of edging little

i know the amount of
5 labour required in lace
making, and still less the
wretched po\erty of lace-
t makers. In the agricul-
i tural districts of Bedford,
A Buckingham, and North-
amptonshire, there are
upwards of 30,000 people
lace. The average weekly

BEUSSELS LAiJE.
BY A. DUCPETIAUX AND SOUS.

earnings of women is not more than *2.
lu the production of
the specimen en-
graved, comprishig
an oak-branch with
pendent acorns, en-
circled with lau-
rel leaves, there
are upwards nf
700 "bobbins" em-
ployed, and the
number of stitches
in a yard is con-
siderably more than
a million. It would
take a lace-maker,
working twelve hour.s
per day, five weeks
to make a fiingle
yard.

A good notion of
the process of lace-
making was afforded
by a lace pillow exhi-
bited by Messrs. Grou-
cock .and Co., whicli
was placed on one of
the bridges in Clais
XIX., and wliirli

LACE.— BY L. EOBYT, BEUSSELS.

ERUE6ELS LACE.
BY DUIIAGON AND SO.VS

, while that of children is about Sd. \ deservedly attracted much observation, on account of its singular appear-
ance and the exceed-
ing fineness of the
lace in process of
making upon it.

Tlie specimens of
Brussels lace, which
we give upon this
page, are of a varieil
character, exliibitiu-
the resource of tli'
manufacture from tl
simplest edging
the boldest
flowering. Tlie
named is extremely
effective in the ori-
ginal.

Lace made by ma-
chinery, which is
sometimes called

British lace, and of
which Nottingham-
shire is the chief seat,
is a different braueli
of manufacture, and
will demand notice
under a distinct
LACE F^ol'^■CE. — BY c. F. ROY,^nRrsRF.LS. • liead.

lace .
hist

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPiEDIA OF THE GEEAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

Cui,v>dSAL DAVAEIAN LION.— DESIGNED liY HALBIG. CAST IN BKONZE BY MILLEE.

'fHis :

COLOSSAL BAVARIAN LIOX.
Lion, which is of colossal proportions, measuring fifteen feet long,
by nine feet high, is one belonging to a group of four attached
to a cai-, destined to adorn the triumphal arch at Munich. It is after
the design of Halbig. It appeared in the same state as when it left
the founders, being raw-cast in bronze, and, together with anotlier of the
group or '■ team " referred to, was cast at the same time out of one furnace,
showing the possibility of executing casts in one piece of almost any weiglit
.-nd size. " It was exhibited also as a specimen of the new method of the
founder to preserve tlie pure natural colour of the cast, without being
obliged to use the chisel."

Ko. 8, November 22, ISol.

This extensiye production will long be remembered by all frequenters ot
the Ciystal Palace, as the veritable " lion " of the Great Exhibition, standing
midway down the eastern nave. For the lion itself, apart from the
mechanical difficulties which have been overcome in the casting, it is, after
all, but a so-so affair, as lions go with us. AVe have many a hon of pure
British metal before whom this foreign monster of the forest — coming all
the way from Munich — is not fit to wag his tail. The noble beast at the top
of Northumberland House, for instance, and another, of minor growth, which
stands, or stood, at the corner of I'erners-street, are old familiar friends
whom we would match against the world.

PnicE One Pexxt.

114

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

HARDWARE.

PINS.
"THE space devoted to tlie exliibition of articles of Hardware vra-s of
course occupied by an exceedingly miscellaneous collection. Its
extreme limits, as regards the size of the commodities exhibited, ranged
from the smallest ribbon-pin or needle to the huge anchors which were
placed at the western cud of the buililing ; while the varied uses to which
the articles may be applied include every conceivable purpose, from the
commonest implements of domestic utility to the splendid cannon dis-
played by the Low Moor Iron-works. There was scarcely an article
exhibited, however, which, if followed out in its process of manufacture
and its consumption, would not present results perfectly astonishing to all
who had not devoted an attentive consideration to the subject : and not
the least interesting and curious would be those obtained from the manu-
facture of Pms, to which we intend more pai-ticularly to refer iu our
present notice.

The number of exhibitors of pins was very limited. In the Birmingham
compartment there were but two, Messrs. Edelston and AVilliams, and
Mr. Goodman— Mcssi-s. Kirby, Beard, and Co. exhibiting iu the north
transept gallery ; and it is a matter of regi'ot that in the machinery depart-
ment none of the mechanism by which j^ins are made was exhibited. After
examining the finish and form of the pins iu the collection of Messrs.
Edelston and 'Williams, we cannot avoid being struck with the immense
advance which must liave been made since the time of Queen Elizabeth,
when wooden skewers formed an indispensable adjunct to her Majesty's
toiletrtable. Even during the last twenty years the improvements have
been very considenable. Previously to that time the head of the pin con-
sisted of a spiral ring of wire, placed upon the shank or shaft of the pin,
and fa-tened to it by blows of the hammer. The mconvenienco which
resulted from the heads becoming loose led to the adoption of a plan, now
very general, for making pins witli solid heads.

Messrs. Edelston and Co. exhibited a series of examples, showing the
various processes which a pin undergoes in its jirogress towards com-
pletion. We first saw a small block of copper and one of spelter ; next to
these tliere w.as a block of brass, formed of the imiou of those two metals.
The blocks were then shown cut into smaller fiat strips — then partially
drawn — and finally drawn out into different thicknesses of wire. The wire
was next seen cut into the required lengths, in the form of "piu blanks" —
afterwards "pointed" and "headed" — and finally, tlie silvered or finished
pin. A pau' of dies and a punch, used in forming the head of the pin, were
also shown. By means of this instrument or machine the pin is fonned,
complete with the head and shaft, out of one solid piece of wire, instead of
by the old process of the wire heads. The solid-headed pin was invented
by Messrs. Taylor aud Co. about twenty years since, and was patented by
them, but the patent has now expired. In order to produce the head, the
shaft of the pin is cut a trifle longer than the finished pin is required to be
made. The wire thus cut pa.sses into a mould of tlie exact length of the
pin, and the end of the wire j>rojocting beyond the length of the mould is
by a sharp blow flattened, and shaped into the form required for the head.
The heads are afterwards burnished, an operation which adds greatly to
their finished appearance. The finished pins we obsferved were most taste-
fully arranged around a centre, being of all sizes, from the largo blanket
pin, of three inches in length, to the smallest ribbon pin used by the ribbon
manufacturers, of which 300,000 weigh only one pound. The collection of
insect pins used by entomologists was worthy of attention, as showing
what minute specimens may bo produced by the aid of machinery. They
ai'C made of much finer wire than the ordinary pin, and vary in length from
2 to 3 inches to a size considerably smaller than the tiny ribbon pin. Some
smooth clastic liair piuB, highly approved of by the fair sex, and of w'hich
some tons weight are annually made by Messrs. Eilelston, Avere also shown
iu theii' case. The smoothness of the wire, and its fiuouess and ehistioity,
;u'e certainly mo.'it fiurprising.

In oonnection with the manufacture of the solid-headed pins it is a
curious fact, that although so vastly superior to the old-fashioned piu, they
arc produced at a considerably less price, in consequence of the great per-
fection of the machinery employed. In addition to the imiirovenicnts
made in the heads, machines liavc recently been constructed by the firm,
each of which is capable of pointing pins at the rate of upw,ards of six
hundred ]>cr minute. These and various other improvements in the pro-
cess of manufacture enable the makers to sell the gi'cat majority of the
pins at the merest trilie over and above the cost of the raw metal — a large
numljci* of the pins manufaetui'eti being sold at not more than two pence per
pound over the cost of the metal of which they are formed. Upwards of
200 hands are constantly employed Viy Messrs. Edelston in this branch of
manufacture ; and the number of pins made by them is, in consequence
of the iiiqiroved machinoiy, more than three times that which could be
produced by the same number of workmen only a few years since. Up-
wards of ] .OO tons weight of copper and spelter are anmually worked up
into pins by this one Birmingham house alone.

AVere the whole of the metal which is worked up during the year in this
one manufactory converted into ribbon pins, half an inch in length, it
would produce the enormous number of 100.SOO.(ii)U,000, or about one
hundred to each inhabitant of the globe. If placed in a straight line, they
would be 787,500 miles in length, or sufficient to extend upwards of thirty
times round the globe, or more than three times the distance of the moon

from the earth. Some idea may be formed fi-om these figures, not only of
the extraordinary malleability of the metal, but of the astonishing con-
sumption of the articles formed from it. Indeed, we can scarcely conceive
any question more completely unanswerable than that of — " What becomes
of all the pins made ?"

Messrs. ICirby, Beard, and Co. made an interesting display of pins in
their stand ; the back of which was ornamented with the words " Peace
and Industry," and Avith vai-ious other decorations produced in steel beads,
closely imitating the heads of pins. In the case itself were shown the pins
in various stages of progress, and a large assortment of " toilet," " hatters","
"jet," "ribbon," and " milliners' " pins.

Mr. Goodman, of Birmingham, and Mr. Chambers and Mr. James, of
Eedditch, also exhibited a variety of pins, which, so far as we were enabled
to judge of them in the case, arc well-finished specimens. In the Machi-
nery department was shown an ingenious and interesting machine, by Mr.
lies of Bardesley Works, Birmingham, used for sticking pins in circular
tablets. We may add that Messrs. Edelston and Co. have recently con-
structed a machine, by which they are enabled to stick the pins, upon the
papers upon which they are sold, and which performs its work with mar-
vellous rapidity and accuracy.

M. Reineker, of Cologne, in the Zollverein division, showed sever.al
varieties of pins — some with composition metal heads, cast in the same
mode as shot, with a hole iu the centre, and secured to the shaft. Samples
of iron wire in hanks with a coating of copper, were also shown in the
neighbourhood of the finished article. The piiu manufacture of Austria
was represented by M. Struntz, of Vienna ; aud M. Vaatillard, of Merou-
vel, France, showed some specimens of iron pins, tinned by a process
recently patented both iu France and England.

ARCHITECTURAL AND ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT.

LIGHTHOUSES AND LIGHTHOUSE OPTICAL APPARATUS.
T IGHTHOUSES for the purpose of warning and guiding mariners in their

course were in use with the ancients. The towers of Sestos and Abydos,
the Colossus of Rhodes, and the well-known tower on the Island of Pharos,
ofi" Alexandria, are examples. Of these the la.^t was the most celebrated,
aud was erected about 280 years before Christ, iu the reign of Ptolomeus
Philadelphus ; and it was from this builchng, or rather from the island
upon which it stood, that lighthouses have iu many countries, in France
for instance, received theu- generic name of Pharos.

In the Main Avenue West of the Great Exhibition were two specimens of
lighthouse apparatus (No. 84) — the larger one being on the cata-dioptrio
system of the first class of lights (near the astronomical telescope) ; the
other a dioptric apparatus of the fourth class of lights. Several excellent
models of lighthouses were also to be found in the central North Gallery
(No. 51), in which the appar.atus of each of these classes might have
been more narrowly inspected ; and a vai'iety of models, both of towers
and lanterns, in the North Gallery.

One of the principal lighthouses of modern times, and certainly one of
the most magnificent edifices of the kind ever built or ever designed, is the
Tour de Corduan, at the mouth of tlie river Garonne. It was commenced
iu the year 1584, and occupied twenty-six years iu buihling. We scarcely
need say that difficulties in most cases occur in the erection of light-houses
to which no other structvires are liable. The building of the Eddystone
Lighthouse is a remarkable instance of this. The number of dreadful
vicissitudes it encountered are as painful to coutemplate, as the courage
and perseverance that finally overcame them are worthy of admiration. It
was originally first built of massive beams of timber, and a light was first
exhibited in 1698. The architect and engineer by whom it was designed
was Mr. Winstanley. But the sea frequently rose so high .around it as to
dash over the light — in fact, it was said, at times, that the lantern was
buried uuilor water. Mr. Winstanley thereupon raised the towei*from GO
feet to 120. The space of rock for the foundation being but small, and
the situation most frightfully exposed, this was, of course, a work of
stupendous difliculty. By some it was thought that he had now carried
it too high for safety. They were, uufortunately, very right in their
apprehensions. Not long after its completion, considerable repairs were
necessary, aud Mr. Winstanley went there in person, accompanied by bis
workmen. The i-epairs occupied some time ; and one night a teriifio
storm arose, tore down the lantern and the upper part of the tower, aud
finally carried the whole edifice away, with poor Winstanley and all his
wcu'kmeu, every one of whom perished : indeed, we believe their remains
were never found, nor a single wreck of the once jsroud structure.

Very soon after the destruction of this lighthouse, the Wiiicliclsea man-
of-war was wrecked on the Eddystone rocks, aud her crew were lost. As
it Avas now seen tliat a new lighthouse must, by some nie.ans or other, bo
erected here, another tower of timber wjia desigued by Mr. John Rudyaivi,
of London; it was finished in 1708. Its height was 92 feet. The con-
struction was admirable for its strength aud tenacity, so that it remamed
standing during forty-seven years. But another and more un-looked-for
niisfortiuie awaited it. Everytliing had been devised to protect it from
the fury of the waters ; nobody had ever dreamt of danger from fire in
such a situation, so sui'rouuded by the natural antagonist of this element.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

116

By «omo accident, liowovor, it took lire, niul, being entirely of wood, it
bui'nod down to the very water's e(l(,'o. 'I'liis wii3 in ITSS.

KiiglisU iieracveranco was again called into roquiaition: a liglitlioitno nmst
be orootod on tliin spot: tliis was dotorniinod : and in ITSO Snieaton first
landed on the rock, and coniinencod oporatioiis by cutting the nurfaeo into
regular horizontal tronohes, and into thoni a foundation of 8tono was caro-
inlly litted. It wan now reaolvod (they had had enough of wood) to build
the whole edifice of stone. The fu-at twelve feet of the tower, as wo learn
from Mr. Alan Htevon.son, form a solid ma'fH of maaonry ; and the stones
of which it is competed are united by uioans of stone joggles, dovetailed
joints, and oaken troo-nails. An arched form was adopted for the tloors of
the building, with a view to gi'oatcr strength ; but to counteract the out-
ward thrust of floom of this form, circular grooves were cut in tlio stone of
the outer casing, into which a belt of iron cliain wa.s laid, and made compact
with the stone by filling up tlio intervals with molted load. The structure
was completed iu 17.")'.'. and the light was first exhibited in October of that
yeai\ The state, however, of lighthouse optics at this time in England was
so low that all tlio illumiuation obtoinod was derived solely fnuu tallow
candles. Nearly fifty years elapsed with tliis wretched light before argand
burners were adopted, though this great improvement wag well-knowu
during upwards of twenty years of that period.

One of the most dangerous reefs iu Scotland is the Bell Hock, and so
many wrecks occurred there, that iu former times the good abbots of
Aberbrotluvick caused a float to be fixed upon the rock with a bell at the
top of it, which instantly tolled as the waves swung the float about, anrl
thus warned mariners of their danger. The circumstance, however, which
led to the erection of a light-liou.se on this rock was the loss of the y'or/c
man-of-war. Merchant-vessels iu numbers had been wrecked, and all their
crews hail perished, which was regarded as a sad casualty incidental to
nautical life ; but when a seventy-four gun ship was lost, with .all hands
on board, then the Government cousidereil it was high time to take the
matter practically in hand. Nevertheless, it was not till some years after-
wards that a Liu iu rurliament was obtained for the erection of a light-
house. This was finally carried into effect by Mr. Robert .Stevenson,
engineer ; not, however, .without groat difficulties and delays, owing to
the short time it was possible to work each day between the ebbing and
Howing of the tide, and not without one very narrow escape of being lost,
together with thirty workmen, in consoqueuoo of the vessel that attended
them breaking adrift and the tide rising upon tho rock before any boat
could ).io got out to them. The boat only ai-rived just in time to rescue
them all fi'oni a watery grave.

The lighthouse on the Bell Rook, of which a model was exhibited, is
100 feet high. Tho door is 30 feet from the base, and the ascent to it is
by means of a massive ladder of bronze. The light is revolving, and
presents alternately a red light and a white light. It is produced by the
revolution of a frame containing sixteen argand lamps, placed on the foci
of largo miiroi's. Tho machinery which moves the whole iu a circle is
.also applied to the tolling of two large bells ; so that the original design
of the wortb.y abbots is now carried out in the most regvdar and scientific
manner. The cost of the erection of the Bell Rock lighthouse was
61,331?. 9s. 2:.'.

Our readers will no doubt bo .aware that tho optical construction of
these lights is of the most scientific and complicated kind ; and this im-
pression would have been by no means lessened, but probably increased, by an
examination of the two specimens of glass lightliouse apparatus in the
Main Avenue of the ground floor of the Great Exhibition. In each of
these might have been observed the extraordinary results of the practical ap-
plication of abstract science. The complicated cutting and arrangement of
the lenses is all determined by the most subtle calculations of the law of
reflection and refraction of light, as proved by uuuumbered experiments,
and the experience of many years of unremitting attention and Labour.
It is also worthy of note, that we have hitherto been dependent on foreign
countries for very much of tho .arrangement of these optical instruments, but
that in the present instance the materials are entirely of English produce.

Let us, however, endeavour to simplify an account of lighthouse optics.
It is well known, that a lamp of the ordinary kind would send forth scat-
tered rays, many of which would be wasted, .and especially all those which
shot upward into the sky. Now, the object to be obtained iu this case is
the concentration of the rays, and the power to throw them downwards
in a given direction across the plane of the sc ;l For this purpose reflectors
are employed : and it has been ascertained that the light thus attained is
350 times greater than that of the common lamp ; while that of the largest
sort, which is used in revolving lights, is 450 times gi-eater. These
reflectors are manufactured by a very long and delicate process. Those of
the first class are made of fine copper, tliickly plated inside with silver, and
polished to the highest degree of brilliancy. The flame which illuminates
them is usually derived from an argand lamp, which supplies itself with oil
on the fountain prmciple. This system is called the "catoptric," and
includes a variety of distmctions. each of which is registered, as a special

ij-nal for sailors. There is the fixed light— the revolving Ught^-the white

-flit— the red light— the revolving red, with two whites- the revolving
.N lute, with two reds— the intermittent light— the flashmg light, &C. Of
ttiese, the most powerful and far-reaching is the white, and next to this the
led. There are several optical systems in use for lighthouses, but the
principal systems are the catoptric and the dioptric— the former depending
upon the reflection of light, the latter upon its refraction. The dioptric is
by far the more powerful ; the Ught produced with a lens light being nearly
equal to ,11 on the reflecting priuciple; it is also usually preferred by

lighthouse opticians, na tiio chances of its oxtinction ap; so vtiry few, and
its advantage-! so great. Nevurtlielcss, in ooniequ'-nco of the cost of the
glass Ions, which was a manufacturo in which foreign Ci^iintries greatly
excel led us, it appears that in 1844, of the fixed lights in England and
Scotland, Id were catoptric, or reflecting light«, and only 1 8 dioptric, or
liMis lights. Tho removal of the duty oofjlags will probably in timorevoree
this state of things.

Among all our finest lighthouses, there is scarcely one that BurpanscR
tlie " Carlingford," on the coa.st of Ireland. It is 111 feet in height, 48 feet
in diameter at tho base, and is founded 12 feet below tho surface of the
water. It was designed by Mr. George Halpin. The difficulties attending
a structure, tho foundations of which had to be laid bo dccidy beneath the
water, yet requiring, in common with all edifices of this kind, to be ma'le
so very strong and secure, will be readily approhemled. Great as thcgo
were, however, they were exceeded by the protractetl ditSculticR and con-
stant dangers attending the erection of tlie .Skerrymoro Lighthouse, in
Argyllshire, which was designed and built by Mr. Alan Stevenson, engineer
to tlio IJiiaid of Northern Lighthouses, from whoso "Treatise on Light-
houses" tho following very interestmg account is abstracted : —

The main nucleus of the cluster of Skerrymoro rocks was the only ono
that presented sufiicient surface for the ba.se of a lighthouse, and this had
been worn as smooth as glass by the constant action of the waves, but was
closely surrounded by ragged humps of rock and narrow gulleys, in which
the sea incessantly played iu rushing coils and eddies. Tiio cuttings for
the foundation occiipiod nearly two entire summers. In this small upaco
the blasting of the rocks wa.s often attended willi great danger to all tho
men employed in tho work. The granite for the tower was quarried in the
isle of Mull, where piers were also built for tho shipment and landing of
materials. A small vessel was fitted up for tho constant use of the light-
house during its construction. But one of the most arduous operations,
second only to the main building itself, was the -erection of a temporary
wooden barrack on the rocks for Mr. Alan Stevenson and his workmen. It
was finished iu the course of the summer ; but, unfortunately, a stoi-m arose
early in the winter, and swept the whole structure away, leaving no wreck
to sliow even where it had stood, except some iron stanchions, twisted about
.as though they had been mere osiers, and a great timber beam which had
been shaken, rent, and dashed upon the rocks, tiU it literally resembled a
huge bunch of laths. Luckily, the engineer and his men, warned by tho
previous fate of those engaged on the Bell Rock, had effected their escape
on the commencement of the storm. But being without a ban-ack, many
of them, being quite unused to the sea. suBered the miseries of continuous
sea sickness on board their little attendant vessel.

A second attempt was now made to erect a barrack on the rock, and this
being of much strouger design, proved successful. Here Mr. Stevenson
and his workmen retreated every evening after the toils of the day, or
during tho day when the weather was bad ; but it often proved a very
alarming place for repose. Perched at a height of 40 feet above the wave-
reach, in this singular abode, Mr. Stevenson and 30 workmen passed many
a dismal day and night, at times when the sea absolutely prevented anyone
setting foot on tho rocks. They longed and prayed for change of weather,
not only to enable them to i-enew their labours, but often that they might
receive needful supplies from the shore, fur which they looked anxiously
and in vain. " For miles around," says Mr. Stevenson, in the book previously
quoted, " nothing could be seen but white foaming breakers, and nothing
heard but howling winds and lashing waves. At such seasons much of our
time was spent iu bed ; for there alone we had effectual shelter from the
winds and the spray, which searched every cranny in the walls of the
barrack. Our slumbers, too, were fearfully inteiTupted by the sudden
pouring of the sea over the roof, the rocking of the house on its pillars,
and the spirting of water through the seams of the doors and windows —
symptoms which to one suddenly aroused from sound sleep, recalled the
appalling fate of the former barrack, which had been engulphed in the foam
not twenty yards from our dwelling, and each moment seemed to summon
us to a similar fate. On two occasions, in particular, those sensations were so
vivid as to cause almost every one to spring out of bed ; and some of the men
fled from the barrack by a temporary gangway, to the more stable but less
comfortable shelter aSbrded by the bare wall ofthe lighthouse tower, then un-
finished, where they spent the remainder of the night in the darkness and the
cold." Notwithstaudiug all these dangers, however, the Skeriymore lighthouse
was safely brouglit to completion. It is 13S feet high, 42 feet iu diameter
at the base, and 16 feet at the top. It contains 58.580 cubic feet of stone,
being more than double the quantity of the Bell Rock, and five times that
of the Eddystone. The entire cost of the Skerrymore lighthouse, including
the purchase of the attendant small vessel, and the building of the small
pier and hai-bour for its reception, was 86.977?. 17s. 7rf. The light is
revolving, and belongs to the fii-st order of dioptric lights, in the system
of Fresnal. being of a similar kind to the dioptric apparatus which was to
be seen in the Great Exhibition, Main Avenue West (No. 84).

Lighthouses m this country have not hitherto been erected or conducted
upon any systematic plan. By recent acts of Pai-liament, however, all
the public or geuei-al lighthouses ai'ouud the coast of England ai-e put
under the management of the Trinity House : those ai'ound Scotland under
the Conimissionei-3 of Northern Lights ; and those around Ireland under
the Ballast Board of Dublin. There is a second class of local lights, for
harbours, &.C., which ai-e mauaged by corporations and local tioistees under
powere given for that purpose. The dues levied are considerable. The
average cost for keeping tip a fixed public light is about 450/. per annum.
In America and Franco tho lighthouses are kept up by Governmeut.

116

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

THE ARTS OF DESIGN
AND decoration"

WOOD CARVING.
A MONGST the de-
corative arts,
Wood Cai-ving has a
distinct aud legiti-
mate position, and,
confined within due
limits, is always
effective. Neverthe-
less, its province is
a restricted one ; it
should be viewed
purely as an appli-
ance for the orna-
mentation of ma-
terial when applied
to a useful purpose,
and not as a work of
art 'per se. Another
restriction should be
put upon the fancy
of the operator ;
namely, that the
object decollated be
one proper for deco-
ration ; that it be
decorated with ap-
propriate devices,
and that the devices
be not in excess as
to character, nor in
dimensions, so as to
risk being injured
themselves, or in-
conveniencing those
who are to use the
articles to which
they are applied. All
attempts to con-
found wood cai-ving
with sculpture we
utterly denounce ;
and for the simple
reason, that the ma-
terial is not worthy
of a work of the
highest art, and that
colour in it is more
inappropriate to re-
present the human
frame than white
marble ; whilst it is
also less susceptible
of fashioning into the
round and smooth
surfaces than that
material. Let any
one doubt this asser-
tion, and then call to
mind that most ob-
jectionable repre-
sentation of the Cru-
cifixion which occu-
pied a prominent
place in the Fine Art
Court, or the figure-
head of her Majesty
close at hand, or the
figures (and espe-
cially the faces) in
that very magnifi-
cent production, the
Kenilworth buffet,
or the human linea-
ments in any other
work of wood carv-
ing in the Eshibi-

AN ILLUSTRATED CVCLOI'.EDLV OF THE GllEAT KXIIIIUTION 01" ]H:A.

117

tion.an.lconiiiarothoir relative trutlifulnoss of oflectns to contour and colour of oak leave*, a ^roup of muHical inHtniincntH, the wings of Time, Ac.
Willi tliat i)f other oVjjocts, unch m flowom, foliii,'0, ami fancy devices, and No. 2 i« a largo mirror frame, 11 foet liigli Ijy 'J wide, comjiORcd of Knglinh
they will :it orico admit tlii^ r.nii- of tlio piiiiciplu tlial we now contend for. Il.iwera and fruits, with variouH inacctH revelling amongut llicin in the stylo of
The two i>rinciiiiil contrihutors in tlii.t departniuut wcro W. U. Hogerw, of I Uihbong, but including many Uowcru never jntrojuccdjiy bim in lii« workn.
Carlisle strei't, Soho;

anil T. Wallia, of
Louth : .ind tlieir
works, which wcro
placed ill juxla posi-
tion on tlic -siuiiu wall,
were daily visited by
crowds of eagei' gazers,
who warndy contested
their respective me-
rits. Until the appear-
ance of Mr. Wiillis iu
the Held, Mr. Rogers
had enjoyed tho re-
putation of being
not only first, but a.1-
most without a rival,
in this interesting
branch of art , and,
although tlie Liueoln-
bhiro carver now cer-
tainly treads pretty
closely \ipon his heels,
we inubt. after a very
careful examination of
tlieir respective per-
forniauees, still give
tho nietropolitanartist
the prefei'onee. Wo
do so in consideration
of tlio greater number
and variety of the
works exliibited by
liiiii,;indot'lhe greater
success which he has
aehieved iu the appli-
cation of the art to
legitiiuato decorative
purposes. In this he
seems to have studied
the examples of Gib-
bons, by far the great-
est carver of wood
that ever existed, aud
who, whilst he pos-
sessed a wonderful
fertility of fancy aud
facility of cxecutiou,
knew exactly where
to apply them with
advauUge and pro-
priety. It would be
impossible to enume-
rate all the little beau-
ties of device lavished
by Mr. liogers in the
various works — sixty-
one in number —
which ho exhibited :
we must restrict our
attention to one or
two of the larger one.-^.
in the production oi
■which be appears to
have taxed his re-
sources to the utmost.
No. 61 is a Royal Tro-
phy, carved iu lime
tree, upon a gold
frame, 5 feet by 4 feet,
aud projecting 1 foot
2 inches. It is in-
tended to represent
the Crown as the chief

power, the source of all titles aud dignities — the patron and promoter of
the arts .Tiid sciences, field sports, &e. The centre group is composed of
musical instruments, scrolls, books, palettes, pencils, coronets, sceptres,
chains, swords, and other insignia, boiuid together by a rich drapery of
Spanisli point lace, which stands out iu remarkably bold relief. In the
lower part are medallion portraits, including those of the Queen, Louis
Philippe, &e. Around the whole is a border, composed of groups of game,
firuit, fiowers, fish, and shells. No. 3, a trophy emblematical of " Folly," is
also worthy of distinct notice, introducing a skidl crowned with a garland

CAItVED CASKET IN WALXCT-WOOD. — BV A.BAKBETTI, Of TUSCANi'.

The carved box-wood
cradle, by tho kamo
artist, exhibited by
]ier M.'ijcity, nmiit nob
be panHcd unnoticed,
although we by no
means partici|>ate in
tho wild admiration
which it has excited
amongst tho num-
bcrlcss mothers and
daughtci-s of England,
who have gazed en-
viously at it. Tho
filiapc itself is not ele-
gant, being heavy, and
inoro like a (iarco|iha-
gus than a cradle; and
thedecoration. though
doubtless appropriate
as " symbolising thu
union of the royal
house of Kngland with
th.at of .Saxe-Coburg
and fiotha." is neitner
picturesque nor inter-
esting in a general
point of view, whiltt
the execution, though
exquisitely neat, ii.
perhaps, a taut soit
peu tame.

Mr. W'allis has somo
■wonderful produc-
tions, though, as al-
ready observed, fower
in number and less
varied iu charactei'.
He has worked, i;oi^
liaps, with more the
spiritofan aitist than
Mr. Rogei-s, aud has
aimed almost exclu-
sively at the accurate
embodiment of beau-
tiful objects of nature
— such as birds, foli-
age, flowers, insects,
&o., but without re-
gard to convention-
alities of form or ad-
junct. Nothing can
equal the downy soft-
ness of his dead game,
producing, but for the
colour, tbe effect of
perfect illusion ; no-
thiug can be more
exquisite than the de-
licate articulation of
his foliage, copied, aa
he states, from nature:
not even Mr. Rogers
can surpass him in the
delicacy of handling
which he has dis-
played iu the produc-
tion of the minutest
objects, and in the
boldest efforts of un-
der-cutting; but his
■works are more to be
admired for their indi-
vidual beauties than
or their applicability to decorative jiurposes. Mr. Wallis's priucipal effort
is a group of flowers, &c., emblematical of spi'ing, carved iu a solid piece of
lime tree, measuring 5 feet high, by 2.i wide, aud projecting thirteen
inches. Spring is allegorically represented by the grape buds and apple blos-
soms; aud in this space we have no less than lOtiO buds and 47 varietie-s.
Here we see the blue-cap titmouse picking insects out of an apple blossom ;
there another taking food to its young, which are partially concealed in
their nest ; iu a third, caterpillars dragging theii- slow length along. A
shepherd's crook aud lamb's head are added, symbolical of tlie season,

118

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

The whole of this ■work has been copied from nature, and was e::ecuted
expressly for the Great Exhibition.

CARVED FE.UIE IN BOXWOOD. — EOGERS

Amongst the other contributions in this line on the British side of the
Building, we found several who dealt in small conceits, more or less
creditable in execution, but with little of a useful character, even as matters
of decoration, to recommend them.
Richard Fuller, a self-taught artist, of
Farnham, has a village merry-making,
somewhat roughly handled. G. Cook
has a piece of carviug in lime tree,
" Virtue surmounts all obstacles ; " an-
other of Alexander attacking the Per-
sians, and another of the Duke of Wel-
lington at the battle of Waterloo — the
last two after engravings which may bo
bought for a few shillings, and which are
much more effective than these laboured
copies. Perry, of Taunton, another self-
taught artist, (who states that he did a
great part of the carving in the royal
cradle,) had a small vase carved out of a
solid piece of boxwood, embellished with
various allegorical devices, in diminutive
size, illustrative of the Great Exhibition ;
but here, again, is labour comparatively
thrown away, by reason of the natui'e of
the material. Jlr. Field exhibited a spe-
cimen of wood carving of about the mid-
dle of last centuiy, by Demontreuil — a
childish composition, with bud's nest, &c.
Arthur Harvey, of Penzance, had several
small subjects iu boxwood, as the " Eques-
trian Statue of Peter the Great," the
" Laocoon," wild .sports of the Ea.'it, "At-
tack of the Lion," which arc executed
in a hard manner. R. Pullen, of Fani-
ham, ha.s also some pieces de r/enrc,
attempted iu the .same material with
moderate success. J. Gordon, of Bristol,
had several subject?, including a " Vase
from the Antique," and a " Belisarius," in
boxwood, the la.st named executed with
great finish and delicacy.

From Ireland we have several exam-
ples of carved furniture, and ornamental
work, executed in Irish bog-yew, and exhibited by Mr. Jones of Dublin,
the execution of which, barring a little crudeness, is generally credit-
able. Some of these wc intend engraving.

From Scotland we had very little in this lino. Wc romavkod, however,

in the Fine Art Qom-t, a pier-table and mirror in carved wood, " with a
design representing the seasons. Peace, War, Commerce, Navigation, Science,

CABVED FEAME. — BAEBETTt, OP TUSCAN-y.

ELIZABETHAN BEAOKBT Jit BOXWOOD.— ROGERS.

Art, and the progress of civilisation," wrought in a wood of a very coarse
grain, iu a barbarously clumsy style. Jersey sent an oak sideboard, with a

representation of King Joim signing
Magna Charta in figures nearly two feet
high — rather stiff in character, but not
badly executed. Mixed \ip with this class
of wares was a " God save the Queen," in
wood letters, by a Mr. Thompson — all,
doubtless, cut out of his own head ! In
short, there is no end to the ingenuity of
the whittlers of wood, as Brother Jona-
than would call them.

In the above observations upon wood
carving, we have considered it in the
light oF an art, entitled to rank, accord-
ing to its degree, with the other " arts of
design." Of late years, however, the
manufacturing spirit of the age has
prompted several very ingenious indivi-
duals to attempt wood car\-ing by ma-
chmcry, and, what is worse still, nnita-
tious of wood carving iu various materials,
as leather, papier mdchi, carton picrrc,
gutta peroha, &c. One word might serve
to denounce our wrath against these prc-
seutmeuts ; they are impostors. They
pretend to bo what they are not; they
look something like the real thing at a
distance, and mock our credulity. WTien
we come to examine them closely, we find
them wanting in all that sharpness and
flow of outline, all that variety of conceit
in repetitions of similar objects, w-hich dis-
tinguisli the hand of the inventor and pro-
ducer, and the labour which is loved for
itself. For vulgar, clumsy-sighted people,
these imitative works of art may do well
as make-believes ; and all the punishment
we might wish them for their bad taste
would be, that they may never have
auything better to look at, nor the
capacity to appreciate anything better, —
but that, as by such exhibitions they inflict a positive nuisance and eyesore
upon those who have occasion to come near them iu their villas nnices and
Cockney boudoira, they are entitled to some signal penalty for the sake of
public justice and public example. Whilst, however, the commonwealth

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS; AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

THE EAST KAVE.— X''OEEIGN DEPAKTMENT.— LOOKING FBOH THE SOUTH-WEST OF THE TRANSEPT,

122

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITIONS.

I. — IXTRODUCTORT OBSERVATIONS,

THE magui6cont ovation which tiiis couutry has raiJ to ludiwtry, under
the enlightened infiuonco of tho Px-iuce ConRoi-t, will hereafter be
referred to hy historians a* a groat and decisive epoch in tlie history of
the working clas«3 of the world. The skill that realises the dreama of
science, that follows with unerring fingers the pencil of the artist, which
multipUes for thousands of readers the writings of the best and greatest
men, will henceforth claim its honourable place. The weaver at his loom
will have his recognised position ; the worker, who scatters the seed abroad
upon the bosom of the earth, will feel the honour of his calling. Tndiistry,
whether exercised to foU an oak or to create an Act of Parliament, is
equally meritorious. Each man in Iiis appointed sphere. Each has his
speciality ; and honour be to him who works it out — honour to him who
weaves the canvas, as to him who paints thereupon with tho power of a
master. There ia honour in the conscientious exercise of the most limited
power, as in the development of the most mighty conception. Tho gi-eater
the power, the more devout the veneration ; the higher the throne, the
louder the hymn of praise. It is only now that we are beginning to wako
from the old hero-worship— to notice the honest men who bond the knee
to our idols — to honour the moral power that works and Buffers, while
intellectual power soars aloft, and wields, often with a tyrannical sway, the
sabre or tho pen.

f We are told * tliat "it wo eiamtas the morel character of weavers, wo
shall And them, from tho earliest periods, distinguished by a propensity to
scrutinise the received dogmas of the times, oud geueralty foremost in the
race of liberal opinions, zealous in supporting the probiulgatiou of new
doctrines, full of hostility to the encroachments of tyrannical power,
disposed to fanaticism in religion, often of a glo'imy and determined cast
of character, and pervaded with the most entire devotion to the cause they
espouse — a circmnstonce to which the peculiarity of their religious feelings
mainly contributes. The doctrines of Luther were tir^t sown and first touk
root amongst the weavers and manufacturing population of Saxony, a soil the
most genial for the )*eceptiou of the ouw religion ; and posterity ia indebted to
them for hanng received and sheltered that vigorous controversialist, and
for having nourished and fanned the spark which aftonvards blazed out far
and wide, enlightened tho European mind, and freed it from the chains of
darkness and superstition. Amongst men less disposed to inquire and to
question, and more iuclined to bow to tho dictates of autbority, the
nascent spark might have been extinguished. The weavers in England,
also, were amongst the earliest supporters of the Keformatiou, aud were
cruelly persecuted by Bonner. As, in tho commencement of the sixteenth
century, they had been among the foremost to receive and adopt Luther's
doctrines, so we find them, in the commencement of the seventeenth
century, equally ready to receive those of Puritanism ; and they
encountered, perhaps in a elightor degree, persecutions from the English
hierarchy, similar to those which tlieir predecessor* had sustained from
the Roman Catholics. Great numbers of woollen and wowted weavers
were driven out of the country by the intolerant hand, and they also met
with much severe treatment from Wroun, Bishop of Norwich. Sumo of
them fled to Holland, others to the new settlement in Massachusetts Bay.
Glasgow, when the weavers were a corporate body in 1528, was early
distinguished for its zeal against Popery; and, in the middle of the eeven-
teenth century, was stanch in supporting the Covenant. The free spirit
which animated the Huguenot* of Franco, and the consequent disgust with
which Louis the Fourteenth regarded them, wa^', iu all probability, the
cause of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. This measure drove fifty
thousand Huguenot families from France ; they were chiefly weavers, and
twenty thousand of them settled iu Spitaliields, London, and gave a new
impulse to the English silk manufacture."

Richard Guest's view of the weaver's miud is strengthened by their
present social position. Ever ready to weigh public questions for them-
selves, prone to discussion, sensitive by blood, and mquisitive from habit,
they are quick to master now idcjis, ever prone to adopt innovations. In
religion, as in political theory, they scorn coutrol, and are restless and
impatient while they imagmo that they are unjustly dealt with. They
are proud of their calling, and honour their brotherhood; and, as an
industrial cla-is. display, perhiips more than any other, those virtues which
we are beginnmg to respect in the workin?-mau as in the listless lord.
The time is now fast approachin-?, wht-n, nt the handu of tho country they
wUl receive befitting acknowledgment of their social value ; when their
moral qualitiea will claim that respect which has hitherto been exclu-ivclv
lai.-ished upon brilliant iutoUectual capacity, or virtue in velvet. Men ara
beginning, with Emerson, to respect a man who can do something well
Per-ieverance, as a quality, has not been hitherto sufficiently respected •
yet It IB tue prommeut characteristic of the Eiigli^li miud.

We have mUfcikcu ti>o aim of national industrial exhibitions generally

but more partieulai-ly of the promoters of our Great Exhibition, if that ami

he not to vmdicate the worth of patient labour, aa well as tho grandeur of

• Eichard Gacst's coropcndioaa " UUtarj of the Cotton BInnufacture."

science, and the influence of art — to acknowledge hi the face of the world
tho hand that reaheea the droams of science and the misty conceptions of
the artist. Tiie social effect of an alliance of art with commercial industry
cannot bo oven-ated. At the present time it is gonenilly accepted timt the
populai- cultivation of art tends to the refinement and cnlightenmeut of a
community. All steps which tend to diffuse art, tend imdoubtedly and
directly to raise the popular character ; and it is difficult to fully ostimato
and comprehend the posible extent of good ^a cottngcr would derive from
the introduction of household objects into his humble abode, moulded iu
forms of grace and beauty.

II. — Abt in Fran-cb, from thb XIIIth to the End op the
XVIIItu CENTunr.
In treating of the effect of industrial exhibitions upon the monufacturo*
and habits of a people, it is necessary first to understand thoroughly and
clearly the conditions, as regards art and skill, in wliich they were when
they first adopted tho scheme of gathering their collective reaoureas under
one great common roof. Wo must premise that Franco should bo looked
upon as an excoptional case. She cxcellod in taste and manufacturing
skill at a very remote date. Even in the thirteenth centuiy, her artisans
were renowned iu other countries for the superior skill and taste with
which they manufactured goldsmith's work aud stained glass, and for the
beauty of their illuminated manuscripts. These osceileuces are mattora of
histoi-y. We have only to turn to the career of Jacques Coour (under
whose name a great igency conveyed the Parisian manufactures to tho
Great Exhibition), tho great capitalist and merchant, to recall that
unexampled brilliancy of induatrial production, which in tho olden time
satisfied the luxurious habits and tastes of the nobles. Under Francis tho
First, however, tho grandeur and inimitable gracos which characterised
the labours of the reiiaisaanoef showed mauutUeturing skill iu intimate
union with art. Comiog down gi-adually nearer our own times, we may
mark every epoch in French history — deeply as her aunals are stained with
native blood and kingly debaucheries — brightened with a national effort
in favour of art-manufacture. The establishment of the silk mimufactures
of LyonB, in the year 1450 ; the excellences of the old looms of Paris,
Beauvaia, •fee; Colbert's Gobelin tapestry establishment; the carpet
manufactories of Savonnerie ; the^Marquis de Fulvy's porcelain manufactory
{the first established in France), reared at Vinconnos in the year 1738,
and which was afterwards sold to the fermiers giniraua, who transplanted
it to the village of Sevres, and laid tho foundation of those inimitable
productions known as Sfevres ware — these are data which give indisputable
proof that tho Fi-ench people have, for ages past, enjoyed peculiar
advantages in the cultivation of decorative ai't.

In textile fabrics, and manufactures of general use, however, they wore
much behind the resi of the world, till within a comparatively recent
period. Towards the middle of tho seventeenth century, M. Chaptal, tho
historian of French industry, declares that France possessed looms only
capable of producing the coaraest materials adapted to the wants of her
population. Her fine cloths were imported from Spain and Holland ; her
best silks came from the Italian looms ; other fabrics caino from England ;
aud Holland and Brabaut supplied lier with lincus and lace. The advance
of Colbert to power, however, changed the face of matters in this respect.
The fettei-s were struck off from native manufacturoi-s ; skilful foreign
workmen were called in ; the two great Indian coniiianies wore formed ;
exportation aud importation — an extended iuterchange — wore encouraged
by lessened duties ; and a premium of five fraucs per ton was allowed on
all new vessels. These enUghtened regulations soou filhid the ports of
France with foreign merchantmen, aud gave a most heidthful impetus to
toe industry of the c.<untry. If commerce owes its revival in France to
the minister Colbert, its principal branches owe him more, inasmuch as ho
was the firet to establish them in his native country. He tempted tho
most distinguished foreign manufacturers to Paris, and by dint of liberal
encouragement planted them in France, and set them to teach native
artisans ; aud the result was, that within the short space of ten years
42,20U skilful clothworkers were settled iu the provinces of tho country.

It is impossible to over-estimate the debt of gratitude due to tho memory
of Colbert from his country. It was he who e^titblished the Gobelin
manufactures, and placed the celebrated painter Lebrun to direct these
unrivalled productions. It was he who obtained from Louis XIV. an edict,
dated 1664, setting apart the sum of one million (worth two millions in
the present time) to encourage m;mufactures and maritime commerce;
aud it should fairly be added that Louis entered into tho enlightened
views of his minister with unusual alacrity. It was Colbert who reared
the Invalides, the Observatou-e, and the gates of .St. Denis and St. Martin.
It was Colbert who opened the royal libraries to the public, and instituted
searches iu all parts of the world for vaUmblo works to complete tho
Bibliotheque Royale do Paris. At his command, merchantmen spread their
canvas once more to the winds ; Art leant over the weaver at his loom, to
trace upon the growing fabric tint^ and lines of beauty ; and Science rose
to give a purpime to the mechanic's skill,

iSuddenly the meivhant's 8;nls wore furled, the loom stood still, and tho
meehiuiic left his bench to the beating of drums. A musket was in tho
hand of evei-y Frenchman ; Commerce for a while stood still to watch the
conflict ; but even in these times of strife aud bloodshed, some homaga

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOP^DLi OP THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

of taste are devising tho proper mode of puuishment, we must only hope
that no squeamish delicacy will prevent individuals from pointing "the
slow unerring finger of scorn" at all such efforts of spurious adornment,
whenever they are thrust in their way, just as they would ' denounce a
mosaic chain, a paste diamond pin, or a pinchbeck bracelet, which was
ntteraptod to be palmed off upon thom as real jewellery. Independently
of this falsity in appearance, which applies to all the above "manufactured
products," there is about gutta porclui, papier vidcke, &c., another falsity
much more to bo deprecated in a utilitarian point of x-icw: "breach of
promise " of service ; as any man may find out to his coet who subjcts them
to ordinal^ wear and tear for a bvk'elvcmonth. We have met with these
castings iu paper aud gutta porcha on sea and land, in steam-boat and
tavern parlour, and wo have scarcely ever met an instance where some
member of the family group had not been toni or shaken from his allegi-
ance by the force of circumstancos.

With respect to the application of carving in the decoration of articles of
furniture, wo shall from time to time have occasion to speak, in the case
of various examples, both of British and foreign make, which we jmrpose
illuHtrating. It may bo proper, however, to add a few general observations
upon this branch of the subject.

The exhibiting artists, both British and foreign, with few exceptions,
showed gi-eat >jkill of handicraft, groat iuventivenosa, and a determination to
spare neither labour nor expense in the production of works which they
fondly consider will bo admired for the amoimt of decoration lavished
upon them. In aiming at striking effects, however, they have very often
gone into an uudue oxoess of ornamentation ; and, in not a few instances,
in tho choice of decorative devices, have lost sight of what would be
appropriate in that light. Accordingly, wo have high art— or what
assumes to bo such — playing second fiddle to the cabinet-maker ; and
poetry — poetry run mad sometimes —decorating the footboard of a bed-
steatl, the legs and back of a sideboard, the various limbs of an arm-chair,
&c. ; the conformableness of which to their several useful purposes ia
absolutely impaired by tho obtrusiveness of these devices, which break
that smoothue-is of outline so oscontial to comfort in contact, and to
pleasurable contemplation in the mind's eye. All this is wrong. The
decoration of the material of a work of utility should be a secondary con-
sidoratiou— beauty and convenience of form the primary; above all,
lightness of appearance, corabineil with actual strength of structure, which
can never exist in perfection when a single square inch of wood projects
beyond the necoesary sweep of outline, however highly aud ingeniously it
may be carved. Our upholsterers would do well to consult the exquisite
models of carved furniture from India aud from China, in which the true
principle is adhered to — where all is elaborate in beauty, but elaboration
within the limits prescribed by utility ; and, above all, where the decoration,
instead of constantly worrying one with novel and extravagant conceits, is
purely conventional — rich and satisfactory in the forms, without taxing the
observer to inquire into its story or intentions.

Passing from these remarks, we now proceed to notice tho names of a
few of the principal foreign contributors of carved furniture. France was
represented by a numerous array in this line, amongst whom we must
notice Jeanselmo upon the score of general propriety : more ambitious
were Fourdinois, whose elaborately constructed buffet stood in the entrance
to tho Gobelins room, Barbedienue (who obtained a couucil medal for a side-
board), and Lionard, who had a panel of sporting subjects in pear-wood
aud an ebony cabinet in the Main Avenue. From Belgium we had but a
limited number of contributions, amongst which were only remarkable some
ecclesiastical subjects (the " Virgin cro^vued by Angels," a " Crucifixion," &c.)
by Geefs, aud a carving commemorative of the "Great Exhibition of 1851,"
by Vandermeersch.

Switzerland has a stylo of her own, which, though partaking of the
offeuce of all jiicturo-furniture, must be excused for its evident genuineness,
and the hearty awiouj- de payi witfi which national scenes, national customs,
and national ctstumcs are, upon all occa-ions, selected as the devices. An
artist of the name of Lceman, also, ha^ a wcll-carvod representation of the
beautiful fountain at Nuremhurg -an interesting object of the Gothic
period ; and, tliongh not strictly coming under the definition of carvmg,
we must mention, as highly interesting and creditable productions, two
turned cupa (decoi-ative), aud a watchstand, produced by E. Meystre, of
Lausanne, a young man who has the misfortune to be deaf, dumb, aud
blind, and who is a pupil of the Blind Asylum of that town. Poor Edward
Meystre ! How inscrutable are the ways of Providence, and how inex-
tinguishable the spirit of enterprise aud industry in man —well-conditioned
man ! Who could have thouglit, when tho gi-eat and glittering exhibition
of the world's choicest goods was projected, that the rumour of it should
reach a poor benighted youth, with neither sense of sight nor hearing, nor
speech, and that be, from a far-off land, should send his humble tribute to
a display which ha.s delighted the oyes of millions happier in this respect
than ho I If a word of acknowledgment and encouragement may oast a
ray of light and warmth over tliat dark oxistence, let us not grudge it.

From Tuscany, that old field of cla.saic art, wo had several specimens of
extjuiiito beauty, by Harlietti and others, two of whioh wo eugrave in tho

§res->nt sheet. Tho style of production in this quartm-, liiborioua ami
orid in the iiighest dogreo, is marked with a propriety which excepts it
from some general observations wo mado In an earlier part of this article.

Portugal hiu long held a respectable r,\x\k for the elaborate beauty of her
carving, and the fine quality of the woods omployod; and wo obficiTot^
several interesting examples of superior haudicral't and oxcollonce of material.

Finally, Greece, amongst her sixty-one contributirm". R-ti» twr, ^
iu tho Byzantine style, executed by the Rev. Trian ! t' ' ' '^ '"

namely, a carved cross, aud a carved picture of the " A ■ .
works ore remarkable as specimens of a stylo of ai i
being a remnant of the Byzantine period, and which siin ut-. ■•
the convents of Greece, and particularly at Mount Athof-
which is done with graving imtrumenta, is very minute, i
upon the plane of the wood— a box-wood which is abundant
appears to be of a very fine grain. The crucifix, which do.
more than a foot in its largest dimensions, is covered on 1 >
scriptural subjects — fourteen on each side— ao that each nut r., r, ,,, , ,
only from an inch to a couple of inches of the surface. In tin.- fr\tl\^
representing the "Annunciation," the figures arc larger, and i\\p f,,n.i ,, f
the band being surrounded with twenty-five heafls of saint-, '\
mcnt of Greece has of late years done a good ileal to prom^r
illustration, in a School of Arts establishpd at tho cathedral a

In onr account of the Kenilworth Buffet given in our !;i.-t, .vu- i-uu!
that in its produc-tion a new practice had been a<lopted by Mr
Walter Cooper, namely, that of " pointing," as employed by stone inii
marble Bculptore, by which greater accuracy in copying from the pli.',.
model is attained than would otherwise be possible. This is a novelty in ■•(■^
process of production" which might almost have entitled Jlet^ar^ Ci ,k,.,
to the honoiu" of a council medal : the claim was at leaat as good a- tii,n iif
M. Barbadietme, who pretended to no novelty either of principle or pri-.t: .
iu his famous sideboard- However, the Council of Chairmeo have iho'i^b;
otherwise, so we have nothing further to do with the matter, except to all
attention to the fact, and to the Eugraring on page 110, which repn-
sents the studio of Messrs. Cookea and Sons, from a sketch by Mr. Dwrer
with the pointing machinery in use, fixed to one of the benchea.

VIEW IN THE EAST NAVE OF THE GREAT EXHIEITIOK.
The large Engraring standing across tho next two pages repreaenti x
considerable portion of the East, or Foreign Nave, looking from a point
near its junction with the South Transept, taken from a daguerreoiToa
sketch by Claudet. Amongst the piincipal individual objects incluiiedin
it, are " The Boy at a Stream," by Foley ; the Koh-i-Noor iu its cage ; tae
large Spanish Wine Vases ; some of the Italian Scidpture^ ; the colotal
ziuc Statue of the Queen, &c.

The Bijouterle .ucd Sculptobe in the GRRATExaiBnios.— AHtiter
in the Art-Journal says : — Has any body explained, or can any lodr
explain, the strange and universal attraction exercised by Precious Swaes!
an attraction confined to no nation or class, rich or poor, educated or ua-
educated, wise or foolish. When one observes, and fetls, tho poten:
fascination of these small bits of sparkling stone, one is half tcmptcl w
give into the dreams of Rosi crucians, and the theories of alchemists. For
what is the chai'm 1 It cauuot be simply that they represent so raucli
money ; for a packet of 1000^. bank notes does that mucli more precisely ;
nor is it their beauty ; for there are iunumerable things more beautiful
than they. But diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and all those rici
products of nature's laboratory, seem to draw not only the eyes, but ibe
very heai'ts of men by a mysterious force. The world-improvers say ttii*
folly is to vanish before their teachings. It may be so. At present the
Great Exhibition, not a bad test of popular inclinations, gives H" inilicaiioQ
of their decline. Another problem which I should like to see eiphiineJ, is tfae
intense eagerness of the people to see the Auatro-Italian stauiee. An aUea-
tive frequenter of tho British Museum or the Louvre, who ha.j watched Uh
listless indifference with which the masterpieces of Greek art are rerinJed
by the many, can hardly believe in any real and diffused tjiste for .sculpturf.
or any appreciation of it a* Art, among the people of EnginoJ jr
France. The only quality that seems Ut strike them is. generally, \l(
exact representation of some trivial accessory— a veil, the coil of a rope, or
the curl of a wig. Tho ti-uth is, their education and pui^uit* luturall;
lead them to a lively symimthv with the industry that couquen* tAlaJol
difficulties ; and not at all, with the genius that embodies a poetii-d l>i«t
There is, however a vast deal of this preference of the curious uvtr inj
be:iutiful, in the rich vulgar as well as the poor; as the aiiminitionoi'th*
Veiled Lady abundantly proves. As to tho good to result t" tli*; ^f* o"
Sculpture, it would be absurd to hope much, from the display of worki.
many of which are more calculated to mislead than to form, the tatW.
miless indeed— which is possible— it be nece}*;sary ^o educ-ito the wu^i J"
untaught eye, through imperfect models up to perfect. Tlie iii'pi'' \
tiou of the products of the great age of Greek Art (which En^-I^ind "-i*"*
inestimablo privilege of possessing) being the test, how laiich ". -
education must be passed through before that ia arrivoil at I T\w^ "
have arrived at it are counted by tens, if not by units. .

Proposed Statue of Prikcb Albert. — A wish has been exprts=w- 1
at least, a suggestion has been thrown out that a ooIosmI hraiizo swtU^'
His Koyal Highness should mark tho site of tho Great Eshibiti.iu. when
the present edifice has baBu removed. We trust that, it in'J' *'"■
public testimonial be decided on, tho selection both of tho design nu
artist will be intrusted to gentlemen possessing a little more fuottioj^
of the art than the largo majority of members of the Committees ft ^>^
have been elected to decide ou the Peel monuments. ^Vhat witti ^^
ignorance and tho jobbing propenaitios of t^uoh bodie.'*. there are ^^^-^
half a dozen statues of any considerable size in this gi-cat meti-op'^"'*)
ai'e not deservedly objects of ridicule or contempt.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOP/EDIA OP THE GUEAT EXIIIUITION OP 1851.

123

(iinaiiied for hor. Art wius retiuncil to ptiiiipor tlio rich Hensualist, but
ricner pxsscd tliii tlircHliolil of tlio poor, liuforo tlio I'Voiich IJiiViiliitimi
l.iirst asunili'r tlie wliolo Hooial fiiln-ie, ftiid loft a chaotic muH» to roorgaiii»o
tn diacorilaiit atoiiin oil a more liberal baaia, tho bcautioH of art wuru Iho
■iijoymeiit only of tho wealthy. No schools exiHtnl for tho tuition of
liimiblo aapirants; no npon hand waa prolTorod to Uio Htriiggling artiat.
Yet tho ti(h) of public favour wa^ turnud in favour of art, not by the
|iromotor.H of tlio Ituvohition, not by an upstart from tho ranks of tho
pLMijilo ; liut, on tho contrary, by a uoblo, who was proscribed before ho
luuld carry his jilan.i into cH'cct.

An appointment which irnniodiatoly followed tho installation of tho
nireotory was that of the Marquia d'Ave/.o, in conjunction witli MM. Do
I'arny, Da la Chablaussicre, and Caillot, aa manager of tho Academy of
Music, tlien called tho Theatre of Arts.

'■ Wo received," the Manpiia tolls im in a pani))ldet on tho subject, "this
Ino establishment from tho hands of tho artists unite 1 for its .support, in
iho most wretchoil state — in a position, indeed, menacing imuiediate
iowufal. Thanks to the effiu'ts of oiu' nianagomont, which lasted for three
;ouaecutive yeara, we boipieatlicd this splendid theatre to our successors in
1 most satisfactory condition, and in that high road to success which it has
;oustantly followed until tlio ])ro3ent time (1841).

"In tho year V. of the Kepubhc (1797), I had not yet quitted the Opera,
A'hon tho Minister of tho Interior summoned me to undertake tho office of
^immissioncr to the Mauufactures of tho Ciobelins (tapestries), of Sevres
(china), anil of tho Savonucrio (cai'pots). I had no need to stay long in
;lie3o establishments to perceive the misei-y in which they were plunged.
Tho workshops were deserted- — for two years tho artisans had remained in
in almost starving condition ; the warehouses were full of the results of
their labours, and no commercial enterprise camcf to relieve tho general
Dmbai'rassmeut. Scarcely can I depict tlio cfl'oct produced upon mo by
such a scene ; but at that moment a bright thought presented itself to my
im.igiuation, and appeared to console me for the miseries of tho present in
the hopes it odbred for tho futm-e. I pictured to myself, in the most
flowing colour.s, the idea of an exhibition of all the objects of industry of
She national manufactures. I committed my project to paper, I detailed
;he mode of its execution, and prepared a report, addressed to the Minister
)f tho Interior, which w;vs written throughout by my own hand, and
leli\-ered by mo to M. Laucel, then at the head of tho section of Arts and
Vtanufactures, in wlioso office the document in question should still exist.
Vly reports soon received the approbation of the Minister of the Interior,
M. Fran^-ois do Neufchateau, who commanded me to carry it into effect by
every meaus useful and suitable to the Government.

The chdlcau of St Cloud was then iminhabited, and completely unfur-
nished ; and this appeared to me the most appropi'iate and eligible spot for
Lhe exposition which I had projected, and likely to invest the exhibition
with all tlie maguificonce and eclat so necessary to attract strangers, and to
further tho sale of tho objects exhibited, the produce of which might
mitigate the suUeriugs of our unhappy workmen. The chateau of St. Cloud
was obtained without difficulty. I established myself there, and requested
the attendance of MM. Guillamont, Duvivier, aud Salmon, directors of
mauufactm'es. I explained to them the intention of the Government, and
found all the.-;e gentlemen ready to further this object with zeal and
activity. In a few days, by their obliging exertions, tho walls of every
apartment in the chdtcan were hung with the finest Gobelin tapestry ; the
floors covered with the superb carpets of the Savonnerie, which long
rivalled the carpets of Turkey, aud latterly have tar surpassed them ; tlie
large and beautiful vases, the maguificeut groups, and the exquisite pictures
of Sevres china enriched these saloons, already glowing with tho chefs
iVoiiivrc of Gobelins and Savonnerie. The chamber of Mars wa-s converted
into a receptacle for porcelain, where might be seen the most beautiful
services of every kind, vases for flowers, in short all the ta-steful varieties
which are originated by this incomparable manufacture. In the centre of
the saloon, surrounded by all these beauties, was a wheel of fortune,

ntaining lottery tickets oveutally to be drawn : every ticket was to
obtain a prize of gi-eater or less value ; the pirice of each ticket was twelve
francs. I had attained to thi.9 point when the Minister gave me an assistant
in the person of M. Lessure, a yoxmg man of great merit, with uncommon
zeal and intelligence. I had already, for some time, enjoyed the advantage
of the services of M. Peyre, a young architect of exquisite taste and
listinguished talent. He it was who superintended the arrangement of
the expo.sition ; and when this was completed, I referred to the Minister to
iix the day for its being opened. It wa.s decided that this should take
place in the month of Fruetidor ; but previous to that time a number of
distinguished persons in Paris, aud many foreigners, visited the exposition,
and made purchases sufficient to afi'ord a distribution to the workmen of
the diflerent manufactures, thus yielding a little temporary relief to their
necessities. The fame of this forthcoming exposition inspired the citizens
of Paris with an eager desire to enjoy it as soon as possible ; they antici-
pated with impatience the 18th Fruetidor, the day fixed for public
.ulmission to St Cloud. The courtyard was filled with elegant equipages,
whose owners gi'aoed the saloons of the exposition, when, in the midst of
this good company, I received an official notice from the Minister to attend
him immediately, and to defer the opening of the exposition. I obeyed
the mandate on the morning of the 18th. I waited on the Minister, from
whom I received an order to close the chateau. Already on the walls of
our city was placarded the decree of the Directory for the expulsion of the
nobility, with an order for their retii'emont, \\'ithin foiu:-aud-twenty hours

to a distance of at lea.-it thirty le.igne-i from Paris, and this under jiain of
death. My name wu« iu tho list; and, conseipiontly, my iinmediato with-
drawal wiLs imperative. 'I'he barrier* wore utrictly guarded, and it was
imposMiblo to piws them without the order of the commandant. Mypositioa
was doubly painful : on tlio one hand, it waa osaoiitud to obey the docreo
of tho Government ; on tho other, 1 lia<l uit luxount to render of all tho
troanures in the chdieaa of St. Cloud. I found no difliculty in exi.kiiiing
my position to tho Minister and the commiiniUmt of tho place, tho Mandi.al
Angereau. I requested him to furnish me with a sufHeicnt force for tho
jirotection of the ckdtcau, in which ho many precious object« were deposited.
He gave mo a company of dragoons, mider command of Captain Vaticr,
and ordcreil a passport for mo, by means of which I could leave I'ariii anrl
roturii to St. Cloud. I caused an inventory to be niiido in my presence of
all I kit in tho chtltcau. I closed the gates, aud delivered tho keys to
M. Marechau, tho keeper, in compliance with the order of the Minister. I
postofl the military which ha-i been granted to mo around the ch&leau,
and, my duties fulllllod, hastened to obey tho decree of the proscription.

" Such is the true and exact history of the lli-st idea of a National
Exposition, and of the first uttenqit to realise that idea."

This modest narrative of tho originator of these cxliibitions was written
by tho Marquis so lato as the year 1814, in reply to tho reports of ilM.
ChallaiMcl and Burat, in which tho honour of their origin waa accorded to
Fran(;(jis do Neufchateau.

Tho labours of the Marquis, however, in the caase of tho industrial arts
did not terminate with his compulsory retirement ; for, on his return to
Paris, at the beginning of tho yeiu- 1798, he forthwith collected an exhibition
of native art-manufactures within the spacious house and grounds of the
Maison d'Orsay, Hue de Varonncs. It was to be expected that the speci-
mens of manufacture he assembled woidd consist entirely of costly goods,
inasmuch as manufactures of any excellence were not within the reach of
the great body of the people. The masterpieces of manufacturing skill were,
therefore, to be found exclusively in the palaces of the rich ; and from
these abodes of luxury he withilrew the gorgeous cabinet-work and
marqueterie of Rilsoncr and Boule ; the clocks of Leroy ; the gorgeous
typographical productions of Do Thou aud Grolier ; Sevres and Augouliime
porcelain ; the masterpieces of Vincent and David ; the choicest fabrics
of Lyims ; and other costly products of the artist and the artisan. The
exclusive chaiucter of tho exhibition was the result, not of D'Aveze's wish,
but of the condition of French society. He led the way which has been
so faithfully aud happdy followed ; he created in the hearts of the manu-
factui-ing population of Franco that enthusiasm for their calling^that
anxiety for the excellence of their national manufactures, which hiis since
distinguished them.

MM. Challamol and Burat have been guilty of a palpable injustice
towards tho Marquis d'Avezo, by remaining wholly silent upon the subject
of his enlightened labours in the cause of art-manufacture, in their zeal on
behalf of tho accomplished Neufchateau. The year 1798 was a most
favom-able one for an exhibition of native industry. Napoleon had achieved
his most brilliant actions in Italy, and brought the war to a sGccessful
termination; the spoils of war had been inaugurated with prodigal pomp,
and it was happily suggested that the little collection iu the Rue de
Vareuues should be copied on a grander scale. The Government, bearing
in mind the eSbrts of the Marquis d'Aveze at St. Cloud, and more lately at
Pari.s, determined to erect a '• Temple of Industry" on the Champ do Mars.
Here the triumphs of war had been celebrated, and here it was resolved
that the nursling of peace should receive a national ovation : the olive
should be intertwined with the blood-bespattered laurel ! This was the
first national exhibition of French industry. By exciting emulation
amongst native manufacturers, and appealing to their pride, they had been
prevailed upon to send specimens of their w'.u-kmauship from fai' and nciU".
In the outset this exhibition was called " a fair ; " but the importance given
to it by the universal encouragement with which its estiiblishment waa met,
soon gave it the complexion of a thoroughly national undertaking.

Suburban Artisan Schools. — ^One of the practical results to arise in
this country from the Great Ksliibition, will obviously be the extension of
artisan schools of drawing and modellmg ; for it is certain that, with the
extension of the art of design, improvement in execution must go hand in
hand, or we shall in a few years be driven out of the ornamental market
altogether, by our German as well as French rivals. Having this con-
viction, it is gi'atifying to know that the workmen themselves have much
tho same idea, and that they are anxious on their part to acquire the
necessary knowledge if they find the means of doing so. The committee
for establishing .Suburban Artisan Schools opened rooms for the study of
drawing and modelling, under the title of the " North London School,"
Camden Town, on the 1st of May, 1S50. Since that time above oOO
working men and lads have attended the school ; the present winter-term
has commenced with eighty male students, (one half of whom also attend a
class of geometrical di-awing), and nineteen female students, and these
numbers are increasing weekly. The progress made is of the mott
gratifying character. So successful appears to have been the system
adopted by the committee, aud so encouraging its results, that they are
anxious to extend their sphere of action, and establish schools iu other
parts of the metropolis.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS j

THE AGRICULTURAL MACHINEF
DEPARTMENT.

THE Agricultural Department receiv
throughout the "whole period t
Exhibition was open, a large amount
attention from all classes, and especial
from foreigners, numbers of wUc
might alwaj's be found examining wi
great interest the details of the vario
machines, and discussing their numero
advantages. They have also given ordt
for an immense number of every descr
tiou. Nor have the English fai-mi
allowed so splendid an opportunity
pass by of setting themselves up witl
fresh stock of improved implemen
cue firm alone having received ord(
at their factory, since the opening
the Exhibition, for 5000Z. worth
agricultural implements, to be execut
similar to articles exhibited by them
Hyde Park. But perhaps the mi
giutifyiug sight iu visiting this cli
was to watch the interest taken by t
lai'ge number of agricultural labour)
iu the immense variety of things ht
exhibited, and \ipon which they w<
well able to form opinions. To tht
men an exhibition of then- own eve
day working gear, of such vai'iety, beau
and ingenious design, must havebeei
great treat. Their mastere have been
the habit of seeing similar collections
the annual agricultural shows ; but t
labourer, wlio seldom leaves the la'
on which he works, can have had I
few opportuuities of seeing more th
the oldf;ishioned impl' lucnts of
own locality ; hence much of the absi
prejudice so frequently found aiuc
this class, but which this Exhibitic
more than .any other thing of this tm
will tend to remove. Of the immei
variety in the form of the tools he us
he could previously have formed
notion. There were a hundred ploug
in this class, no two of which were p
cisely alike. That a great change I
of late taken place in the opinions a',
practice of the British farmer, tht
can be little doubt; for many of t
ingenious contrivances (for their advi
tage as well as that of the public) he
exhibited, have been many years
forcing their way with these practic
men, who invariably have heretofore i
their faces against them simply becau
they were new. This is not the co
now ; agricultural machinists are wi
supported by the farmei's, who b'
immediateh' anything that is offered
an improvement with a fair chance
success. This is caused by their n(
being driven to study the principles
tlie machines they use, and whi'
enables them to form better judgmeu
of what they shoxild purcliase.

One might often have observed ge
tlciuen from the country opening fir
doors of engines, counting tubes, ai
discussing the relative merits of osc
lating trunks or fixed cylinder engint
in the most learned manner, of who
very existence a short time since thi
were utterly ignorant. Let us lio]
these are some of the many benefits \
shall receive from the more enlighteui
policy now pursued in reference l
agriculture.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOP/EDLV OP THE GREAT EXIIIRITION OF 1851.

125

aARHETTS PATKNT JIOItSK lloK.

This implement in cnlculatod to work im importiuit imjjrovomfnt in finlil

Iliviitioii, aa by its use, corn of nil kimln, ilnllml in rows of not Iosh tliiui

iim1ii'!( njiart, may
liMcil in a Hnperior

iiinn- ut 11 cost not

...ding sixpence

I i.ic. It is adapt-
Ill ull tlio provail-

: tliocis of drill

tiir.i, citliiT for

111 iiigcropsdi'illod

■h^ surface or

I ;ofl, the axlo-
.■( tlio whcGls

movoablo at
lids, to suit the
intervals ba-
the rows of
: and as each
; hoc works on
r, independently
I the others, tho
• I .l~ are effectually
'\'cd, however

II tho surface of
i ■i.nuid, tho hoes
I ir_: licpt a uniform
.j.rh by means of

|J;nlating keys. Tho steerage forms a valuable feature of the implement,
A the hoes m.ay thereby be guided with the greatest precision, perfectly
"sing the intervals without injury to the corn or plants. As much as i

in 10 to 15 acres per day may be hood with one horse, a man, and a I

y. Tho horse hoe

!rs particular ad-

itagcs over hand

;ing. besides saving
expense, as tho

rk may be per-
med at the proper
Iie ; and as the hoes
letrate a greater

bth, fresh life and

lour are given to

liwing plants, by

j-ring the mould

|amd them.

nibbed out, instead of bein^ beaten out, an in the Scotch m.anner. The
great objection to threshirg by cither of thcHo machines haw liecn the
damiigo done to tho stnvw by thy action of tlio beaters, it being for Bomo

oakrett's patent iiobsb nOH.

purposes, such as thatching, quite spoiled. To obviate this diflRcuUy,
Messrs. GaiTett, of Leistou works, Sa.\mundham, Suffolk, have succeeded
in brmging into gener.al use the one called a " bolting machine." In this,
the straw, instead of being fed in endways, as in all the old machines, is

Irhett's iMrnovED
Ibeshing machine.
irHUEsniNO by ma-
inery is now the
lUnary practice all
Kr England ; eveiy
kge farmer has one
ll his own, and the
sailer holders hire
K for tho time of
isons who keep
^m for that purpose.
ie threshing ma-
|-ne was originally
fented in Scotland,
i Andrew Muckle,
?i was u?ed there
[If a considerable
Jiiod previous to
ii introduction into
Jgland.

The Scotch ma-
rii.^s were, and are,

ther of a much

.:r and heavier

I'tion than the

h, who have

improved upon

invention of

ill. The .Scotoli

lly retain the

1 1 principle,

consisted in holding the straw firmly between two rollers, while the corn

.aten or scutched out by a series of bars, fixed transversely upon a
' ui, revolving with considerable velocity parallel with the feeding rollers,
t| concave or breasting pai-t having little to do witli the actual threshing
otthe corn. In the English machines, the concave is made to pl.ay the
p 5t important part, the straw being fed directly between the drum and
concave, without the use of rollers, and in its passage thi-ough it is

GAr.KETTS IMPROVED THRESHING MACHINE.

admitted lengthways, and, in consequence, is not bent or broken in the
least by passing through. We are not quite sure whether the Messrs.
Garrett were the original inventors of the bolting machine ; but, certainly,
they deserve the credit of having brought it into genei'al use. The latest
improvements added to their machine, as shown in our engraving, are, 1st,
the improved form of the breasting or concave, and the manner of adjusting
the same to the drum ,■ 2nd, a straw shaker, which receives the straw after

126

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

it has passed through the machine, and clears it of all loose kernels that
may be amongst it : 3i-d, a vibrating screen for separating the loose ears,
short straws, caring, &c., from amongst the corn and Ught chaff, the latter
being driven off by a blast-fan while the corn is passing oyer the screen.
After the corn has passed the vai-ious processes above described, it will be
found free from all chaff and rubbish, and, once passing through a di'essing
machine, it •will be fit for the market.

LORD DUCIE'S CULTIVATOR.
The introduction of this implement was a great boon to agriculturists, it
enabling them to adopt a much higher state of cultivation at the same cost,
as its strength and excellent action render it nearly equal to a second

ploughing, while the labour attending it is no more than one-third. It is
in this peculiarity that it differs from machines of a .similar description
that preceded it :"they all partook too much of the mere harrow character,
and had no claims such as Lord Ducies h.as to be called a cultivator. 1 heir
action was almost entirely confined to scratching on the surface, while the
Ulev implement disintegrates the soil to a considerable depth, .and does
actually in a short time, if constantly .and properly used, quite change the
character of the tilth. The mode in which it is raised out of the gi-o""",
and the plan by which its depth is regulated, was the invention ot Mr.
Clvburn, of the'Uley works. The operation is performed with great ease,
and the regularity and par.allelism of the frame- work as it is raised or
lowered is quite perfect. Our Engraving of tills machine is as constmcted
by Messrs. Barrett and Exhall, of Reading.

COLMAN'S drag" HARROW AND SCARIFIER. '
This is a modification of the Ducie Cultivator, and is an excellent imple-
ment as a drag harrow and scarifier, eradicating all weeds and rubbish from

RANSOME AND N.ATS CANE-TOP CUTTER.

This machine is one of a number of valuable implements introduced j
this eminent firm into the AVest Indies.

It is used for cutting cane-tops for cattle, and is in high repute there,
has two knives, and cuts the cane into lengths of half an inch. It can

the foidest land : it is also efficient for opening, raising, and pulverising the
soil ; and with different blades fitted to the tines, it makes an excellent
Hkim, to take off couch, &c.

The principal novelty is in the frame at the top being suspended about
six inches above the lower one, parallel with which, by means of a lever,
it is moved backwards and forwards ; this motion regulates the depth of
the tines in the soil, without having to lift the frame of the machine, which
remains always at the same height from the ground.

It is the invention of Mi-. U. Colman, of Chelmsford, Essex, by whom
they are manufactured.

worked by one or two persons, and is constructed in the smiplest pos;
manner, requiring no particular skill on the part of those who use it. i
made entirely of metal, to avoid the inconvenience and damage which o I
to machines constructed of timber.

ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

FOOD OF MAN.— No IL
(\F all vegetable products, the root of the potato is the only one suit

by itself for the maintenance of life. It contains starch for
purpose of making fat and keeping up the heat of the body ; gluten, w
is a nitrogeuised substance, and capable of affordmg muscular stren,
iron, for the blood; phosphorus, for the brain; citric acid, to pre
scurvy. The fault which is found with it as an aliment is the low am.
of the gluten ; and hence, practically, the Irish remedy the defect by
use of skim-milk, which contains abundance of that material. At
Crystal Palace we had di-ied slices of potatoes ; we had potatoes prese
in tin ; wo had models of the principal varieties grown in Scotland,
we had what is called potato-flom-. The latter, we believe, is merely
starchy matter, and therefore h.as not the nutritive properties of
entire potato. The potato tubers must not be confounded with the 8'
potato, a model of which was exhibited hi Messrs. Lawsou's collecti
This latter plant is a totally different kind of plant ; and from trials w)
we have made under the most favourable circumstances, wiU not t
tubers in England. It is very aualogous to the root of the yam, so n:
used in the West Indies. Both, when b.iked, give a white flouiy prod
which we find, when mixed with a certain portion of flour, can be n
into good bread. The Irishman will eat from 6 lb. to 12 lb. of potatoes a

Of all vegetable products, wheat is regarded as the most import
It contains, in a very concentrated form, the materials which ai-e neces
for the human organisation. It has been cultivated for 60 long a pel
that we know not the wild plant whence it proceeded, and yet, neverthe
it requires much preparation to render it fit for food. The grain i
consists principally of three parts— the lignme or woody case, which g|
it its general form, and which is separ.ated in the form of bran and poUi
the starch and vegetable gluten, which exist in the flour and give to i
nutritive properties. It moreover contains phosphorus in a state p
liarly adapted for assimilation. Our first millers consider that the &
when too highly sifted, is not so nutritive as that which is r.athcr coaj
because, by contmually sifting it, Uttle more than starch gramdea-

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPyKDLi OP THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

127

ft. A lai'Ki- iiiaiiufai.'tiii'Ci' •!(' tlio irictropolis I'oquii'od ii peculiar operation,
volviiij; great labour, to lio porfiirmod by ono man. ]lo trieil Buceen.iively

0 powcrful-liMikinp; Irisli, tlio tall north coinitry and west country men,
lit all were obligeil to aliaii'lon it except those wiioni Iio procured from the
ustcrn countiCH, and had had tile advantage of full diet and good whcaten
read — a fact which well nhowstlio necessity of feeding the people.

Of wheat itself, wo have Bpociineiia from all jiartH of the world. Our
va country h;vs .shown '.no.st excellent examples. Canada also contributes
i portion. I'Vom llu.ssia, the examples are splendid. America in great in
is matter. Mgypt, which has grown grain from the time of the Pharaohs,
iters into competition by contributing its oxamples. Portugal, Spain,
id. in fact, nearly every department, has sent Bomo spociinens to the
orld's Fair; and many different kinds cultivated might bo aeon at Mr.
nvson's stall, or at the table of Mr. Oibbs, where their arrangement was
it very good.

Oats, OS an article of food is next in importance to wheat. Some wore
lit from the Royal Farm; and, in fact, abundance of specimens were sent
:>m most parts of the world. Oats contain more nitrogcnised matter
an barley, and less than wheat ; and thus, next to wheat, it is the most
iportaut grain which is grown. Oat cakes were exhibited by Messrs.
uvson ; and Jlr. Smith exhibited oaten flour projiarcd by a patent
ocess.

Chemists find that bai-lcy is greatly inferior to oats. It contains more

H'chy matter and less nitrogoiiised compound. Henco it is well adapted

fattening poultry. At the ICxhibiliou it was represented, as wall as oats

1 wheat, in many departments.

"Ill corn was exhibited in the American department, of the first

oce. This vegetable substance came to aid during the famine in

Mil. but as an ordinary article of food it is greatly inferior to wheat.

r.iifalus less gluten than wheat, and is not therefore so sustaining.

"I corn has not proved a profitable crop in England, and though

kinds may be grown and will yield a small crop, it does not

I to be profitable to the farmer. Mr. Keene has shown his forty -day

liiie from the Pyrenees, which is the best adapted variety for the English

mate. The small maize from Lower Egypt is very curious and well

orves attention.

According to those who estimate the value of food solely by the quantity
nitrogen it contains, the legimiinous seeds would appear to hold the first
ice, for peas, beans and lentils, abound in nitrogeuised products. In
ictice, the surgeon is aware that none of them are to be compared with
) other vegetable substances which yield gluten, and there appears to be
great difficulty in their perfect digestion. The French showed many
ckets of preserved green peas, in canisters ; and upon the whole subject,
lilst admitting the excellence of green peas and young broad beans, and
ly extolling the French and scarlet beans as employed as a vegetable,
i having no objectioiu to pea-soup on a cold winter's day, yet, as an
Mnary article of nutrition, we have a very low opinion of leguminous
.tters. and do not, even from our experience, consider that they can
safely employed to any extent. They contain little or no phosphorus,
lich places them in a powerful contrast with the potato in this res])ect.
rkcy sent a groat many lentils, and from the Royal Farm of AViudsor
ub of beans was .'>ent.

fitcc was shown from almost every country in which it thrives. We have

i the curiosity to grow it in a hothouse in this country ; but even there

ill suits our short summers. It is a vegetable product which, from its

plioity and pleasant flavour, it is almost impossible to get tired of. It

.y be cooked in many different ways, and iu all it is remarkable for its

:e8tibility. Indeed, we consider it to be the quickest, or one of the

lickest, digestible substances which has been discovered for food. Some

■Sirs ago there was a great ]n'ejudice against its employment by the poor,

i 1 even now it is not nearly so much used as it ought to be. It contains

I ire starch and less gluten than wheat and some other grains, and hence,

1 itself, would bo but a poor food, as it would hardly supply sufficient

iiscular energy. AVe have observed that people are really themselves

rijisfc excellent judges of the eflective power which they obtain from various

' ' nid perhaps they have not found it go so far, for its price, as

^ or good wheaten bread.

M'Cailum sent specimens of the creeping stem of tlie Typha lati-

V large red mace, which is said to yield a meal fit for food, and

^ a fibre which c;in be adapted for vai-ious manufacturing purposes.

H various roots used for food, we have the parsnep represented by a model.

tiforms a nutritious substance, and can be mixed with bread. The carrot

• less digestible than the pai-snep. Turnips, as far as we know, are

ply .shown by a model. They form a nutritious food if taken iu suffi-

t iiuantity, but will not answer for the poor .at Loudon prices. They

be made, with a certain proportion of wheat flour, into bread. Jeni-

im artichokes are not much used, and then are employed more as a

ury on the table of the rich. They are also represented by a model.

longst the roots, Messrs. Lawson have shown the Ajiios <«iierosa, proposed

substitute for the potato ; but it appeai-s, even if wholesome, which is

btful, that it yields but very small produce.

'he Coffee Berry is shown from various parts of the world. It is the

llduce of a handsome shnib. which may be seen at Kew, or, in fact, at

jijny of the nursery-grounds. It is roasted and ground before it is used

food. On the 1st of May one of the Turkish superintendents was

Gaining to a number of ladies the use of a set of coffee ute»sils used by

He told tliem " that they must excuse him, but the English ladies

did not know how to make good <'ofree. Hi.s countrymen used boiling
water, and throw the coffeu into it, and when it hail twice risen it wa«
ready for use." Upon iiitoiTogation ho appeared to set little store upon it«
clearnoM, so wo aro iifraiil that his oxcellent colfee would not meet with
much favour at a West-end dinner party. The power* of coffee over the
brain and nervous system are sufHcicntJy well m.arkcd; and perhaps the
public should know that in the strongest coffee they have a powerful
romody at hand to rosiiscitato persona who are Hiifrering from immodurato
drinking, rir too free use of ojiiiim. In the North-west (iailery tlio public
m.ay have obnervod several line specimens of theine and caffeine, .ind ono
which deserves investigation. It is stated by Dr. Gardner to bo made from
the coll'ee leaves, roasted specimens of which arc displayed We took two
or three leaves from our coffee plant and roa.sted them, and tasted the
infusion. In our judgment the experiment did not appear to bo promising,
yet we should be sorry to dismiss the question of their utility in so sum-
mary a manner, and should be delighted if Dr. Gardner could prove that
the leaves will add to the comforts of the poor. Connected with colTeo, wo
may state that Mr. Snowden has shown samples of clcanaing and purifying
the coffeo berry previous to roasting and grinding.

Messrs. Saunders and Gatchill have shown Chicory in all its stages. This
detestable stuff is principally used by dishonest traders for the purpose of
making the public believe that they sell cheaper than their neighbours. It
is the drieil root of the wild endive wdiich is employed, and is now much
grown in England, France, Uermany, &c. There is an impost duty on the
foreign produce, wdiilst that grown in England is not subject to the excise
laws. For this rea.son the vendor gets the whole beDe*it of the impost;
and ns the farmers aro always screwed to the payment of the highest rent
which they can bear, the landlord gets the ultimate benefit of its sale.
The use of this nasty .adulterative is so extensive, that chicory itself is now
enormously adulterated by various other roasted substances, and, whilst
landowners are beuefltod thereby, there is no immediate prospect of any
abatement of the nui.«ancc, unlesSj indeed, the publication of the name of
the dishonest trader by the Lancet shall induce the public to leave the shops
of all those who thus cheat their customers.

It is a curious fact that both I'ea and Coffee owe their properties to the
presence of the same alkaloid, as theine and caffehie are identical in com-
position, and are highly nitrogeuised products. The delight which English
]ioople take in tea and coffee renders both important articles of commerce,
and both are well represented. In the Chinese department our readers
had an opportunity of inspecting drawings of the different processes em-
ployed in the manufacture of tea, from the planting of the seed to the
packing of the chests, together with a very extensive series of genuine and
factitious teas of every class. The green tea and black tea are different
plants, as may be seen at Messrs. Loddige's, Kew Gardens, and even in
other nursery-grounds. The Assam Tea Compiiny contributed various
samples of tea as cultivated by them in India, and which have at any rate
a very excellent appearance. The exact operation of tea on the system is
not known, but it is manifest it exercises considerable influence over the
functions of the nervous system. Some persons cannot sleep a wink after
a cup of strong tea, and there can be no question that it supports, in other
instances, the action of the brain, and takes oft' the sense of fatigue. It
has also a direct and powerful influence iu promoting the secretion of bile ;
and, in conjunction with vegetable food, is found to improve the nutritive
qualities of the latter. The immoderate use of this beverage destroys
the tone of the stomach, and predisposes to cramp.

Chocolate is a vegetable food not nearly as much used in England as in
neighbouring countries. It is prepared from the nut of the chocolate tree,
which may be seen at Kew Gardens iu high perfection. Messrs. Fry and
Son, of Bristol, have sent specimens of the leaves, flowers, and branches of
the tree which yields the nuts. The nut consists of a large quantity of
oily matter, and a nitrogenised principle very similar to theine. Amongst
the machines in motion, a model of an apparatus for grinding and preparing
it was shown, and those who walk down Holboru may see the real appa-
ratus in action. The French, and most foreigners, make numerous bon-
bons of this material.

The Paris company sent many specimens of chocolate, mixed with various
materials. Some are flavoured with vanilla, the seed-pod of a species of
orchid, which was shown lately at the Botanic Gai'dens in the fresh state,
and was also exhibited in the Crystal Palace, in the department for the
colonies, and also in several chocolate ca-ses, in the dried state.

We suppose that we must class tobacco amongst articles of food. It is
procured, as our readers know, from a plant wdiich grows freely in our
gardens, but which does not yield so potential a product. Perhaps, those
who employ this weed are but little aware how poisonous is the substance
with which they are dealing, as a very small 'quantity of the essential oil
will destroy life if taken into the stomach ; and it is so powerful and un-
certain a remedy, that but very few medical men dare to employ it. It is
used, nevertheless, in three ways — either as a substance to be chewed, a
powder to be snuft'ed up the nose, or the vapour which is inhaled during
burning is allowed to come in cont.act with the mucous membi-ane of the
mouth and fauces. The use of it is said to destroy the sense of hunger
under intense fatigue, and to serve a-s a stimulus to the nervous system.

From the .above account, our readers cannot fail to observe that the
number of vegetal substances, used for food have been abundantly repre-
sented ; and, besides these, we shall hereafter have to describe numerous
fniits and vegetable products which have also been contributed, the
whole question of food having been largely represented.

128

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS.

GROUI' OF OLASS. — J. GBEEN.

The group of glass
by Green, of St.
James's-street, repre-
sented at tlie head of
the present page, con-
tains some very admi-
rable examples of the
improved taste and
skill of our workmen
in the art of engraving
glass. The designs
exhibited by this
house are in a variety
of stylos : some after
Greek, Egyptian, and
Etruscan models ;
others copying the
national emblems, na-
tional flowers, &c.

Bell's " Dorothea."
and Kirk's group of
■The Origin of the
Dimple," are two very
pleasing works in the
romantic or fanciful
school. Those who
remember the story
of Cervantes' heroine,
(who, by the w.ay, we
submit is entitled to
"honorable mention,"
as the first "Bloomer")
will i-ecogniso the
tasteful spirit in
which she has been
treated by Mr. Bell.
"Tlie Origin of the
Dimple" speaks for
itself.

DOEOTIIKA.— liF.I.L

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

(.■i;MUi>-i-iia;i;.-.Moui:L, nkw I;u^'D stkeet. (.See Page 130.)

THE GREAT EXHIBITION AWARDS.
lOSE who in after years may turn to the record of the honours lately
distributed amongst the Exhibitors of All Nations, in the expectation
t it will present a fair reflex of the position of iudustiy and the attain-
ts of science in 1 851, will be grievously disappointed. The very reading
the list, indeed, would con^-mce them that there was something wanting

*1 that the commercial greatness of au age like the present could not ;

■ re been dependent, to any great extent, upon trivialities such as those I

[ No. 9, November 29, 1851.

to which the jui-ies have awarded prizes. The reports of the juries, which
we are promised shortly, will, perhaps, throw light upon the intentions
with which many of these awards were made, and which, without such
exj>lanation, appear to be capricious and altogether inconsistent with any
practically useful purpose. In tlie mean time we pursue oiu- comments
upon the decisions as they stand, which beai- upon their face circumstances
of a suspicious or questionable character.

Passing over Classes I. and II., which we may attend to another time

Price Oxe Pexxt.

130

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

we come to Cla=s III., that of "Substances used as Food, in wli.ch we find
two council medals, and no less than ten prize medals, awarded to diHerent
individuals for beetroot sngnrs. The two council medals go to trance,
and the prize medals are thus distributed :-Frauoe, 3 ; Austria, 5 ; Prussia, 1 ,
Russia 1 Now, considering the history and circunistauces ot this manu-
facture; considering that it is purely factitious in origin, and only supported
in tlie countries where it is carried on by high protective duties ; consider-
ing that the declared object with which this manufacture was farst establishert
in Franco bv Napoleon was to injure the British colomal trade and that
the undisgiiised object with which it is still encouraged m Austria in
Prus.sia and in Russia, is to render the people of those nations as mdependent
as possible of British supplies, and, in short, to exclude us froin commercial
relations; considering that all this is at variance with the true and
enli-htened principles of commerce, wliich are a distinguislnng feature ot
the present a-e, wo are justified in pointing to those awards as extremely
unfortimate in themselves, and can only account for their being made by
referrin" to the fact of that combination nf foreign " mterests which the
Commissioners weut out of their way to introduce into their jury scheme.
As the introduction of the manufacture of beet-root sugar into this
country, and more particularly into Ireland, is a que.^tion which has been
much discussed lately, and as tlie awarding of no less than twelve prizes to
the producers of this article is liliely to liave some influence in promoting
projects of this sort, we think it rigi.t to direct the attention of our readers
to a paper read bv Professor Hancock, at the last meeting of tho Bntish
Association, on tlie " Prospects of the Beet Su-jar Manufacture m England
fi-om which it appears that, in a commercial point of view, the proht-
able result of such a speculation is very questionable, the ca.so ot
France with a protected and exclusive trade, not applying here. i> ram
these calculations it would seem probable that, taking into account
the cost of the r.iw material, and the price of the refined sugar, m franca
and the United Kingdom respectively, " tho result was so varied as tn turn
a profit of :35.000i., at the French prices, on a capital of 78.000(., into a loss
of 4000/ at the Irish prices, and a loss of 16,0U0i. at the Essex prices;
being only one instance out of many "shomng how fallacious it must be
to reason' from the success of the manufacture in France to its success in
the United Kingdom, without taking into account the difference m econoinio
conditions (including fiscal arrangements) between the two aowtries;
being alone sufBcient to make that which was profitable in prance
unprofitable here," , v ,

Dismissing the subject of beet sugar for the present, we cannot help
expressing a confident hope that the introduction of this f.ihricated pro-
duction a1 a substitute for the genuine article may be rendered still mora
unnecessary by the removal of the absurd restrictions now imposed upon
the refiners of cane sugar. _ .

In Cla=s IV., whilst we cordially approve of the justness of the awavtt ot
a council medal to the Belfast Flax Improvement Society, for "the per-
severin" and successful efforts to improve tlie quality of the fibre ot Bax,
we cannot but regret that Chevalier Claussen was denied the same honour
for his in-'enious and truly scientific process of preparing flax and flax cotton,
whereby the value of that staple will be greatly enhanced, and its apiihca-
bility to manufacturing proces.ses largely extended. The details ot t us
process have been already explained at some length in the columns of this
Journal ■ it mav bo sufiicient, therefore, to state here its principal features
whereby as mil appear, that not only a new process is applied to an end
previ.iusly attained by other processes, but new and valuable clmractcristics
are "iven to the article itself which it was before considered not to he
capable of We should observe that tho principal process is purely a
chemical one-the flax being first satur.ited with a solution ot soda, by
which the gluten is removed ; it is then soaked in dilute acid, whereupon
the chemical combination, resulting in ofiervescence, separates the fibre, and
converts it into a cotton-like substance. One important advantage roaultmg
from this alteration in the character of the material is, tliat, nistcad ot the
hardness and coolness generally observable in linens, it will possess the
warmth of woollens, tlio softness of cotton, and the glossiness of silk ; and
another and still more important advantage is, that it becomes, wluc i it
wa-s not before, amenable to the ordinary processes of manufacture, and by
the very same machinery as that applied to cotton itself bucli are the
main features of tins important invention ; and, after considering them, we
feci satisfied that our readers will agree with us that it was a mockery ot
justice to withhold from the ingenious originator tho " council medal, and
to add the insult of tendering a second-class prize medal. Yet such lias
been done ; and, in corpmon with many others similarly treated, but who
liave not half his gi-ounds of complaint, the Cliovalier Clauasen has very
properly rejected the proffered distinction.

In the machinery department we find a council medal awarded to
Appold's rotary pump, whose voluminous cascade most of our readers re-
collect gazing on witli admiration. But surely th^re is nothing very new
in the rotary principle applied to pumping up water, and nothing so
remarkably superior in the machinery of Appold (amongst many others
exhibited)"to entitle it to the distinction here intended. There is, indeed,
considerable doubt whether Appold's is, after all, the best of the day ; and
this is a question which we may yet have to discuss. But, if the application
of the rotary principle to water was neither new nor very important, its
application to machinery ha.s long been an acknowledged desideratum, but
one involving a proljlem of the gi-eatest difficulty. This dcsiileratum
however, has been accomplished m connexion with one very valuable field
of mechanical appliance— namely, that of the printing press, by Mr.

Applog.ath, in his vertical printing-machine, a machine by which the limit
of production have been extended half a dozen fold beyond what they ha.
previously reached under the most skilful manifestations of rcciprocatm;
machinery ; tho contrivances by which this was attained were m the highes
decree complicated, but withal unerringly accurate; and all thit Ml|
Apple^^ath was awarded for hi» invention is a common prize medal. Thl
thousands of eager spectators who daily crowded about this m.achine, whe
in operation at the Crystal P.alace will form an estimate of the profouc
and dispassionate judgment brought to bear by the jurors from this singl

award alone. . i i. j « ■

If we were to judf-e of the amount of enterprise bestowed upon civ
engmeering, architectural and building contrivances," or tho amount .
interest taken by the community in such subjects, by the awards in Cla.'
VII we should not arrive at a conclusion very complimentary to tl
eenius of the age. There are in all only three council medals and tweiit
three prize medals earned bv the whole body of exhibitors to this compi
hensive department; and these are chiefly for models of works long sin.
accomplished, as the Flvmouth Breakwater, Strasburg Cathedral, tl
cast-iron bridge over the Wye, &?., or for topographical models of varioi
districts, as the Isle of Wight, &c. As for our architects they appear
have been completely disheartened or paralysed by the brilliant success
the Crystal Palace stvle of building, for they have not s»ut in a sing
suggestion considered worthy of reward; and of the three council meda
Sir J Paxton and Sir C. Fox receive two, the one for "the design of t
creat Building." the other "for the execution." The third is very just
awarded to Prince Albert, for his successful labours in the cause
humanity, which have resulted in the production of his model lodgii
house, one of the very few contributions tending to the improvement
tho sooial and economic relations of the masses, which the Great Exhibiti
has been the means of bringing before the world.

The preceding observations have chiefly been directed to general c(
siderations involved in the scheme of awards m certain classes, or
particular instances ; and we wish we could contimie to argue m the sai
spirit and to stand aloof from mere questions of individual merit a
private interests, aftected by these decisions. But it is impossible to
so- the complaints of injustice and the charges of favouritism and incom-
tenoe against, not one, but various juries and groups are so loud a
circumstantial that we feel bound to give them a hearmg Of course
all this outcry are mingled the small shrill voices of many a little pretend
who but for this confessed and wholesale blundering of the juries, woi
never have been heard of and who has now the proud privilege of be
"an ill-used man," in company with such names as those of Broadwo
CoUards, Troughton and Simms, Clansmen, Potts, Cope and &c. At
same time, even these were entitled to a hearing on the trial of then- fane
merits; and it is very hard tliat, being personally cxc uded irom
Building by the niggardly parsimony of the Executive they should h
been prevented the only direct method of securing such hearing. In t
dUemma many of the "ill-used" entrusted the keys of the casesyh
inclosed their several treasures to the policemen in attendance i
confiding hope that some plodding juryman, attracted by the out«
promise of the imprisoned exhibit, would honour it with closer inspect,
and reveal its merit to his fellows in "the group A am delusion !
verv numerous instances which have come well .authenticated to
knowledge, the keys remained ^'ovy snugly m the pockets of the
•■ Hope deferred " had at last begun to wear itself out, and as tl'e Exhibit
drew towards its close, many of the non-exammed were fain to look to
" chapter of accidents" for their chance of sharing m «;^ honoui- of
day, or at least coinforted themselves with the reflection that »the,s. i
in their trade, might be wholly overlooked as well '^^^'^''^f l^"^^, J|'
however, it appeared that non-inspection of the goods was no bai to
awaicl ami that the rival producer carried off the palm in competition v^
others whose goods positively remaned uninspected during the lole
months, the outcry was loud and bitter, and, what is more, was s t , .
these eompli.ii.ts remaining uncontradicted ^^'^^''-''-I'lZ:'^"^^'
serious and damagins imputation agamst all engaged in makmg such .maa
— flbistvcticd Loiuhn N»W»'

STt.VEB CENTRE-PIECE, BY MOREL.
The Illustration on o«v fl-ont ptvge represents a very beautiful Centre-pn
by Me.5sra. Morel, of New Burlington-street, and which may be pronounce,
have been one of the happiest works of its class in the Exhibition. It is in
Louis Quatovze style-the subject a triumphal procession of lipids vi;
a panther The little fellows exhibit varied, but appropriate attitude,
those at the corners guiding, rather tliau absolutely supporting, the branci
which hold the candles on cither side. In the centre, crowning all, i
magnificent bouquet of flowers.

Early use or STEAM.-WUliam of Malmesbnry declares of Pope Sylve!
II, that ho erected an organ which was played by steam ; and, though

cannot rely very implicitly on the '^""'"^'y ^^ t''',%J^f * "T^^e of st<
torian, the anecdote deserves to be noticed, as a proof that the use of st
as a motive power was partially known, or .at least suspected, as earlj
the eleventh centm-j.— Taylors Revolutions of turope.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT EXIirRTTTON OP 1851.

1.11

nWKIJ.INflS OK TlIK LAnOdlMMi Cr-ASSKS.
THK fJi'iiM'ul lio.ird of IIiJiilUi lately issiicrl a, ii»lincat^i>ii raakinf; kno\m,
niid calling for tlio cxooutinii of, Icgisliitivo proviuioiia nfTuoting rnudi
Iftrf:;or nutnbors of the popuhition, and to a much moro important extent,
than the public arc probably aware of. It announces to the poorer classeH,
that by the provisions of tlio Public Health Act it iR illegal to immure them
in collar dwellings which have not a proper construction and arraiigcmonts
for comfort and decency. Tho owniein of the greater proportion of cellar
dwellings in the metropolis, such as those in Monmonth-street, St. Giles's,
and great iiuuibors of other districts to the east imd of London, will have
give up their inhabitants, and apply tho space to other uses. In the
pi-ovincial cities and towns great immbei-s of the population are affected by
tlie pi-ovisions. It is said as many a.s eighteen thousand at Manchester,
nearly five thousand at Bolton, between two and three thousand at Preston,
»nd at Liverpool upwards of thirty tliousnnd of the population, have, under
the provisions consequent upon tho revelations of the sanifciry report, been
already under process of ejectment : but tliis has been done by the corpo-
ration in sueli a manner as to aggravate the evil by overcrowding the upner
rooms, after that effect hail been pointed out in the report I'eforred to[ as
,he consequence of some of tho improvements of the corporation of the
;ity of London, In the "clearances " of poor dwellings for the formation
f Parringdon Market, tho like effect has indeed followed. During the
'clearances" fur tho 'iniprovemout of St. Giles's, the ejected population
was "wedged in." upon th= overcrowded population in such places as
I'hurch-lane. and the lower districts of Westminster.
The Board's instructional uoti6cation announces, that now, by the act

iiiassed during the last session, at tho instance of the acting chairman.
Lord Shaftesbury, the administrators of the law for the discontinuance of
cellar dwellings arc relieved from the alternative which pressed against its
•sccution. Kvery new local board of health, all coiTiorations, and parishes
iven. may. under the act to encourage the construction of '-well-ordered
odging houses for the I.ibouring elusses." provide suitable accommodation
or the population ejected. Prince Albert took the lead in showing, by
ho niddel buildings which he erected at his own expense, that it w.-is
lossible to build dwellings of superior sanitary construction, drier, warmer,
,nd provided witli decencies, at half the rents exacted for the wretched
ver nests and pauper w.-irrens which have too many defenders in public
lositions. The interest taken in the Prince's model duellings is shown by
he fact that, although they were only opened some time after the cora-
nencement of the Great Exposition, and when attention was absorbed by
t, upwards of 300,000 persons went to examine the cottages. The impulse
las been m.-mifested in various directions. The London Dock Company
las already erected a large number of dwellings for their workpeople, with
ho improved appliances for decency and cleanliness recommended in the
anitary report. Every dwelling has a water-closet and a water supply,
nd tubular drains, and nieins of ventilation. Several large landowners
re begiuning the cousti-uctiou of superior tenements in considerable
\imbers. The Duke of Bedford has already erected a great number of
ew dwellings for labourers, of a very superior construction. The Duke
f Northumberland has, we are informed, given orders for the construction
f no le,ss than 1,000 new labourers' dwellings; and due attention will, no
oubt, be paid to the sanitary principles of their construction, in which
rchitects and common builders have hitherto shown themselves grossly
jnorant. Preparations are, we understand, made for the construction of
great number of dwellings on the same principle as those of the Prince's,
D soon as tradesmen will charge less exorbitantly for the hollow bricksi
p that the new and increased demand meets with a supply at reasonable
ites. The public will be well Inclined to forget, in the vote of the Common
ouncil of the City Corporation of forty thousand pounds for the con-
;n»ction of model lodging-houses for the labouring classes, their vehement
enials of the truth of the statements of the Heafth of Towns Association,
Ip to the horrible condition of the inhabitants of the courts and alleys
••ithin their jurisdiction.
' the evidence adduced by the notification of the entire absence of
■uiic disease in the new model dwellings in the metropolis, and the
-ii average rate of health maintained thererwe may add a fact in relation
' fl.c model dwellings at St. Pancras. A young apothecary, seeing a popu-
' n of so many families, comprising as mauy as 550 individuals, made
tliat there was. on the ordinary average "of sickness out of such a
••-■r, a living for him, and he opened a shop there. But as imperfect
• samtaiy improvements yet were, they prove.! too much for him; he
Mod of waitmgforthe sickness which did not come, and he sold' his
' "l, P'"'^*^*""*^ '° a second, who was not aware of tho new condition of
■i. This second, after waiting a length of time, struck his flag— his red
;: he could find no customer for his practice, and decamped, and the
ccary s shop is now converted into a provision shop, which we hone
ill rive. ^

re yet must be done, however, beyond all the present promise of '
i-^ed household accommodation, which can only check tho evil. With
'-'past and present drain of population, we must remember that the
"i increase of the population of Great Britain, and mainly of the town
^aion. IS as if we had two new towns equal to Manchester and Bir-
liam annually added to it, or the population of one whole new couutv
I to the county of Worcester or the West Riding of Yorkshire

FOREIGN AND COLONIAL DEPARTMENTS.

BELGIUM,
yilE produce of the little constitutional kingdom of Belgium wm exhi-
bited next to that of France, occupying the bays on both sides, and a
slieo of tha northern galleries of the Eaatorn Navo It included specimcng
of almost every branch of industrial occupation ; ngrieulture, commerce,
manufactures, mining, and fine arts, in many subdivisions, are all repre
sentod in a very creditable manner, Belgium, under different names, has
contrived to maintain a manufacturing and agricultural position for more
tlian four hundred years, in spite of wars of which it has been the battle-
field, of revolutions, of parcellings of territory, and changes of government,
until, twenty one years ago, at a fearful sacrifice of material wealth, it
settled down as an independent state under a limited monarchy.

Even in tho time of the Romans, the Flemish cities were celebrated for
their woollen cloths. In the time of Charlemagne, Liege largely manu-
factured both woollens and linens; therefore, the flax cultivation, which
forms so important a part of Belgian agriculture, must have been exten-
sively carried on at that period. In tho latter part of tho fifteenth century,
Brussels, Antwerp, Louvain. and Ghent, employed an immense population
in woollen manufactures: Ghent alone had upwards of thirty thousand
looms: the w-eavers of th.at city once mustered 16,000 men in arms under
the bannei-s of their trades. Thread lace originated in Flanders, at Mechlin
and Bru.sscls, where it is still an important branch of cf)mmerce, and the
capture of Antwerp by the Duke of Pui-ma, in 1785, ruined great silk manu-
factures—although Antwerp bl.ick silk is still famous — and drove a number
of artisans to England, by whom our own manufactures were greatly
improved. Flanders suffered grievously under tho persecution of its Spanish
masters ; under the wars of Marlborough and Louis XIV. and XV. ; the
wars of the French Bevolution, whicli ended in incorporating what is now
called Belgium with France; the wars of Napoleon, which ended in taking
it from France to add to Holland ; and finally by revolution, which deprived
the Bclgi.an manufacturers of a large share of the commerce and consump-
tion of Holland. But still the people struggled on with a patience and
industry deserving of success, Belgium was thus thrown upon its own
resources, as a manufacturing country, with only forty miles of coast and
two indifferent ports. Great efforts wore made to open up foreign trade ;
consuls were appointed all over the world, rather as commercial travellers
to create, than as diplomatic agents to protect trade already existing ; and
public money was largely and not very successfully invested in propping up
establishments in which the King of Holland had taken a large pecuniary
interest. But the wisest and most successful step of all, was the construc-
tion, long before any other continental state had ventured upon such a
novelty, 6f a complete network of railways. These railways, among more
solid advantages, made Belgium the high-road to the Rhine and Germany,
and attracted a share of the travellers to the pretty miniature capital of
Brussels, who had formerly flocked to Paris alone. These railways, no
doubt, contributed powerfully to raise Belgium from the state of depression
into which its manufacturing interests fell after the separation from
Holland, and, by cheapening the cost of raw and manufactured produce,
to render possible the varied exhibition we have had the pleasure of
examining.

The arrangement which rendered France and Belgium next-door neigh-
bours in tlie C^rystal Palace, as they are when at home, suggests a question
which the Ministers of Commerce would be rather puzzled, we think, to
answer.

Between France and Belgium there is a war of custom-houses and an
interchange of smugglers, chiefly in the shape of large dogs, which carry
Belgian tobacco and lace into France, and bring back French silk or some
such article. Every French douarder is provided with a thick volume of
instructions on the art of stopping, seizing, detecting, poisoning, and shoot-
ing Belgian smuggler dogs. Nevertheless, day and night— especially at
night — large packs of contraband hounds, heavily laden, iiish past the
bewildered officers.

Now, when Belgium was part of the French empire, its manufactures,
its coal, its cattle, its corn, were all freely admitted into France ; nothing
was taxed, nothing was prohibited ; since the disjunction eveiything that is
not taxed is prohibited, and yet the line of division between the two
countries is purely inviginaiy, and the people who, under Napoleon, were
free to interchange their goods, must have had just the same wants the day
after the cu,-.toin-house division made it unlawful as the day before. Why,
then, was interchange useful liefore Napoleon's last campaign, and baneful
after his dethronement '!

But to begin our walk through the Belgian territory in the Crystal
Palace. \\'e first entered the southern bay. There we found a varied
display of textiles of every kind, wliich seemed veiy little visited by the
curious crowd, although, no doubt, our manufacturers in the same line gave
them a close examination. There w^e found the cheap mixed fabrics of
woollen and cotton, the fine kerseymeres in which the Belgians can imder-
sell our Gloucestersliu-e and V>'est of England men, also capital stout canvass
and damask linen fi-om districts of Flanders which grew flax and wove
linen long before Belfast was founded : printed silk handkerchiefs in praise
of which nothing can be said, and woollen shawls of very dull, dowdy

132:

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

patterns. In this de-
partment almost every
kind of -woollen and
mixed woollen is to be
found, iacludiiig a lot
of coloured flannels.
The sides of the next
section by the stairs
leading to the gallery
were hung with carpets
from the Royal Belgian
manufactory of Toiu--
nai, which, like the
French Gobelins and
Beauvais manufactoricF,
is carried on with go-
vernment money, as a
school for the purpose
of improving native
taste. Having proceed-
ed onward towards a
formidable stand of
arms, we passed be-
tween a collection of
saddlery on one side
and boots and shoes on
the other. The sad-
dlery was respectable,
but would not stand
comparison for a mo-
ment with cither Eng-
lish or Irish work iu
finish. The same might
be said of the harness.
The buckles were very
clumsy. The patent
leather boots were as
good as French, and
probably cheaper ; a
pair of long boots in
brown Russia leather,
the sides of which come
off like gaiters, were
worthy of the notice ol
those who shoot ir
woodland and thicl
hedge countries.

Liege sent a mosi
formidable collection o)
arm.5, of every kind
and calibre. Liege if
the only place whicb
can compete with Bir
mingham in supplyinj
cheap gmis. The spc
cimens scut included
the most expensive and
tlie ' commonest : the
bright-barrelled mus-
ket and bayonet of the
pattern made for Schles-
wig-Holstein, and the
muskets with sword-
bayonet aflixed, which
arc used iu almostcverj
corps of ithe Belgian
army and in our En-
gineer corps.

We observed, in one
case in tin? divi,-:"i), ii
pair of rifles made after
the Swiss fashion, over
which a paper is aflined
stating tliat one of the
rifles, fired from a
rest, at a mark 4 iuches
in diameter, at a dis-
tance of 110 yards,
m.ade ninety-five liits
outofouehundred. Wc
should like to see thia
done again, and to knowi
whether more than one,
man could do the same
feat in one day. -

Behind the arms, next
to the external wall it

AN ILLUSTRATKD CYCLOPyEBIA OF THK GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

133

THE DOV WITH PUKCUISEMA). — SIMOSIS. — (sKE P. ICC*.)

tlio Pulaco, wo fouiul a very mi.scollnnoouFt agricultural and mineral collec-
tion of spocimcus of flour, millstones, bristlon, briuks, tobacco, flax and
liomp, and the dried plants m seed, with all sortu of cereal grain, hops and
malt, coal, iron, cannon,
and agriculttiral implo-
incnts, tlio lloocos of
merinos and cocoons of
Bilk-worms — giving a
groat idea of Belgian in-
dustry and versatility.

Tlie coal reminds ns of
the difl'eronco between
tlin tcuiUM of Englisli
and of French and Bel-
gian coal-mines. In
ICngland, if you find a
coalmine on your free-
hold, it is youi-8 ; in the
other two countries, it
is the property of tlio
state ; and in France,
unless you happen to bo
a supporter of the go-
vernment for tho time
being, you have no
chance of obtaining leave
to work it ; when leave
is granted, it is subject
to a royalty to tho go-
vernment.

In Belgium, tho go-
vornment compels coi'l-
owners to construct hul-
dera by sLages for the
miners, men and women,
to ascend and descend,
instead of usiug a per-
pendicular shaft, with an arrangement of chains and pulleys. The Belgian
government will not permit tiie lives of its pubjects to bo risked on the
soundness of a rope or chain. The result is. that Belgian miners, carrying
coal on their backs up a
thousand steps of a set
of ladders or stages, are
never killed, though
strains and ruptures are
every-day occurrences.
We prefer our system,
with a little more care.

Having crossed the
jraud avenue, we found
the northern Belgian
bay, flanked by two ear-
'iages, whieli did very
»reat credit to the coach-
maker, Mr. Jones, of
Brussels.

Furniture follows the
carriages. We especially
remarked a sofa and
chairs gracefully carved
n walnut, and covered
with green velvet. In
;he opposite hay are two
cabinets in oak, of great
iierit, especially one of
grave, ecclesiastical
iharacter, ornamented
ivith figui'es of angels.
Some pianos and boxes
nade from Spa wood,
vhich has acquired a
laty ferruginous colour
rom the Spa waters,
vould form a good cou-

xm; BuV WITH the broken duvm. — smoxis.

engines wo impatient Fngiishmcn require. M. Frcsmany, writing bin
opinion of England in tho Paris paper La Patrit, dayo, " An Engljiilim«n
never Duuntei-s, but always rushes forward liko a mad dog."

Before axconding to
tho galleries we would
request our la<ly friends
fond of gardening or
poultrykccpiug, or, like
good wives, in tho habit
of occrinipanying tbair
husbands tlirough the
stables and byres, to look
at the live stfick, to ex-
amine a collection of
wooden shoes of very
I^retty shapes, some pro-
vided with leather fas-
tenings, which seemed to
us better than the best
kin<l of clogs for country
use in mudtly weather.

On arriving at the top
of the stairs, the leading
articles, as the drapers
say, were three figures of
life size, sent by a Bel-
gian embroiderer of ec-
clesiastical robes, which
he dressed in costumes
much finer than any-
thing to be seen at
Madame Tussaud's. Ho
began with the Arch-
bishop of Paris, Aifre,
who was killed in the
last revolution at the
barricades, St. Carlo Bor-
romeo, an Italian saint and archbishop, and our English Thomas a
Becket. Subsequently to tho opening, Fenelon, whose " Telemachiis "
has proved the penance of so many Knglish school-boys, and rendered

so many sehooI-Kirls as
inconsolable as Calypso,
took the place of M.
Afii-e, and the Italian
priest had been super- .
seded by another dig-
nitary, the Archbishop
of Mechlin, if we remem-
ber right, but Thomas
A, Becket remained to the
last ; although, for some
reason or other, all three
of these lay figures were
provided with white
gloves, instead of the
purple gloves of the
Bishop and the bright
scarlet of the Cardinal.
While examining the em-
broidery of these robes,
which the maker war-
rants to wear a hundred
years, and then clean, we
found oui-selves side by
side with two gentlemen
actually wearing the one
scarlet, and the other
purple gloves — such are
the strange coincidences
of the Exhibition! They
were Cardinal Wiseman
and one of his Bishops
examining the costume
of Thomas a Becket I

rast with furniture of birds-eye maple or zebra wood. Near this is an | In the same galleries we observed a ease of medals, cameos, bronzes, a
ixtremely ingenious dumb-waiter, like a large paddle-wheel, the shelves of shield, dagger, and other ornaments richly chased in iron, all displaying
mich always keep on a level. It would be very convenient in a library, very considerable taste and executive skill, and maintaining the character
or a student who had a good many large books of reference in use at the in the fine arts which Bekium has long deserved.

lame time. The principle would "be avoilablo on board ship, for glass or

rockery ware, fixed by the feet to the shelves.

^ The Belgian machinery and agricultural implements are not to be treated
fghtly ; therefore we shall, for the present, pass them by, observing, that

To own the truth, neither statuary, nor lay figures of archbishops, nor
the large display of Roman Catholic works, nor anything connected with
art, science, or literature, created half the sensation among the ladies, that
was excited by the specimens of lace from Brussels, Mechlin, and the other

ue great establishment at Seraiug for the manufacture of steam-engines j districts where this fragile manufacture has for centuries been carried on
na all kinds of machinery, which was founded by Cockerell, tirder the Exclamations of rapture and envy burst forth as female faces were squeezed
'J*V"'^o^ °*,?^^Pol6on, and afterwards supported with capital by the father ; in front of robes, flounces, veils, eollai-s, parasols, and eveiy conceivable
r A^ w ^ 1 "^ °^ Holland, sent several specimens of heavy work of a 1 article of dress fashioned in thread lace of the most elegant patterns, and
editable character. The pace approved on the Belgian railroads, viz., ! hung upon wax figures of fashionable air.
neen miles an hour and many stoppages, does not demand the flving I

134

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

T'HK

MACHINERY AND MECHANICAL CONTRIVANCES.

- • -

CEXTRIFUGA.L PUMPS.

peculiar force arising from the revolution of matter round a fixed

centre, for ages distinguished for its action by the term cciitrifayal, holds
a deservedly conspicuous position in the chronicles of dynamics. Cofii-
menciug in the action of the earth itself, and known to the earliest of
its inhabitants, it has nevertheless lain dormant, and all but useless, for
the thousands of intervening years. Not until something like a century
ago did it begin to assume any standing as a mechanical element, and it
1^ been left for our own times to develope and apply it as an economically
useful industrial agent. As a pump or water-elevator, we hear of it first in
1732 ; this, probably its eai-Uest practical application, being by M. Le Demour,
who read an accoimt of his plan before the French Academy.

Since then, but not until a few years back, it has passed through an
extensive series of occupations, with a r.ipidity as remarkable as its extreme
sluggishness in earlier times. Watt's pendulum-governor— .Seyri,- —

and
ManTove and AUiotfs dryuig machines, the Tachometer, or speed-indicator,
where the depressiou of a fluid in the centre of an upright revolving cup
acts upon a fluid column, and points to the rate of revolution— Messrs. Hard-
man Fiuzell,Rotch, Bessemer, and Gwynnes sugar-separators— Shanks pipe-
moulder— and several varieties of pumps, are all examples of what we may
term the taming d.jwn of the principle to useful ends. Were it our purpose,
we could easily extend the list of processes which centrifugal power has
improved and extended: but our more immediate object is the tracing out
the various gradations of its introduction and employment as a pump.

We be^in our history with the invention of M. Le Demour, in
1732 — Fi°. 1 is an elevation of the pump. It is nothing more than a
straight tabe, A, connected in an inclined position with the vertical
° axis, B, cai-ried in top aud bottom

bearings, and turned by a winch. The
attachment of the tube is rudely made
by three horizontal bars of iron pro-
jecting from tlie shaft, E, and bound
to the tube at their opposite ends by
ropes. The tube is slightly expanded
towards its upper end, and as it is
cai-ried rapidly round the centre of the
shaft, the centrifugal force impels the
water up the open lower end of the
tube, throwing it out at the top in a
continuous stream. Of course the fluid
so delivered must have fallen in a circu-
lar stream, which was probably caught
by an annular trougli, corresponding to
the radius of the discharging tube ; but
on this head we are not clearly informed.
Considerable rapidity of motion is
obviously necessary for the effectual
performance of this kind of pump. Its
action, as the nucleus of all subsequent
modifications of centrifugal pumps, may be described as the throwiug off
the upper portion of the water-column in the rotary discharging pipe by
the direct centrifugal force, whilst the atmospheric pressure being thus
relieved from the upper end, the external atmosphere presses up a further
fluid supply from the source below, into which the pipe dips.

1818, jijaemchmetta Pumji. — An inventor, whose name is now for-
gotten, introduced a species of centrifugal fan pump, m the state of

Massichusetts, U. S.,
and which we have dis-
tinguished as the Massor
chtist'Us Putnp. Our
engraving, Fig. 2, repre-
sents a vertical section
of this pump in the
plane of motion of the
elevating blades. This
form of pump very
closely resembles the
ordinary blowing fan of
the present day (some-
times known as the
"American bellows"),
being simply a short
horizontal shaft, carry-
ing a square boss with
four excentric blades,
set exceutrically within
a metal case, having an
upright discharging pas-

..,„ „ sjL'o, A. Tlio whole ap-

r 10. _. '.,11

paratus IS suuk beneath

the level of the water to be lifted, and the blades being made to revolve by

the pair of external bevel wheels, the water is taken in at the central aper-

FlG. 1.

tui-e, B, of the case, and bemg impelled forwards by the revolving blades,
is finally discharged by the centrifugal force through the passage, A.

1831, .B/ate.- Apparentlv the next improvement was that by Messrs.
Blake, of the New Slcam Mills, Connecticut, U.S. Pig. 3 is a vertical section
of thispump, which
is remarkable as
being the earliest
known example of
a centrifugal disc
pump. Here the
vertical driving
shaft. A, has keyed
upon it the single
horizontal disc, B,
working inside, and
at a short distance
above the bottom
of the fixed case, c.
The shaft is sup- j..,,, -j

ported in a foot-
step, carried in the pipe, D, which opens out from a central hole in the
bottom of the case, and extends to the reservoir of water to be lifted.
To the under side of the revolving disc are attached a series of radiating
blades, E, working ju«t clear of the bottom of the case. As the shaft and
bladed disc rapidly revolve, the water is (irawn into the case by the bottom
central aperture, aud is thrown out fr-jm tlie spaces between the blades at
the periphery of the disc. Tiiis continued action of the centrifugal power
then effecting a fluid pressure in the case, forc*js a column of water up the
discharging pipe, P, opening into the top of the fixed case, and at right
angles to its plane. This arrangement of discharge pipe at right angles to
the motion of the fluid in the pump, mars, to a great extent, this otherwise
simple aud elfective apparatus, as it necessarily causes a most objectionable
change of the direction of tiie fluid's motion.

In 1839, Mr. D. W. Andrews, of New York, took out a patent for a
centrifugal pump, which closely resembled the Massachusetts Pump, with
some modifications, and need not, therefore, be described in detail.

1841, Givynne. — In 1844, Mr. James Stuart Gwyune undertook a series
of experiments at Pittsburg, U.S., with a view to the development of the
central forces. These researches resulted in the invention and improve-
ment of several machine^, amongst which is to be reckoned his Direct
Acting Balanced Pressure Centrifa/jal Pump, the first public exhibition of
which occurred in January, 1849, at the Passaic Copper Mine. There he
erected a pump 12 feet in diameter, and in 1850 obtained a patent for the
invention in the United States, which he has also secured for Great Britain
1S45, Bessemer. — Mr. Heni-y Bessemer, of Baxter House, well known foi
his several ingenious mechanical improvements, entered the lists as ai
improver of the centrifugal pump in 1845, and obtained a patent foi
'■' Certain improvements in atmospheric propulsion, and in certain apparatui
connected therewith, part or pai'ts of which improvements are applicabli
to the manufacture of columns, pipes, and tubes ; the other parts are ap
plicable to the exhausting and impelling of air, and other fiuids f/enerallij."

It consists (see Fig. 4) of a circular cast-iron case, a, divided into twc
compiirtmeuts by the division piece, B, cast in one piece with the rim of th<

case. One of these compai'tmeuts con
tains the apparatus for cxhaustin;/ the ail
(as described in the specification), .and
the other is occupied by an emissior
engine, o, which he employs for driving
the apparatus. The rotary apparatus
consists of two metal discs, D and E,
placed parallel to each other and united
by a series of flat radiating onus oi
blades, F, twelve in number, and pro-
jecting inwards from the periphery about
half way, towards the centre. The wljoU
is surroimded by a perforated metal
plat'e, G ; or wke gauze may be employed
for this purpose. This perforated rim is
for the purpose, as the patentee describes,
of preventing the compressed air con-
tained in the case from retui-ning aud
inteiferuig witli tlie action of the blades.
An opening, H, is formed in the case,
corresponding to a similar opening in the
disc, I), aud serves as the inlet to the
machine. The portion of the disc round
the inlet openhig is slightly raised, and
placed so that the disc may be brought
into close proximity with the case, with-
out being in actual contact with it. The
discs are connected with the driving-
shaft, I, by a small plate keyed on to the
shaft, and bolted to the interior of the large disc, £. The driving-shaft
works in two stuffing-boxes cast on to the slides of the chamber containing
the emission engine, which is of the ordinary construction, consisting simply
of two arms, with their extremities curved in opposite directions, and sup-
plied with stoam by the ehaft, i, which is made tubular as far as the portion'

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCL01';ET)IA OF TIIK (JHKAT EXHIBITION OF ]Hr,].

13n

'•"ntniuing till) iii-iuH. Tlio outlot foi- tlio comproHscd air is foiriiccl in tlio i way of tho wiitor rising out of tlio nuctionpipo into the compartments
. "so rit J. TliiN jniinp will either exhaust or comproHH, accordingly a« tho j formed by tho vanen. Tlio caxo k eimilar in nection to that of Mr. Androwa'

[K' is attached to tlic opening, ii or .r. It is to bo rcmarlced. (hiU thrmigh-
i tho description of tliis niacliino, notliing whatever is stated in the
Noilieation of cniployin.; it for tlio purpose of raising watof ; nud it haa,

therefore been urged by Mr. Gvvyime that Mr. Bessemer was not entitled to
exhibit it, as a water pump, in the Great Exhibition ; particularly with the
following inscription attached to it : —

" This model of a Centrifugal Pump for forcing fluids, is constructed in
rigid accordance with the specification of Bcssemer's original patent, dated
t)eo. 5, 1845, being the first recorded invention for impelling fluids by the
centrifugal force generated in a revolving disc."

t 1846, Andrews' Jmprorccl. — After employment on a great variety of work,
Mr. Andrews' original pump of 1839 was again improved and patented in
tie United States, in March, 1846. This
pump, the right to which luis since been
purchased by Mr. Gwynne, is delineated
in the three views, Figs. 5, 6, and 7.
Fig. 5 is a transverse vertical section
through the case, hollow disc, and sue-
I ii and di.scharge pipes; Fig. 6 is an
■ rual plan corresponding ; and Fig. 7
15 ;i plan of the four exceiitric blades,
with the square boss by which they are
attaclied to the shaft. In the intro-
ductory description given in his specifi-
cation, Mr. Andrews states that these
improvements are the results of his
"experience in discharging water from
wrecked vessels, in which sand, gravel,
and other matters mingle with the
fluid pumped up ;" and adds, " It is weU known that revolving parts of
centrifugal pumps are somotirae.s tubes, and sometimes vanes or arms
working within a fixed case, with which the suction and forcing pipes com-
municate. In my pump I use vanes, and I enclose them within, and
connect them to an additional case, which revolves with them, within the
5Xter or or stationary case." In our figures, the vertical pipe. A, opening
into the centre of the right-lined portion of the case, is tlie suction-pipe
leading to the water to be elevated : andtlie short vertical branch, B. at the
termination of tlie external expanding elliptical channel, c, is the deliverr
passage. The vanes, four in number, are set escentrically on the shaft, b ; and,
sa described by the patentee, arc usually flat blades, as represented by the
full lines of Fig. 7, but are sometimes curved to the form of the dotted lines.
Their lower edges extend below the lower end of the squared bosses, and
pach has a portion removed, as at E, wth the view of enlai'ging the passage.

,-*

..■)*■■'

••-,,,

■"-^ "'-■. ...•••

Flo. 0.

I 1

carUer pump, being formed by two hollow cones, whose bases approach,
but do not touch, each other ; and set at a distance apart, equal to the
depth of tlie small cuds of tlie vanes. The depth of these tapered ends,
and consequently of the space left between the peripheries of their conical
covere, through which the water is thrown only by centrifugal force, is
proportioned to tho depth at the wide ends, so as to keep a sufficient
volume of water within the revolving case, to fully supply the ciicular
exit space ; and by keeping a gi-eater body of water revolving, increase the
centrifugal force, enabling the pump to elevate water to a greater height
with a given number of revolutions, and saving something in friction. As
already quoted from the inventor's specification, the blades ai-e enclosed
within a hollow revolving case, F,
working just clear of tlie external
fixed case, and having a short project-
ing pipe, G, working within the head
of the euction-pipe, its open end ad-
mitting the water fnim the latter into
the revolving case. The shaft ispa.ssed
through the upper side of the fixed
case, in the centre of the cones, by a
stuflSng-box, and is supported on a
projecting centre bearing, carried by
cross-arms, in the suction-pipe. The
water drawn thl-ough the central open-
ing is thrown from the vane compart-
ments, by the annular opening between
the two peripheries of the revolving j,

cone disc, into the spiral elliptical

channel, the gradual enlargement of which towards the point of discharge,
admits of the fluid being kept moving with the game velocity in all its
parts, and prevents loss of power by friction.

1848, Appold.—Ia Nov., 1848, Mr. Appold brought out a model of a
rotary pump, as a convenient moans of di-aining marehes, and instituted
a series of experiments on it with 6, 24, and 48 arms or vanes. This pump
attracted some attention at the meeting of the British Association in Bir-
tningham, in 1849. Fig. S is a sectional elevation of the original six-vaned
pump; Fig. 9 is a side elevation of the elevating disc detached : and Fig. 10
is an elevation of one of the vanes, with a portion of the centi-al disc to which
the vanes are attached. This is the form of one erected on the inventor's
premises m Wilson-street. Finsbury ; a a are the outer discs of the cylinder,
fast on the shaft, B ; and c c are the fan-blades held by the outer discs and
the central plate, E. These fans, six in number, are set at an angle of 4 5'
with the diametrical hue of the discs. The driving-shaft has a bearing on one
side only, where it passes through a stufliug-box in the case, r, which
opens up into the bottom of a rectangular delivering-case, G. The open-
ings round the pei'iphery of the cylinder are 1 inch wide, and at the centi-e
the outer discs aj'e 4 inches apart. The water to be raised is admitted
tht'ough central openings in the outer discs, and as the cvlinder revolves
at a high rate, it issues, under the compulsory pow-er of centrifugal force,
by the circumferential openings, and is thence forced up the delivering
channel to the discharge-opening at H. The opening on the top of
the case, p, is 9 inches by 7 inches, and the wooden case, a, which

136

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

carries the water from it to the
required height, is 10 inches
square. The discharge opening
in this case is 6 feet above the
water level, made bo aa to close
when the water is to be raised
higher up. The cylinder, with
its case, stands in a cistern of
water, 6 feet by 3 feet, and 3 feet
deep, giving about nine gallons
for each inch in depth. At a
speed of 640 revolutions per
minute, the discharge in this time
was 1093 gallons; this being all
passed through an annular open-
ing, 1 inch wide by 38 inches in
circumferential length.

In later modifications, (see fig
11), Mr. Appold has substituted
curved blades for the straight
ones. He states that the curved
blades discharge more water
than the straight ones ; but it is
a question, whether, in changing
the sectional form of his case
from the foi-m of Fig. 9 to a
rectangular one he has not com-
mitted an error.

(To le c(mHmiecl.)

j'-noNZK .\xr) on-Moi.L" cvMnxAiiijA, from kv.'^.si.v

RUSSIAN CANDELABRA AND

ORNAMENTAL PLATE

The candelabra in the Russian
Court were justly admired for
their gorgeous magnificence.
Varied in form, they exhibited
a splendour of material (bronze
gilt), a grandiose character of de-
sign, aud a masterly finish, whieli
one might almost pronounce it
to be impossible to excel. The
lai-gest one by Chopin, of St.
Petersburgh, standing about 1 5
feet high, and intended for 81
candles and 4 candle lamps, is
valued in the Catalogue at
633«. 6i. 8d

The ornamental works contri-
buted by Russia were numerous,
and of a remarkably high order
of merit.

The objects we have engraved
are selected from those exhibited
by the house of Sazikoff, of Mos-
cow. The principal one is a large
centre-piece, comprising a group
representing Dmitri Donskoi,
Grand Duke of Muscovy, ,ifter
the battle of Koidikoff, in 1380,
which delivered Russia from the
yoke of the Tartars, under which
it had been oppressed for 150
years. The artist has chosen the
moment when Prince Michael
Tverskoy comes to announce to
the Grand Duke, who, having
been wounded, is reclming under
a palm-tree, that the victoiy has
beeu gained. The figures are
extremely well designed, and the
general efiect highly artistic.
There are other smaller fancy
subjects distributed in various
parts of the glass cose, such as a
goblet rcpi'esentiug a Cossack
woman, another with a Finish
hunter, a third with a milk-wo-
man, and a paper press orna-
mented with a group of a dancing
bear with peasants, all charac-
teristic and capitally executed.

AN ILLUSTRATKD CYCLOPyKDIA OF TIIK GRKAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

1.37

GUOUr OF KUSSIAN PLATE.

Besides these, are cup?, some of the Byzantine style, some of the Paissian,
and -various other subjects, which reflect great credit upon the taste of the
old Russ'an capital.

A'erkhovzoff, of St. Peterdburgh, had also a very handsome display, though

of fewer works, including a bas-relief in silver on a gilt ground representing
the Descent fi-om the Cx'oss, chased by hand ; and another representing the
Crucifixion, Prophets, and Evangelists, also chased by hand, in the old
Byzantine style, and intended as au upper cover for the New Testament.

138

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITIONS.

II. (CoxTixuED.) — Art in France prom the ThirteSnth to the end
OF the Eighteenth Centuries.

"JHEs

I second official exposition of French industry, like the first, ttTW dedi-
cated to the annivereaiy of the Republic. France was still at wai- ; but
the treaty of Luneville had already been .signed, and the preliminary
articles which had been negotiated between France and England were to
be .signed in London only a few days after the proposed opening of the
second exposition. Encouraged by the pacific aspect of aflairs, the manu-
facturers made prodigious efforts, and the result surpassed the most
sanguine hopes of the government. The Louvre ^vas the scene of this
second national exhibition. Two hundred and twenty exhibitors were
admitted to the competition — about double the number of those who had
figured in the fii-st exposition. The government, recun-ing to the first
exposition, had decided that the same number of prizes which had been
distributed on tlie former occasion would suffice for the second ; but the
rapid advances which the manufacturers had made within the short space
of three years, proved at once the insufficiency of the rewards ; and it
became necessary, in order to meet the progress which had been made, to
set aside the seven manufacturers who had obtained gold medals at the
first exposition, and eight of those who had already obtained silver medals.
From this necessity arose the custom adopted in subsequent expasitions,
of voting only the confirmation of previous rewards in favour of those viho
maintained honom'ably their acqmred position. At this exposition ten
gold, twenty silver, and thirty bronze medals were awarded.

In the year VI. no manufacturer of woollen goods wa.s classed among
the prizeholders of the first order. Before the Revolution, French manu-
facturers depended upon foreign wool for their finer fabrics ; but the
exertions of Chaptal (who has been called the Colbert of the nineteenth
century) changed the face of affairs in this respect, for we find that in this
second official exposition a space was set apart for the display of French
woollen fabrics manufactm-ed from the fleeces of the Spauisli breed of
sheep naturalised in France. Thus, within a few years, the French saw
the cultivators of their own raw material challenging comparison with those
of the Peninsula. The jury, in the name of F-ance, acknowledged the
debt of gratitude due to MM. Gilbert, Tessier, and Huzard, three members
of the Institute, "for the zeal and perseverance with which they have
watched over and improved native wool." ( Report, year IX.)

In the year VI., the highest degree of fineness to which native manu-
facturers spun cotton was No. 110, and this number obtained a prize in the
exposition of that year ; the exposition of the year IX. contained cotton
spun to tlie degi-ee No. 250.

Tlie Baron Chai-les Dupin declares that in the year VI. the cotton fabrics
of England withovit doubt surpassed those of France ; and he refers to the
products exhibited at the second national exposition, consisting of velvets,
nankeens, stockings, &c., to show how rapidly his country had advanced
towards that degi-ee of excellence whicli he allows English goods to possess
indubitably.

The manufacture of leather had also made extraordinary advances within
the same sliort period. At the time of the first exposition, only the most
common leathers were dressed in France ; in the second exposition were
foimd moroccos from Choisy le Roy, that might have challenged com-
parison with those of Turkey. The caipets of Sallandrouze, the china of
SJvres, the earthenware of Sarreguenines, and the beautiful printing of
Didot, Herhan. and Piranesi, were especially commended by the jury.

Names which will be known as long as an enlightened patriotism and
commanding talents receive the homage of men, were included among those
of the members of the central jury on this ocea-ion. We should mention
Berthollet, Berthoud, Guyton de Morveau, De Prouy, A'incent the painter,
and M. Costaz, tlie framer of the report. At this ex|iositiou the renowned
Jacquard obtained onlv the bronze medal for his important improvement
in Vaucauson's loom. M. Biirat, commenting upon the insufficiency of the
prize awarded for so important an invention, warns us not to blame the
jury for holding Jacqiiard's improvement in a comparatively trivial light,
inasmuch as the manufactui-ers and weavers themselves hardly deigned to
bestow a moment's notice upon it.

The history of the Jacqunrd loom has its moral. " Until its introduc-
tion," Mr. Bischof writes in his histoiy, "the production of the superior
figured silks depended solely on the skill of the weaver, and that to a
degree which few attained. The necessity of extreme carefulness and skill
is now considerably diminished ; in other words, the production of the
most costly fabrics is laid open to a large number of operatives. Jacqxiard
was originally a manufacturer of straw hats : and it was not till after the
peace of Amiens had been signed that his attention was attracted to machi-
nery. Happening one day to take up an Enf;lish newspajjer, his attention
■was arrested by a paragraph, in which the Society of Arts {to their honour
be it recorded) offered a premium to any person who should weave a net
by machinery. Dr. Bowring, who had a per.^onal interview with him many
years afterwards,'itell3 us that tlie perusal of this extract awakened his
latent meclianical powers, and induced him to turn his thoughts to the
discovery of the required contrivance. Ho succeeded, and produced a net

woven by machinei-y of his own invention. It seems, however, that the
pleasure'of success was the only reward he coveted ; for as soon as ac-
complished he became indifferent to the work of his ingenuity, threw it
aside for some time, and subsequently gave it to a friend as a matter in
which he no longer took any interest. The net was by some means at
length exhibited to some persons in authority, and by them sent to Pari,,
After a period had elapsed, in which M. Jacquard declares that he had
entirely forgotten his production, he was sent for by the Prefect of Lyons,
who asked him if he had not directed his attention to the making of nets
by machinery. He did not immediately recollect the circumstimce to
which the Prefect alluded ; the net was, however, produced, and this re-
called the fact to his mind. The Prefect then rather peremptorily desired
him to produce the machine by which the result had been effected.
M. Jacquard asked three weeks for its completion ; at the end of which
time he brought his invention to the Prefect, and directing him to .strike
some part of the machine with his foot, a knot was added to the net. The
ingenious contrivance was sent to Paris, and an order was thence dispatched
for the arrest of the inventor."

Here Dr. Bowring is in error. Napoleon's order was to the effect that
JI. Jacquard should be conveyed to Paris with all possible dispatch : and
the spirit of those who interpreted the imperial command led them to
believe that nothing less strict than an arrest could be meant in the case
of a man who threatened to injure the weavers of Lyons so seriously.

On his arrival in Paris he was installed in the Conservatory of Arts, and
set to work to make his machine on a large scale. He fashioned every,
thing with his own hands ; the wood-work and the iron- work were shaped
by his dexterous and imerriug arm. It is related of hun that one morning
he paused from his labours to cou,-iider the principle of a most complicated
machine invented for the purpose of weaving a shawl for the wife ot
Napoleon. " His body bent, with his hands resting on his knees, whiol
was indeed his ordinary attitude, his eyes were busy in every corner ol
the machine, and a droll smile half opened his lips as he inquired of th(
dmcteur under whose orders the workmen were employed —

" ' Rather an expensive job that, sir ! '

" ' I'wentv thousand francs ! '

" ' Diable! ' exclained Jacquard; 'why in yonder corner is a machine
by Vaucausou, which, with a little attention, would answer the sami
purpose, and would not cost more than five hundred ! It is a. pity tha-
serious attention is not paid to Vaucauson's clumsy invention, for it containi
the principles of all combinations in weaving : I must look to that.'

"And away posted Jacquard, and shutting himself up in the worksho]
allotted to him, set to work with the saw, the chisel, and the plane. A
first he constructed from memory a model of Vaucauson's machine, for hi
thought it would be convenient to carry to Lyons as a curiosity for hi
wife. Then, with the model before him, he made alterations ; brought th.
principle to bettor application— simplified it. Nothing wearied his hand
nor fatigued his brain, whilst he thus laboured in the construction of
machine the most remarkable in its combinations, and the most wonderfu
in its results.

" AVhen he had completed his machine, he was sent back to his nativ.
town with a pension of a thousand francs, which was subsequently raisei
to six thousand francs. Notwithstanding the patronage and approval o
Government, he had the greatest difficulty to introduce his improvemen
among the silk-weavers ; and so great and blind was the animosity of thes.
artisans against him, that he was more than ouciftu danger of losing his lif.
at their hands, The council of prud'hommis ordered his loom to be brokei
in the public square of his town, to be sold as rubbish, and himself to h
held up to public execration as an enemy of his species. The experienci
of a few years, however, sufficed to change the aspect of affairs totally ; an(
he had the ultimate satisfaction of knowing that it was by means of th.
increased facility of production effected by his invention, that the loom;
of Lyons were enabled to compete with foreign markets."

III.— National Exhibitions of Industry undek Napoleon.
The three years which intervened between the first official exposition o
France and" the second were marked by rapid advances in all department!
of agricultural and manufacturmg skill. The impetus thus given by th<
first exposition was renewed mth additional force by the second : and
although only twelve months intervened between it and the third expo
Bition, the progress that had been made within that year was found to be
almost unprecedented. As the number of competitors at the second o:
those expositions bad doubled that of the first, .so did that of the thiro
exceed that of the second. The utility of such exhibitions had been fuUj
proved by the two experiments; and on the third occasion the triumphi
of a generous competition were evinced in a remarkable degree.

The most remarkable feature of the exposition of 1802 was the progress
it showed in the application of machinery and chemistry to indu tri.il
improvement. Twenty-two gold medals were distributed on this occa-i n
Amonc the prize-holders were Aubert, who exhibited his stocking-tram.
Montgolfier, who sent his hydraulic ram; and Vaucausou, who produced
his silk spinning machine. This machine has been alluded to m the previous
chapter, as that which suggested to Jacquard the idea of the mveution
whicli has immortalised his name. These inventions, destmed to change
the face of the commercial worid, to provide labour for the yeariy mcreasc

AN ILLUSTRATKL) CYCLOlMiDIA OF THE GREAT I'JXIIIHITION OK 1851.

139

llio populations of civilised aUtoa, and V> lay tlio fomulatinii of the

liaut ora which in now dawning upon tho woi'ld, though tlioy woi-i'

. rived aa proJucli.uis worthy of the uioit honoucablo [JrizcM, did not

. I ate that cnthusiiwin which great iiuprovoniont.s in maehinery now call

I H Ml, Indeed, in thusu times the imluntrial world, an narrow wan its view,

udod iinprovonients in niaehinory as invasive of the mechanic's best

i-estx. Thu wonls in which M. jaciuard's machine was described in

lepurt of his jury wore suggestive. In proijcjrtion to the gi'neral

.,'htenm(nt of a peojilo is tho popularity of inventive g»nius. When,

111 ilio year liillo, M. do Oennea made hii lirst attmnpt to weave by machi-

ri.iy (liis loom ia deacribod in the " I'hilosopliic'd'riansactioMs" fcjr 17UU*),

111 r (forts created little attention, and, probably, not the fiintost applause;

when llargreaves discovered his ingenuity to the world, his skill was

udeil with persecution. Even nuVr, men exist beyond tho walls of

ii. Haul, who look with a longing gftjie to the weavers of Bandar Abivisi,

uliii, like tlio Hindoo weavers, perform their work in tho fields. They

Iwi.iiM bo ),'lad tosco tho spinning jenny and the Jacquard loom cast aside

j. ii liiirnt, and behold the SpitaUields weaver lay 'ds warp upon the ground,

I ■ I hole for his feet, ami work with a reed tied to a tree for las shuttle.

benefits of machinery, however, are easily proved; but it has been a

I light to persuade tlio hungry workman, temporarily deprived of hi3

'loyraent by a few ingeniously-contrived cog-wlieols and crank-i, that he

lid hail tho advent of his present eiiomies for their promises of future

1. It was, therefore, a bold step, when niannracturei were once more

iing in Fianco, as the tides of revolutionary blood rolled away, to

id gold medals to such inventions .as Aubert'a stocking-frame, and

itgolfier's hydriiulie ram.

!.VL Dccroiselles, of Rouen, and Amfry and Darset, of Paria, were also
the recipients of gold medals as the rewards for the excellence of their
chemical products. The attention which French chemists h.avo, for a long
time, given to the production and perfection of dyes, has won for the dyes
of Franco a reputation which we are only now cudeavoiiring to eqnal.
l<Voni tho remote antiipiity when tho purple wool (the sacred symbol of
•oynl and sacerdotal dignity), which formed the staple article of Tyre's
ommerce, was valued at a hundred crowns, experiments have been con-
ktimtly going forward, to extract various colours from a thousand different
ubstances, both animal and mineral. Hardly a plant, an animal, or an
KU'th, have e.soaped tho scrutiny of the experimentalist. Gage, Cole,
I'luuuer, Reaumer, and Duhamel have endeavoured to extract a purple,
ike the famed Tyriau dye, from various shell-fish, but without success.f
riio names of honourable renown in these re-je.arehes belong mostly to
j^auce — Plumier, Reaumer, Duhamel, Hellot, Dufoy, Berthollet.

The popularity of this third official exposition was worthily followed up.

t7e may Aiirly attribute the practical intelligence which suggested the

Socifete d'Encouragement to the First Consul. The object of this society

vaa to stimulate the iugenuity and artistic force of the country by the

vward of premiums. In its first programme we find Napoleon the holder

)f one hundred shares, M. Recamier of fifty, and the Minister of the

Interior of fifty. The premiums offered at first amounted only to small

lums, but the Parisian Society of Arts and Manufactures of the present

lay tempts native talent by the annual award of vast amounts. The youth

)f Franca are prepared fully to enter into the quinquennial competitions

vhich their government calls them to engage iu. Sir David Brewster, in

ilie course of his introductory address, delivered in July, 1S50, to tho

3ritish Association for the»Adv,aneemenfc of Science, when referring to the

Mioouragemeut which the various governments of France had unanimously

leoorded to the arts and sciences, said veiy pertinently : — " Owing to the

jrevalence of scientific knowledge .among .all classes of the French popula-

lion, and to their admirable system of elementary instruction, the

idvaucemeut of science, tho diffusion of knowledge, and the extension of

sducation are objects dear to every class of the people. Tiie soldier as

veil as the citizen — the socialist, the republican, and the royalist — all look

m to the National Institute as a mighty obeli.sk erected to science, to be

i'ected and loved and defended by all. We have seen it standing uu-

ken and active amid all the revolutions and convidsions which have so

"ug agitated tliat noble but distracted country — a common centre of

I flection, to which antagonist opinions, and rival interests, and ^dissevered

1 ivts have peacefully converged. It thus becomes an institution of order,

iilcnlated to send back to its contending friends amcssageof union and peace,

iiid to replace iu stable equilibrium the tottering institutions of the state."

It ia unnecessary to recapitulate the overwhelming advantages which the

'ii;'uch mechanic has long had in ai'tistic education over the English

hanic. The recent introduction of Schools of Design sufficiently

1 'ustrates tlie difference that has existed between the chances of the

[leting operatives ; .and where even now, shall we find gratuitous schools

i .judou for dr,awing and painting similar to those whicli exist in every

of the twelve arroudissements of Paris! Th-se fine national insti-

'us have yielded to Frtmee the reputation whicli she now holds of

Uug, in matters of taste, the maur.factures of the world. Under the

icious rule of the Emperor, the commercial value of art was fully

'gnised ; .and although four years elapsed between the third exposition

the fourth, no time was lost in the interval.

u this occasion the national exhibition of industry was held in a spacious

• A machine which suppresses a '.-orkiu.in in the weaving of figured goods.
1 Indigo, one of tlie most nsefnl of ^.11 dyes, was denounced as a dangerous drag by
'^ii'liameut, and it was forbidden iu tl.e reign of Elizabeth ; this act was only repealed iu
lie time of Charles II,

building erected for the purpose on tho Ksplanado of tho HApital del
Invalidcs, It is only necessary to compare the textile goods manufactured
in Franco in tho year 181)1 with thoHO manufactured in tho year 180*!, to
see at once tho marvelloun rapidity with which improvementM h.vl been
introduced. At tliiH exhibition tho printed cottonH of Mulhaiuon and
Kogclbiich (manufactures which have lieoii ever Minco highly CMteomcd in
every quarter of the globe) first made their appearance.

The elegance of denign and beauty of ilye for which thexc manufactures
:uc still celebrated, have saved the manufacturcrK r;f Alsace from irrevocable
ruin. Mr. Thomson fairly shows, from the stutiHticsof a Mulhauaen mauu
facturor, M. Koechlin Schouch, that it has long been impossible for a
Rouen or a Mulhanscn manufacturer to compote with a Manchester cotton
llrin. Tho case stamls therefore simply thus — that while Franco has been
developing tho artistic faculties of her workmen, tho people of Kngland.
less sensitive, from tho w.ant of national education, and perhaps constitu-
tionally, to tho beauties of form and colour, have advanced in the power
of simple production. Manchester can produce a printed calico at a greater
speed than Rouen ; but Rouen can imprint tho finer designs and dyeH upon
its fabric.

Cotton lace, blonde, silk thrc.a<l, cloth, imitations of Cashmere shawli-,
and various mixed textile fabrics, also illustrated tho manufacturing
progress of b'rance, in the industrial exhibition of 18*6. In the manufac-
ture of iron and porcelain progress was decidedly shown. These cheering
results of Napoleon's vigorous efforts to restore the manufacturing pros-
perity and re|nitation of his country wore manifested in the last exposition
which took place under the Kmpire.

It is noticeable, as indicating the general tendency which the various
ruling powers of France have shown to cidtivate native manufactures and
arts, that her national exhibitions have celebrated the dethronement of the
Bourbon family, being fostered by the bitterest enemies of the Bourbon**,
and have inaugurated the restoration of tho Bourbon Monarchy. It i<
impos.siblo not to discover, in this constant solicitude for the alliance of
art and manufacture, the source of that artistic greatness which has made
the Frcncli people the leaders of taste in every part of the world. The
alacrity with which their example in holding periodical exhibitions of native
industry has been followed by other countries, and the invariable good
which has resulted from them, induced the Baron Charles Dupin to preface
the report of the jury for the exposition of 1334 with this sentence : —
"Thus, the constantly increasing success of the exhibitions of our industry
has attracted the attention of foreign powers. Nearly all the governments
of Europe have endeavoured to follow our brilliant example, even those
which appear to be the least progressive in their principles. Austria, Spain,
Piedmont, Portugal, the two Sicilies, Holland, Prussia, Bavaria, Denmark.
Sweden, and Russia, have established national expositions, with such success
that they have made them periodical. Among all the powers in Europe,
England alone tliinks herself too rich and adv.auced to need recourse to
such a stimulant." Our next chapter will bring the history of the exhibi-
tions of Franca to a close.

BELGIAN SCULPTURE IN THIS SHEET.

M. StJiosis' gigantic performance of Godfrey de Bouillon, the original
of which, in bronze, was inaugurated at Brussels, in 1848, is an exhibition
of considerable animal development, but hiis no pretensions to take rank as
a work of high art. The treatment is vulgar and exaggerated. The
knightly Crusader bestrides a war-horse of heavy proportions, which he
has suddenly rt-ined in, as he waves on high a flag as a rallying sign for
his followei-s. Godfrey de Bouillon, as our readers may bo aware, was
the leader of the second Crusade, having been proclaimed king of Jerusalem,
A.D. 1099.

At the base, on either side of this spacious work, stood two little fanciful
subjects in mai-ble, which, though in themselves of a vulgar type, are
executed with considerable finesse. The one represents a little urchin,
stretched at length and at his ease, admiring the hideous physiognomy of
a little Punchinello with which he is playing ; iu the other — so pass aw.ay
the fleeting joys of childhood — we have his companion blubbering over
the ruins of his toy drum, which with excessive beating he has broken.
The heart-full contentment of the one, and the blatant imgovernable misery
of the other, are well depicted, and have obviously been taken from
nature.

Another Belgian artist, M. Gcefs, has a very pleasing and clever work— a
female, with most bewitching and coquettish air, cutting the claws of a
lion, who, spell-bound and flattered, submits willingly to the operation.
Underneath is inscribed a couplet, which explains the moral intended to

be conveyed : —

Amour, amoar ! qnaud ta nous tiens.
On pent bien dire, " Adica, prudence ! "

In paying a passing compliment to this fpiritiKl performance, we would
by no means be understood to allow its claims as a subject worthy of art
in its highest walk. This work is represented in our view of the Belgian
Court.

140

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

MINERAL PRODUCTS AND
MANUFACTURES.

THE BUILDING
COURT.

ANE of the most
interesting and
important depart-
ments in the Great
Exhibition was that
comprising the mi-
neral products of
the United Kingdom
— both in the rough
state, and in various
manufactured forms.
The latter works in
this department were
exhibited in what
was generally known
as " The Building
Court," which con-
tained a great variety
of specimens of orna-
mental works, chiefly
of an architectural
character, and also
samples of cements,
artificial stone, and
other compounded
materials intended
to be used as substi-
tutes for stone and
marble. A field so
comprehensive and
so richly supplied
cannot be .adequately
described in a single
notice, and we shall
therefore have ocea-
sioa to recur to it in
future publications.
We comnieuce with
an account of some
of the more valuable
mineral products oi
Great Britain.

The variety of or-
namental materials
afibrded by the rocks
of our own country
is far greater than is
gener.ally imagined.
In two departments
of the Exhibition the
proof was afibrded
that, for decorative
purposes, we need
not go out of this
island, since British
marbles, granites,
porphyries and other
stonesof avery beau-
tiful character, were
here displayed.

On the outside oi
the building the
Cheesering Gr.anito
Company erected
an Ionic column
wrought from their
extensive' quarries
near Liskeard, in
Cornwall. The shaft
of this column is
thirty feet long, and
is chiselled out o£i
one piece. When
consider the quan-t]
tity of material
which has to be re
moved to produce »

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

141

work of tho fine character hero sliomi, wo sliiUl anivo at soino idea of tlio I .11 St. Michael's Mount, or the Pcii/jinco locality ; Trcgonning and Godol'
site of tho block which was quan-ied in ordor to produca.it | phin Hillg, or the Holetono district ; Com Rrea, near Redruth ; St. Agneo >

CIILMNEY-riKCK AND V.\SK IN TEHHA COTTA, FROM THE LADYSIIORR WORKS.

r The (jranitcs of Cornwall and Devonshire vary very nnicli in character — | St. CoKimbe and ^Roehe, Callington ; and Dartmoor. Of the character of
[lie peculiarities being, no doubt, duo to local causes aifecting the masses | several of these wejwere enabled to judge from the following example.')

WORK3 IN ARTIFICIAL STONE. — RANSOM AND PARSONS.

it the period of their slow'consolidation. All the gi-anitie masses of this
ountry present a singularly isolated appearance. The several localities of
ue western district, with which we are now dealing, may be distmguished

amongst the.building-stoues in Class I.,'iu addition to the specimen already
named:— Mr. R. Hosken, of Peuryn, 'sent a granite obelisk and base,
weighing 15 tons, from ^the quarries at Camsen, near Penryn; this was

142

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS

placed outBide tlie building. The Tiiiro committee, and the committee of
Falmouth and Penryu, have made a large selection of this vai'iety of stone ;
and the collection of granites exhibited by Messrs. W. and J. Freeman,
included not only Cornish and Devonshire specimens, but granites from
almost every part of the British Isles. This stone is usually divided into
first, second, and third grits, according to the degree of fineness exhibited
by its associated crystals ; and of each of these sorts good examples were
to be seen.

Granite is generally composed of quartz, mica, and felspar, the latter
sometimes occurring abundantly, and giving to the granite a porphyritic
character. Schorl is occasionally a'i.sociated with granite : but this pecu-
liarity is usually confined to detached and comparatively small masses.

CARVEO r.Al'TlSMAL T-jXT, — MAEG::TSi_>.\ and CO., OXFORD.

In considering the economic value of this stone, it must not be forgotten
that difficulties attending th» transport of large masses prevent many very
valuable quarries from being worked. This is shown in a remarkabl-
manner in a beautiful white and fine-grained granite, existing near Oak-
hampton, on one extremity of the Dartmoor range ; this stone, althougli
peculiarly fitted for the highest cliaracter of ornamental work, and therefore
such as would command the best market piice, cannot be brought into use,
owing to tlie expense of land carriage. In the event of a railroad being
carried through this district, this granite would be a most valuable
property.

The quantity of granite exported from Devon and Cornwall has been,
owing to the fluctuating character of the demand — depending principally
on the coi'struction of great Av-,rk* — exceedingly variable. The export
from Penryn, the principal port from which the Cornish granite is shipped,
has been as follows : —

In 1824 10,178 tons.

1826 18,170 „

1835 8,310 „

1837 5,295 „

1848. . 10,121 „

The total quantity of granite exported from Cornwall annually may be
considered to be on the average between 20,000 and 30,000 tons. A large
quantity is brouglit down from the Dartmoor hills by a railroad to Laira,
near Plymouth, and sliipped from thence. The price of granite varies
according to its quality, from two to three shillings the cubic foot.

In addition to granitic building stones, we find also examples of the
fehpar porphyritic rocka, which are an excellent building material, and some
varieties higlily ornamental. These are provincially termed dvans, and
are evidently the result of high subterranean temperature —the fused
masses having been injected into fissures running across the granite and
slate rocks. These fissures (elvan dykes) vary in widtli from a few feet
to as many as four hundred feet, and extend in length over many miles.
When they have not suffered from decomposition they are very durable.

and may be considered as the principal building stones of Cornwall.
Several examples of these were amongst the contributions of the Truro
and other Cornish local committees. With the exception, however, of the
Truro committee, it does not appear that those bodies have done justice to
themselves. It certainly would have been of commercial importance to
have selected the best examples of each district, and to have furnished
descriptive labels by which the cost of prnihiction might h.ave been
ascertained. Again, merely rough stones caught up by the roadside do
not afford the sort of information i-equired. The example which has been

KAF.THKSWARR FOUNTAIN.— niDGWAY AND CO.

given in many casos should have been can-ied out in all ; the stones should
have been cut in cubes, and they should have been differently dressed on
their several fiices. The examples of building and road stones furnished
by the Falmouth committee were sadly deficient in this respect.

Another very beautiful stone, which has been vei'y much neglected, is the \
Serpentine of the Lizard Point. This is one of the handsomest rocks which
we possess. Outside the building was a fine block, partly polished, showing
its peculiar character; and in a cabinet in Class XXIV., the Penzance
Serpentine Compauy well exemplified this material in all its characteristics.
Some of it presents an olive-green ground, through which red veins
traverse, and these are varied by lighter tints. Another variety, which is
very hard and durable, has a reddish base, studded with crystals of diallage,
which in the polished state appear with a fine metallic green tint ; and
through the.se, white veins of steatite run in a somewhat singular manner.
Tlie conditions under Avhich the serpentine rock is found, lead to the
conclusion that it is an eruptive rock, vomited forth during the period
wiien our great Trappean ranges were in progress of formation. This rock
varies very mucli in its character : its usual composition may, however, be
stated to be, on the average —

M.agnesia 38-50

Silica

Alumina ........

Oxide of iron

Oxide of manganese ... . .

Oxide of chromium

Lime .........

Water, carbonic acid, &c.

100-00
The serpentine rock — also kno^vn as the ophite, in allusion to its spotted

42-50

1-00

2-12

0-70

1-3(1

0-25

13-57

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCL0P;EDIA OP THK GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

143

variegated apponranoo, like the skin of a snake— in, therefore, a mngnesian

liiioriil. * , , , ,-11

AlthmiRh vnnea nnd smnll ornamental articles have boon mannracturcil
tlio county of Cornwall for ponie ycnra, it ilocs not apppiir tlint aiiv )iir(,'o
forks hiivo extondcd boyonil its immediate vicinity until tlio late Kxhibi-
on, with the exception of Bomo pilasters and pedestals in the Musenra of
ractical Oeolo^ry.

Mr. Organ, for the Penzance Serpentine Company, exhibited two very
ne obelisks of this stone— the red variety, and a very elaborately wrought
aptismal font of the green kind. Besides these were a cliimney-picee and
lany very pood copies of ancient vases, and the cabinet of ser|ientinc and
;eatite apeciniens already alluded to. Tlio pedestals and obelisks, from
!ipir character, show in a very striking manner the peculiar beauties of
lis stone, which we must certainly regard as one of the richest, in point
f colour, of any of our ornamental stones. Now that attention is directed
5 the serpentine rock, wo have little doubt that it will be largely employed
)r internal decoration.

Mr. Pearco, of Tniro, made a very interesting display of tables, can-
elahra, vases, pedestals, ta/.za. &c., of Cornish granites, porphyrias, steatites,
id serpentines. Tlic granites selected present .some of the most remark-
jle conditions iindor which this rock occurs. One specimen, in which
le crystald of Schorl are very large and numerous, is alike singular and
eautiful. The ]iorpliyric3 are also very fine, and. in connection with the

Fjrpentinesand steatites, .show that Cornwall can produce numerous highly
rnamental stones. Tlio excessive liardncss of the serpentine is an impnr-
mt peeuliarily of tliis stone, and it has been proved, by experiment, that
vrn the polished varieties may be exposed to tlie influences of the atmos-
here for a long period, unprotected, without losing any of their brilliancy
f surface. All that is rcquireil in reference to this material is that
!ie stone should be quarried from the mas.s, and that the superficial
oiilders sliould. for all large works, bo rejected. The loose doulders
■iiig on the surface have generally suffered from disintegrating influences,

I :id tlierefore are lialile to Haws, whereas the stone which is deep in the

1 lass is perfectly free from this objection.

I In the cabinet of Serpentines and Steatites many specimens show small

I ieccs of native copper imbedded ill the rock. The occurrence of this metal

I I the serpentine is peculiar. Mr, Berger exhibited two very Uirgo masses,
I hieh were well deserving of examination, a.s being the most remarkable
necimens of native copper ever fmind in this country. It is usual to find

disseminated through small cracks in the serpentine, as though it had
oen at some period pouri-d into them in a melted condition. It may
ppear to many that the ooloui- of the serpentine is due to this metal,
'his is not the ease. The red and green varieties owe all their character-
;tic colours to the different oxides of iron, manganese, and chromium,
'he slates of some parts of Cornwall are of the mo.st valuable kind ; those
f Dolabole have long been famous. The old Dolabole Slate Company, by
[r. J. Carter, of Camelford. exhibited some remarkable slabs, and a Large
late cistern ; while Mr. Stirling, of Lambeth, also displayed, in his slate
ibinet, in Class I., some other examples of the same stone. In the main
enue, Mr. Champernowne, of Totness. had two columns of the Madrepore
'ble; and in Class XXIV. simdry examples of Devonshire limestones.
r. W. S. Brendou, of Yeolm Bridge, near Launeeston, exhibited a chimney
icce, pavement, and skirting for an entranee-h.all, executed in the Yeolm
late and polypt,ant freestone. These ap|iear to constitute the principal
xamples of tlie building a:id ornamental stones of western England. The
eautiful display of manufactured stone from Derbyshire, and the examples
y>m other districts, must form the subjects of separate consideration,
rriic Exhibition iias, we believe, directed attention to some of our litlio-
I trea.sures which have long lain rmnoticed, but which, we have no
will soon be in large demand.

earthenware, as pipes, fountaiiw for gardonu, and consorvatoricii, 4c. Ono
of these wo engrave.

CniMNETPIEOg AMD VA8K Iff TERRA COTTA.

Terra Cotta — litoi-ally, baked earili — id a iipocies of carth'inwaro, com-
posed of potters' clay, fine aand and pulvcrisoil potahcrdii, reduced to a thin
paste, and then east in poroua plaster moulds wliich absorb the water. It
is left to dry, and afterwarji baked, beginning with a very low, and ri/iing
to a very high temperature. The Etruscans wore famotts in this art; many
examples of their works are preserved in the British Miisoura. In England
it has of late years boon practised with considerable succois. Tho Elizabc-
th.an fireplace, and tho vase reproaonted in our Engraving, arc amongst
many favourable specimens which were displayed in the Great Exhibition

CARVED PONT. BY MARGETTS AND EYLES.

The workmanship in this elaborate production, which is in Caen stone, is
;oh as leaves us no room for complaint. It is unexceptionably neat and
mooth. The style of the composition, however, is of the very thick of
lediajval absurdity, and demands unqualified disapprobation from those
rho are anxious for the advancement of art, and the principles of rational
oetry upon which art shoiUd be founded.

WOllKS IN ARTIFICIAL STONE. BT RANSOM AND PARSONS.

The artificial stone and marble produced by Rsmsom and Pai'sons, of
pswich, exhibit all the essential qualities of hardness, colour, and surface,
ho various objects which we have engraved show the applicability of
aese materials to all descriptions of building and decorative purposes.

This prepar.ation differs fi'om cements and other artificial stone, in the
niployment of silica, both as the base and combining material. The
latcrials, consisting of sand, clay, fragments of granite, marble, ite., with

portion of pounded flint, are moulded into form by the aid of a solution
f silicate of soda, and are then burnt ip i^ kiln to a red heat.

EARTHENWARE FOUNTAIN. BT niDCiWAT & CO.

RlDOWAT & Co. of Ncwcastle-mider-Lyne, besides their general assort-
lent of household services in porcelain, exhibited various other articles in

SAUNDERS' IMPROVED BANKERS' PAPER.

TiiK specimens of paper (for which a prize medal w.os aw.arded). exhibited
by Mr. T. H. Saunders, of Quecuhitho, London, and Dartford, Kent, com-
prised, in addition to sui)erior samples of book and writing papers, a sheet
of paper which, although weighing -■ m than ono ounce and a quarter, sus-
tained without fracturt; more than five hundred weight.

In Case 3C, Section 17, Mr. 8aunders also exhibited the tinted cheque
papers in ordinary use by bankers, as well as another specimen of his
manufacture called "Stone's patent cheque jiaper,'' the object of which is
the prevention of fraud. The great improvement consists in rendering a
paper perfectly resembling ordinary writing paper secure against the
removal of ink by chemicals, as, on the application of the usual means for
dissolving ink, the proof of its having been tampered with immediately
becomes manifest, the paper becoming indelibly discoloured.

Two large ti'ansparencics were devoted to specimens of outline and shaded
water-marks. In several of the designs great artistic skill and much taste
were displ.ayed — particularly in the view of York Cathedral, in which the
elaborate architectural details of the front of that noble structure were
accurately delineated ; the St. George and Dragon, after AVyou ; and a copy
of the " Wooden Bridge " in the Vernon Gallery. The gracefully flowing
and delicate tracery of these subjects formed a very decided contra.st to the
antiquated figure of Britannia, so long and well known a-s the accompani-
ment to tho sheet of foolscap.

Tebrat's AVater Meier. — Many plans for measuring the quantity of
water supplied to the consumer by the water companies have, from time to
time, been submitted to the Society of Arts, lint, as yet, little has been
done towards the iutroductiou of tiie water meter by tht* great water com-
panies of the metropolis. On the north side of the division appropriated
to Machinery in Motion, wa? exhibited a compact and exceedingly neat
contrivance for this purpose, invented and patented by Mr. Tebray, con-
sisting of three mam parts : first, a registering apparatus for ascertaining
the quantity of water flowing through the machine ; second, a self-acting
regulator to enable the instrument to suit itself to any prossm-e; and,
third, a check-valve to prevent surreptitious use. The measuring or regis-
tering apparatus stands on a truncated column, and is furni.shej with a
dial having a pointer to indicate the number of gallons and pints which
have been drawn from the cistern in a given time : the inlet pipe passes
through a horizontal flange, by which the machine is secured either to a
table or shelf; the outlet pipe is connected to the back part of the
registering apparatus. This meter may be placed at auy part of the water-
pipe, and at any altitude, and in any part of the building. Its action is
certain, easy, and eflective ; and, however suddenly the pressure may be ■
increased, or the flow of water through it impeded, or altogether stopped,
there is not the slightest concussion or reaction. Another great advantage
worthy of being mentioned is, tiiat it cannot be tampered with without
detection. This apparatus, it appears to us, would be equallj- available as
a check upon the consumption of other fluids, as beer, spirits, &c.

Map Cdpolas. — The Builder announces that the Exchange at Antwerp,
is to be surmounted by a cupola of glass and u-on, so a -anged as
to represent a map of the globe. The lines of latitude and longitude are
to be formed by the bars, between which coloured glass, representing the
map, mil be inserted. Tlie time is, in all probability, not far distant,
when the tops of our houses may, with every chance of durability, be
glazed so as to answer the purpose of conservatories. The price of U'on
and glass at the present moment would seem to favour the suggestion.

Sti'.uggles and Disappointments of Genius. — Several instances are on
record of inventions having remained unnoticed and um-ewarded in England.
It is sufficient to mention the fly-shuttle, which was not introduced into
the weaving of cotton till more than twenty years after its invention ; and
the apparatus for spinning by machinery, said to have been invented by a
Mr. Wyatt of Lichfield, so eai-ly as the year 1733, but of which not even a
model now remains.

" William Lea, a clergyman, invented the first stocking-machine in 1589,
and made a pair of stockings by his frame in tlie presence of James I. His
invention was discountenanced, upon the plea that it would deprive the
industrious poor of their subsistence. He went to France, where he met
with no better success, and died at last of a broken heart."

144

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS

GODFREY DE rOU H.LON.— M. SIMONIS

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OP 1851.

PARIAN— THE PLEIADES ADORNING NIGHT, &c.— MESSRS. ROSE & Co.

POTTERY, PORCELAIN, TILES, &C.

I. — Gesekal History and Description of Ceramic Manufacturk.s.

^HERE was no sectioa of tLe gi-eat museum of iudustrial products which.

presented to the attention of the intelligent visitor attraction stronger

ind more peculiar than that devoted to the ceramic* manufactures, including

" This is a word only recently introduced, and not yet nniver.sally adopted, a:; a generic
crm including all manufactures of potter's clay. It is derived from xi'^u-o,-, the Kreek
No. 10, Dece.mber 6, 1851.

porcelain in all its varieties, oriental and Em-opean, earthenware, stoneware,
flintware, faience, delf, ironstone-ware, terra-cotta, bricks, tiles, and in general
every form of baked earth used in the arts and sciences. Moreover, there
is, perhaps, no art in which the tiltimate results differ so immeasurably from

for potter's clay. One of the quarters of the city of Athens, on the south-west side of the
.Vcropolis, was cilkd Ccr.imicu-s ; and although Pansaniub assii^n.s a ditfennt derivation,
Pliny relates that it was so called fronj the mamifaclory of C'holcostrius, a celebrated
modeller of statues in clay.

Price One Pekht.

146

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

the original materiah as in tliis. What caij more powerfully excite our
wonder and admii-atiou at the value which laboiu' and art can confer on
the basest materials than to reflect that the beautifal portraits in Sevres
porcelain of the Queen and Prince Albert, after Wiuterhalter, and the
maguificient vases both in the British aud foreign collections, ai-e composed
of nothing more than so many lumps of a whitish clay, aud a collection of
the rusts (oxides) of certain metals, all beyond this being the work of art.
Another circumstance w hich confei's peculiar' interest on this section of
the exhibition is the estraordiuaiy rivalry which it has developed among
different countries, and tl»e unequal conditions under wluch British industry
entera into this competition. Seven imperial aud royal establishments
for the manufacture of porcelain, supported by State subsidies, and
encouraged by State patronage, had sent their choicest productions to be

PORCEL.^LS AND E.\aTlIESWABE rLOWER-aTAXDS.— SMALL AND MALISO.

displayed beside those of the unpatronised, unsubsidised enterprise, of
Staffordshire a'ld Worcestershire. Thus we have in the French department
a magnificent collection of the finest pieces of porcelain from the National
(late Hoyal) manufactory of Sevres. A similar collection was sent from tlie
celebrated Royal porcelain works of Meissen, uear Dresden. The Royal
porcelain manufactory of Berlin an 1 the imperial porcelain manufactory of
Vienna each sent a rich collection of its respective products. Besides these,
the royal manufactories of porcelain of Copenhagen and Nymphenburg,
near Munich, and, in fine, the imperial porcelain works of St. Petersburg,
severally unfurnished their museums and transferred their richest treasures
of art to the Crystal Pal.ace.

The fabrication of ornamental porcelain in the eeveiul national establish-
ments is conducted irrespectively of commercial profi t. If any expedient
for the improvement of the art be proposed to a British manufacturer, he
must necessarily consider the probable cost of trying it, and the probable
loss in the event of its failure. The.se considerations are, liowever, dis-
regarded in establishments supported by the State, and every expedient
for the improvement of the art presenting the slightest probability of a
successful result is tried. All that is most eminent in science in each of
the States above mentioned is brought to bear upon the improvement of

the ceramic art. Besides pecuniary emolument, personal honours aud
rewards are lavished on all who contribute to its advancement. Thus we find
at the head of each of these establishments, as well as at the head of each of
their depaiiments respectively, individuals who have attained the greatest
eminence in tliose sciences which are more immediately connected with
the ceramic ai-t, and personal honours aud distinctions, such as orders of
knighthood, decorations, crosses, &o., lavished upon them as a, further
stimulus to exertion.

The Antiqaity of the Ceramic jlrt renders it an object of especial interest.
Every one is familiar with the allusions to the potter's wheel in the Old
Testament, and these indications of the prevalence of the art at an early
epoch in the history of the human race are abundantly confirmed by the
annals of oriental nations, and by the material evidence of vases of baked
eai-th which have been found in ancient tombs, and which are preserved
in the national collections.

Among the objects exhibited in the Chinese department was a complete
collection of tlie various materials employed at the great porcelain works
of Kiang Tiht' Chin, as it is named in the catalogue, otherwise, according
to better authorities, King Te Tching. This collection consisted of
specimens of the plastic clay of which porcelain is formed, and of the
vai-ious colouring matters with which it is decorated.

The place from which these specimens were sent is the seat of a very
ancient manufactory of porcelam. Father EntreooUes, a French missioiuiry,
resided there in the beginning of the last century, and he states iu Lis
letters (pubUshed in Paris iu 1741) that there were in operation at tlulf
place in 1712 not less than 3,000 ovens, which gave the town during the
night the aspect of a vast fm-nace with a multitude of chimneys. It is
impossible iu reading his description not to bo reminded of the appearance
of certain parts of Staffordshire at night. Dm-iug the residence of this
missionary ancient pottery was in great demand, and bore extraorduiary
prices in" China. The vessels obtained in tombs and other ruius bore
marks of high antiquity. Thus it is related that vases were found which
bore evidence of having belonged to the Emperors Yao and Chun, \vho
reigned 2357 B.C., and 2255 B.C. In further corroboration of this, examples
are produced of vases of Chinese origin found iu ancient tombs at Thebes,
which appear by their inscriptions to have been fabricated eighteen cen.
turics before the Christian era. Several such vessels have been found.
Mr. Wilkinson took two to England, one of which is iu the British Museum,
and another is in the museum at Alnwick. It was not, however, until a
comparatively recent date that the fine porcelain, afterwards so celebrated,
aud so much esteemed in Europe, was fabricated iu China. It was oaly
under the dynasty of Song, from 960 to 127S A.D., that porcelain began
to be manufactured of fine materials, and to acquire that degree of pc^
fection which has since been so much admired.

The fine porcelain of China was first imported into Europe by the
Portuguese, in 1618, and for 200 yeai-s after that time Europe contmued tc
derive its entire supply of that article of luxury from China. This iact if
the more remarkable when it is cou;-idcred, as mil presently appear, that
the material for the fabric.xtion of china existed in unbounded quantity
and of the finest quality, iu almost every country of Europe. The merit
of the discovery of the "materials aud the art of fabricating fine porc'laia
iu Europe is due to Saxony, aud the first manufactory at which thisaiticle
was fabricated was that wliich lias since bd'n so celebrated as the Royal
manufactory of Meissen. The history of the origin and progress of this
manufactory is curious, but, before relating it, it will be necessary to explain
some circumstances conneoted with the process of mauufactm-e of pottery
in general.

General Description of the Manufacture.— K\\ pottery is formed of plastic
clay, which, being sha]ied into the vessels desired to be produced, is
hardened by baking, and rendered impervious to water by being covered
with a glaze", which also resists acids and other chemical agents to which it
may be exposed. The clay possessing the necessary qualities being mixed
with a certain quantity of water, aud well kneaded, is reduced to a mass
resembling common dough. The desired form is given to it either by
turning, moulding, or casting. The instrument by which it is turned,
called the potter's lathe or wheel, consists of a small circular stage plr.ced
horizontally, and supported on a vertical shaft, to which rotation is imparted.
AVhon the doughy mass is placed upou this stage, and put into rapid revo-
lution, the hand of the potter is applied to it, aud it undergoes an operation
resembling that of turning in the common lathe. In this manner all cir-
cular forms are produced. Vessels, aud the parts of vessels, which are not
circular, such as the liandles, spouts, feet, &c., are produced by mouKhng
or casting, and are afterwards attached to the vessels which have been
formed upon the lathe, as already described. The sm-face of the vessels
thus formed is rough, and the texture of the material more or less porous,
so that it would imbibe any liquid which might be poured into it. To
prevent this, and to give greater beauty and durability to the article, it is
dipped into a liquid'of creamy eousisteuoy, which holds iu suspension some
substance capable of vitrifaction. After immersion, a coating of this ere;uny
liquid adheres to the sm-face of the vessel. The water which holds the
vitrifiable substance iu suspension is partly imbibed by the material of the
vessel. The ve.?sel thus coated is placed in an oven, and again exposed tol|
the action of heat of sufacient intensity to vitrify the coating with which it
is invested, so that when withdrawn from the oven the coating is converl
into a true glass, aud the vessel is said to be glazed. In the coarser sortf
of pottery, the material of which is red or brown clay, the glaze is colou)
and opaque, so that the vessel coated with it takes the colom- of the glaae,J

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPiI?DIA OF THE GREAT EXIUIUTION OF 1851.

117

tlio rlay composing it being concoaloJ. In tlio finer oortlienwaro, tlio
iimtei'iiii of wliicli in white oliiy, tlie gluKO in Ronomlly colourloBs and per-
fuctly ti'iUiHpm-cnt, ho ttmt nftel- vitriftoiltioil tlio Hurfiioo of tliu oiirtlieriware
ia Hceii tlii-oni;h tlio glii/.e, which in, in fact, nothing nioro tliiin ii ooiiling of
tniiiRpiirent and coloiirlosH gliuis. SoinctinieH ii imttcm in colourn is made
upon the (tuifaco of the article before the glaze is pniduced u|ion it. In
Biioh case the pattern ia noon thmiigh the glaze, and is preHorvcd by it.
In other caHO«, liowovoi', tlio oi'iiaiiientiitinn is iiiado al'tor and upon the
glaze. The colouring materials with wliicli the ornamentation in pnidiiced
are metallic oxides. When the pattern or donigii lion been drawn upon the
Burfiico, the article ii again submitted to the agency of fire, by which the
colours which have been laid upon it are not only vitrified but changed in
their tints. It is therefore necessary that the manufacturer should have the
skill to foresee the efVect of fire ujioii his colouring materials. In this he
often errs, and is therefore obligeil to retouch his work, and submit it a
second time to the oven before it can bo roganled as tinishod.

Early Eurupmn Manihfactuna. — The first attempts made in Kuropo to
fabricate a hard oartlieiiwaro covered with a coloureil glaze arc ascribed to
tho Moor's of tho Simnisli Peninsula in the llith century. After this the
luauufacturc was established in tho island of Majorca, where it wftis cari'ied
on upon a considerable scale. In tlio 14th century a manufactory of oarthon-
ware, which afterwards obtained considerable celebrity, was erected at
Faenza, in the States of the Church, whore a commerce in stonowaro was
carried on upon a cousideruble scale, and from which that description of
ware came to be known in Franco and ou tho continent by the name of
" Faience." This waro was, howc\er, made of a rod clay, and was ueces-
eai'ily coated with a coloured and opaquo glaze. After some time it wag
imitated with considerable success, and was much improved both in France
and Holland. A manufactory was established by tho celebrated Bernard
lie Palissy, at Saintcs, in France, and another, on a not less considerable
scale, .at Delft, in llolbuid. From this latter place large exportatious of
this ware were luade to Kiigland, whence it came to be called in tliis country
"Delft." During this period considerable improvement was made in
its manufacture, a white plastic clay being discovered, and substituted for
tlio red clay of Faenza, and a transparent colourless gla:!e substituted for
tho opaciue and coloured coating already meutioiied.

First K^labUahmcnt in Slajfonhhire. — About tho middle of the 17th cen-
tury a small factory for the manufacture of pottery was established at
I'lurslem, in Staflbrdsbire. lu the year 1G90 tho mauufacture carried on at
this place was considerably improved by the Messrs. Elors. who had immi-
grated there from Holland, bringing with them tho knowledge, skill, and
experieuco of that seat of the art. There were at this time about 22 ovens
at Burslem. Tho Messrs. Elers had not long boon there before they dis-
covered in the neighbourhood a bed of clay of very superior quality, and,
erecting upon the spot itself a factory, resorted to extraordinary and curious
measures to keep in profound secrosy their materials and their processes.
With this view they not only excluded most rigorously from their works
all visitors whatever, but selected for their operatives the most stupid and
ignorant persons they could find, and so divided the labour that no one
individual possessed more knowledge than that of the very process at which
lie was employed. These precautions were, however, of little avail. The
stimulus of profit and the spuit of enterprise are not to be repressed by
such shallow expedients. A workman named Twyford imposed upon them
by afiecting indillcrenco to the art, and managed to get admitted to tlieir
employment. He soon discovered some of their secrets, but it remained
for another more astute and persevering person to discover all the details
of their processes. An individual named Astbury, appreciating the im-
l)ortancc of the manufacture, and foreseeing the profits likely to arise from
it, decided on adopting a course and persevering in it which, as he imagined,
and as proved by the event, would lead to a complete discovery. He
affected the manners of an idiot, deceived theiu, and got into their employ-
ment, and was adroit enough to sustain the deception for several years,
until he became complete master of their secrets. After this the Messrs.
Elers left Staffordshire in apparent disgust, and settled in London, where,
at a later period, they were probably instrumental in establishing the well-
known porcelain works at Chelsea.

This was the origin of the celebrated Staffordshire Potteries, now a hive
of industry, covering an area eight miles in length and sis in width, and
employing 70,000 operatives, a large proportion of whom belong to tho
class of siulled labour, and no inconsidei'able part to tho highest order of
art. It is here we may find the splendid establishments of Messrs. Copeland,
Minton, Wedgwood, Alcock, Pratt, Mayer, Boote, Mason, and othere, whose
productions enriched the gallery of the northern transept of the Exhibition.

One of the ingredients of fine potterj' is silica, or the earth of flints.
The circumstance wdiich led to the application of this substance to the art
is thus related : — Mr. Astbury, the son and successor of him who gained the
knowledge of Elers's secret by feigning idiocy, being on his road to London,
and making the journey on horseback, was stopped at Dunstable, in conse-
quence of his horse being attacked with a malady of the eyes. The inn-
keeper at whose house he put up advised liim to apply a poultice of calcined
Hints. Astbury obsei-ved that the flints, which before calcination were
black, were by this process converted into a white substance. It occurred
to him that he might bleach the clay of bis pottery by mixing it with the
substance, which thus became white in the fire. He accordingly realised
this with complete success, and afterwai-ds silica became a regular ingretUent
ofpottery.

Kotwitlistnnding the progi-css thus made between tho ninth and the six-

teenth century In tho manufacture of pottery throughout Europe, China
Htm oontlmied to bo tho cxohLilvo gourco from which tho finer nort of
earthonwoi-e came, no that this waro acquired, and still retains in England,
tho iiamo of "china." being diMtinguiHlicd, liowovcr, on the continent, from
the inferior sorts of earthenwai-o by tho dcnoininutioii of " porcelain." Tho
origin of this term "poreclidn" is uncertain, but in nupposcd to proceed
from the Portuguese word jioivdtana, signifying a drinkingcup.

After what has been related above of the eflbrtn ma^lo in every jiilrt of
I'Airopo to improve tho maiiufiicturo of pottery, and tho high estimation in
which tho porcelain of China ami Japan was everywhere held, and tho high
prices at wlilch it was generally purchfuscd, it may well bo understood that
extraordiiiai'y means wero re.iorted to by private induntrV, and extraor-
dinary induceraolitji offered by the Sovereigns of Europe in the shape of
rewards and honours, for the discovery of the means of fabricatitig tlicso
precious wares. Tho processes of turning, moulding, and cLSting, of baking
and glazing, being all known, the gicat desideratum which remained waa
the clay, now called china clay. This material had, up to tho time wc now
refer to,' never lieeu found in any part of Europe, although, as will presently
ttiipear, it could bo obtained everywhere. This clay, which in China is
called "kaolin," a name which has been adopted also in Europe, conniotu of
silica and alumina in variable projiortions. When the clay has been exposed
for i\ short time to a certain temperature this substance undergoes a chemical
combination, tho result of which is silicate of alumina, but it rarely or never
liappona tliat in any kaolin tlicse two principles are found In the proportions
which they combine chemically ; one or other is always in excess, ,iud the
i-esult is consequently not an alisolute silicate.

The kaolin of Aue, discovered by the accidental circumStdnccH we have
related, continued and still continues to be used as one of the materials of
the Saxon porcelain. Two sorts of paste are at present used in this nuinu-
facture. What is called the seri ico paste, or Ihab u^cd for porcelain in
general, is composed as follows : —

Kaolin of Aue .... ,18

Kaolin of Sosa ... ... 18

Kaolin of Seilila . . , . 3(1

Feldspar, &o. . . . . , 28

100

II. — ^Dbbbden Chiwax

We have already stated that the first discovery of the precious and long
sought for material, which was soon destined to throw into the shade even
tho Chinese porcelain itself, was made in Saxony. The circumstances
which led to it ore cmious and interesting, and highly characteristic of tho
spirit of the age, and of the interest which this manufacture excited.

An individual named Bottger, the apprentice of an apothecary at Berlin,
rendered himself notable by his reputed skill in alchemy, pretending, and
probably believing, that he was engaged in extraordinai-j- researches which
promised to lead to the solution of the grand problem of the transmutation
of metals, jvnd consequently to that of the fabrication of gold. These
researches and pretensions gave him the title of the Mahr of Gold.

The reports of his proceedings and his reputation excited the attention
of King Frederick AVilliam I., who manifested such an interest in them as
alarmed Bottger for his personal safety. Fearing that the king might
seize his person with a view of extractmg from him his secret, or at least
of turning to his Majesty's exclusive profit his labours, Bottger fled from
Berlin and took refuge in Saxony. The King of Prussia having caused him
to be pursued, he was arrested at Dresden ; but Frederick Augustus I.,
King of Poland and Elector of Saxony, having also some faith in the
reputed discoveries of Bottger, and desiring himself to retain possession of
the Maker of Gold, resolved not to surrender him, and consequently caused
him to be conducted to Wittemberg. He was destined, however, only to
exchange one captivity for another, for the Elector, while he supplied "him
most libei'idly with all the means of pursuing his chemical researches, and
contributed by every means to his personal comfort and well-being, bad
him kept under the most strict sm-veillauce, and, in fact, he was subject to
something approaching to solitary imprisonment.

These events took place in 1701. The king, after a time, finding that no
results proceeded from the experiments of Bottger, and perhaps ceasing to
have faith in them, put him in communication with a certain Tschirnhaus,
who had been engaged in experimental researches relatmg to the fabrication
of porcelain. He thought it probable that the skill and knowledge which
failed in the solution of the problem for the transmutation of metals might
probably bo turned to account in the more practicable problem of the
fabrication of porcelain. Tschirnhaus accorcUugly dissuaded Bottger from
pursuing a com-se of inquiry likely to be so barren as that in which he had
been so long and so vainly engaged, and allured him by the prospects of
wealth and distinction to co-operate with him in a series of experiments
having for then' object the discovery of the composition of the clay or paste
of w'hich the porcelain of china was composed.

Tschirnhaus had already discovered a clay in the neighbourhood of
Dresden, of which he succeeded in making an earthenware, which was
dense, compact, .and hard, but red in its colour, and possessing not the
slightest transparency. It had none of that translucency, w-hiteness, ■and
fineness of grain which characterised the Chinese porcelain ; it was, in
fact, nothing better than a fine red ware; nevertheless, it had con-
siderable vogue.

148

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

In order that he should be more effectually withdrawn from the observa-
tion of the curious, the Elector established Bottger, with Tsohirnhaus, in
the chateau of Albrechtsburg, at Meissen. A laboratory and woi-kmen were
there provided for Bottger by the Elector. He was supplied with every-
thing which could render his life agreeable, including a carriage for his use,
but he was still kept under incessant surveillance. Whenever he went out
an officer accompanied him^ who never for a moment lost sight of liim, lest
he should escape, taking with him his secrets. In 170(3, Charles XII.,
King of Sweden, entered Saxony. The Elector, fearing that Bottger might
be seized and taken away on this occasion, caused him to be conducted with
Tsohirnhaus, and three of his principal workmen, under an escort of cavalry,
to the fortress of Koenigstein, to which his laboratory was also transferred.
He was there subjected to a still more rigorous surveillance.

At this time hairpowder was in universal use, and formed an important
article of commerce. A rich ironmaster of Erzgebirge, named Schnorr.
happened in 1711 to be passing on horseback along a road near Aue. He
observed the road to be covered with a white and soft clay, which formed
a tenacious mud, from which his horse raised its feet with difficulty. It
occmn-ed to Schnorr that an earth so white, when calcined and prepared,
might be converted into a mineral hairpowder. He accordingly brought
home with him a sample of this clay, aud, having subjected it to certain
processes, produced from it a fine white powder, which he afterwards
fabricated on a large scale, and in which he established a considerable
commerce at Dresden, Leipsio, Zittau, and other principal places.

Bottger, like othei-s, wore a wig and used hairpowder. Happening one
day to take in his hand the packet of powder supplied by his valet, he was

V/y\/\A/v

,'vy\A/\;

MAJOLICA VASES, WALL-TILES, ETC.— MINTON & CO.

After a year's seclusion in this fortress, he was reconducted to Dresden
on the 22nd of September, 1707, where he was established with a new
laboratory, which the Elector caused to be prepared for him in the Jung
Ferba.stei. Here Bottger and Tschirnhaui renewed their labours for tlie
improvement of porcelain, and especially for the discovery of some means
of making the porcelain of Cliina. The researches were long and fatiguing,
often occupying entire niglits; and it is related that Bottger freqxiently
found it necessary to watch incessantly the oi'cration of baking for three
or four days, night and day, during which he aud his companion were com-
pelled to keep inccss,ant watch.

The Elector took a deep interest in these proceedings, so much so. that
he frequently himself assisted personally at them, and was present during
the baking of the porcelain, .and ■untnessed its being withdrawn from tlie
oven.". Still the result of these labours w.as 7iot a true porcelain ; it was
still a reddish stoneware, which acquired the brilliancy of porcelain either
by being polished upon the wheel of a lapidary, or by means of a glaze
produced upon it at a low temperature.

Tsehirnhaus died in 1708, and a short time afterwards accident, which
proves to have played so important a part in the history of porcelain,
brought to the knowledge of Bottger the kaolin, or china clay, which aftei'-
wards conferred such celebrity upon the Dresden porcelain.

struck with its extraordinary weight; he mquii-ed wnence it came, ana
ascertained that it was the new mineral powder, .and not the vegetable
powder which had been previously in general use. It occurred to him that
an eartliy matter of this whiteness might probably serve the purposes of
porcelain clay, and he immediately subjected a quantity of it to experiment,
aud found it answer perfectly. Inquiries were now instituted respecting
its origin. Schnorr was applied to, .and the place .at A\ie where he obtained
the powder was ascertained. On examination, this place proved to be a
vein of fine kaolin, identical in its properties with that which constituted
the material of the porcelain of Chiua. This clay was then known in
commerce as the white earth of Schnon:

When these facts became known to the Elector its exportation was strictly
prohibited under the most severe pen.alties, and it was transported to the
porcelain works of Bottger, by sworn agents and in sealed ban-els. The
most extraordinary precautions were taken to maintain the secrecy of the
use of this earth in the fabrication of the Dresden china. The first con-
dition imposed upon the persons employed in the works, from the highest
to the lowest, w.as secrenj till death I Whoever betrayed any of the secrets
w,as menaced by the king with imprisonment for life in the fortress of
Kcenigstoin. Such was tiie origin ol^ the Dresden m.aniifactory of porcelain,
which has since obtained a world-wide celebrity. (To be continvcd.)

AN ILLUSTTIATED CYCLOPvKBIA OP TIIK GRl^AT KXIIIHITION OP 1851.

149

firo-cliiy, manufactured by Mr. A<l(Ji«on, pott<T, ofWel-
liiigtoii Quay, Ncwcajitlc-upon-Tyno. Tlic former ma-
terial, although heautifully white, 18 not nerviccable
cxctpt for artick-H of luxury of wliicli great care can bo
taken ; fire-clay, on the other hand, in a BubHtituto
for Htone, and will Ktand the name rough ujuf^e.
The innjolica vaneB, llowor-potn, tilcn, Ac, by Min-
ion & Co., exhibit a modem application of a very
ancient Btyle of earthenware manufacture, the pecu-
liarity of which considts in glazing coarse material
with a fine opai^pie gliizo. For a very long period,
the manufacture, which waH confined to Italy, hoji
been extinct, and, during its oxihtence, waa applied
to such articlcH a« wine-coolers, diKhes, vjibch. Sic
which wore painted in the highest style of art|
and 80 well, that it is matter of dispute whether
some wore not from the hand of Ifciiihacl, and it
is quite certain they wero
of his school. Tlie manu-
facture took it% namo
from the island of Ma-
jorca, where it was pro-
bably of Spanish origin.

The figure of Galatea
in Icrra-colta, life size, was
modelled by a French
artist, who holds the situ-
■itiou of master of tho
model class in the Govern-
ment School of Design at
Stoke. *

The group of china ex-
hibited by Daniel was
manufactured by Jlessra.
Kofc, and displays,
amongst other remark,
able features, the beauti-
ful colour, intended vui
the revival of the cele-
brated Hose du Dairy, for
which the Sevres Manu-
factory was once cele-
brated. Tho designs are
tasteful and elegaiit.

The ornamental china
exhibited by Messrs
Aloock and Co., of Burslem, comprises many very
beautiful and original specimens after designs bv
Alfred Crou-quill, S. W. Arnold, and San Giovanni
lUey consist of jugs and vases of various forma'
and otlier table wai-e, besides all sorts of fancv
articles, as pen-holders, ring-holdei-s, ash-travs
centre-pieces for flowers, aad fimcy statuettes. The
vase with flower ornaments, iu the centre of our
tugraving. is of very exquisite workmanship ; re-
markable tor delicate accuracy of outline and rich-

GROUP OF CHINA. — ALCOGE AND CO.

150

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

MINING AND METALLURGY.

GENERAL ACCOUNT OF MINING OPERATIONS.
'THE external crast of the globe is in many localities traversed to a con-
siderable depth by rents, or fissui'es, which were probably produced by
great convulsions of nature, occurring at some remote period. These are
sometimes foimd to be filled up by the trachean, or porphyritic, rocks, by
the uplifting of which the fissures were first caused ; whilst, in other
instances, they contain various metals, either in a free state or in different
forms of combination with other bodies. In the former case, these clefts
are known by the name of dykes, but when they contain metallic ores they
are called lodes, or mineral veins. Deposits of this kind chiefly occur
either in the primitive rocks or in the transition formations in their
'mmcdiate vicinity, and in such localities the greater proportion of our
most valuable and productive mines will be found to be situated.

Mineral veins are frequently nearly perpendicular in theii- direction,
although they sometimes possess considerable inclination. Generally
speaking, a vein may be considered as a plane, of which the extension in
length and depth is unknown, a-s the former is commonly bounded by a
contraction too small to induce the miner to follow it. wliilat the latter is
often gi'eater than that of our deepest mines. It seldom happens that an
isolated mineral vein is found in any locality, and, with but few e.xceptious,
where one lode has been discovered it may be safely inferred that others
exist at no considerable distance. It also most frequently occurs that the
whole of the lodes in the same neighbourhood assume a nearly similar
direction ; and if two distinct systems of veins should be found in the
same district, those nmning in one direction, if metalliferous, yield a different
metal from those which do not follow the same course.

The composition of a mineral vein appears moreover to be somewhat
affected by the nature of the rock through which it passes, as certain
minei'als are found to exist in large quantities in that portion of a lode
which passes through one kind of rock, whilst the same vein, when
traversing a different geological formation, may be entirely witliout any
traces of the ore. As a general rule, however, those veins are found most
productive which are situated in the immediate nelghbom-hood of the
junction of two different species of rocks. In Cornwall, where a large
proportion bf the mineral riches of this countiy are obtained, all the mo.st
productive mines are situated neai- the point of meeting of the gj'anite and
killas, or clay-slate.

Besides occurring in lodes, the metalliferous minerals are also found
deposited in regularly stratified beds, as well as in in-cgular masses; but,
with the exception of the ores ot iron, the metallic minerals are almost
exclusively raised from regular veins. The ores of iron, like those of the
other metals, are sometimes extracted from regular lodes, but tbey are
chiefly deposited either in distinct strata, as in the case of the black-band
h-on stone of the coal districts, or exist in irregular deposits, frequently
produced, as in the ca.se of the various oolitic iron ores, by ferruginous
infilti-ations. Besides these more ancient deposits, it frequently happens
that the valleys in the neighbourhood of metalliferous rocks have become,
in the course of a long series of years, partially filled up with sands washed
from the surrounding mountains and other high ground, and which are
found to contam a portion of the metallic riches of the hills of which they
origmally formed a part. In some districts such deposits are extremely
numeroui?, and yield, by washing, large quantities of various metals.

In Cornwall most of the valleys in the tin districts produce sands con-
taining the peroxide of that metal, which is extracted by subjecting them
to a stream of water, when tlie greater density of the tin ore causes it to
remain in the current, whilst the lighter sub.stance3 with which it is associ-
ated ai-e earned away by the stream, and in this way separated from it.

In Borneo, largo quantitias of tin ore are thus obtained, and the extent
to which these operations arc carried on may be imagined when it is stated
that as much as 3500 tons of this metal have in one year been exported
from thi.s island alone. In other cases, gold and silver in the virgin state
are distributed in small grains in these sands ; and this is, in fact, one of
the chief sources of the precious metals.

The sifting and washing of such sands furnishes to Russia the greater
part of tlie gold produced in that empire, wliicli annually amounts to about
fifteen thousand pounds weight. Russia also obtain.s by the same process
an annual supply of ueariy five thousand pounds weight of platinum, which
IS almo.^t entirely extracted from the streams flowing from the range of
mountains which separate Siberia from Tartary.

The mineral riches of a country are frequently discovered by means of
the fragments of rock brought down into its valleys by the action of water ;
and on tracing these to their several sources, the veins fi'om which they
were originally detached are, in many instances, discovered. Water also
performs, in another way, a very important part in the discovery of mineral
veins, as, by closely observing the faces of the different gulleys which may
intersect a mountainous country, a ready method is afforded of exploring
the mineral wealth of its several strata.

When the substance of a mineral vein is harder than the rock in which
it is situated, the latter is sometimes, by the combined action of air and
water, to a considerable extent gradually removed, whilst the lode itself
remains as a sort of natural wall across the countiy in which it occurs. A
remai'kable instance of this kind is to be seen at Mouzias, iu Algeria, where
several lodes, pi-incipally composed of spathose iron and sulphate of barytes,
are thus denuded.

Whou neither of the above methods of observation are available, it is
necessary to examine the nature of a district through the medium of arti-
ficial excavations. Tliis is done by what is called by the Cornish miner
shodiiig or costeaning. When the general direction of the lodes of a
neighbourhood has been determined from the facts elicited during the
working of other mines in the district, a series of pits is sunk as ueariy as
possible at right angles to the assumed run of the mineral veins. These ,
pits arc about three feet in width, six feet in length, and extend in depth^
through the alluvial deposits a few feet into the subjacent rock. In order!
to avoid the chance of missing any lode which may occur in the superficies!
to be examined, such pits are sunk at regular distances, and are united by!
galleries from one to the other, which would necessarily traverse any veins!
that might have escaped detection in sinking the shode pits themselves.!
If the direction of the lodes of the neighbourhood is not known, or if it bel
uncertain whether the couutiy be traversed by mineral veins, it is necessary!
to oi-range two series of pits at right angles to each other, by which means,!
if any occur, they cannot readily escape detection.

When a lode has been discovered, and when it is found to contain a|
valuable mineral, or presents appearances from which it may be inferred
that it will prove productive of ore at a greater depth, the first operation,!
if the conformation of the country admit of it, is usiially to drive an " adifcl
level." This is a gallery cut a little above the level of the nearest valley
in such a way as to intersect the lode at a certain distance from the surface,!
and draw off the water from the higher portions of the vein. Should thej
appearance of the lode then prove favourable, a pit or " shaft" is sunk in
such a position that it may intersect the mineral deposit at a given distancel
from the surface, and serve as a means not only of extracting the minerals
which it moy contain, but also as a passage, by which the workmen may
descend into the mine.

Should the lode, after proper examination, prove to be produotive of ore.
other shafts will be sunk, and a regular series of levels driven. In the first
place, gollei-ios will be excavated iu the substance of the vein itself, for th^
purpose of extracting its contents ; these are, iu the Cornish mines, gene-
rally placed at distances of ten fathoms from each other, and are connecteil
with the shaft, through which the excavated ore and rock are conveyed to
the surface. The lode, however, being a diagonal plane, can only bs
travei'sed by a perpeudiculai' shaft in one particular point, and it is conse-
quently necessary that each of these levels should be connected vnih it by
a gallery perpendicular to the general run of the lode. These ai'C called
" cross-cuts," and are commonly furnished with railways, for the more ready
conveyance of the concents of the vein to the pit by which they are trans-
ported to the surface.

The water which percolates into the mine, below the point at which the
ftdit-level meets the shaft, is di'awn out by the agency of a series of pumps,
worked cither by water-power or a steam-engine. For a short time after a
shaft has been commenced, and before it has attained any considerable
depth, the rubbish removed is conveyed to the surface by a simple windlass
moved by manual labour. When, however, the pit has reached a certain
depth, a contrivance called a " whim," or " gin," moved by horses, is fre-
quently employed, although steam power is now daily becoming of mori;
common application.

The tools employed by the miner necessarily vary according to tln^
nature of the ground which he has to traverse. If the rock be moderately
soft, nothing but an ordinaiy pick and shovel are used, but if it be bard,
and is either stratified or contains numerous fissures, he has recourse to
steel wedges or points, called "gads." by driving which into the crevices of
the rock he is enabled to split off larger portions than^e would be able to
detach by means of the pick alone. When the ground to be cut through
does not admit of being thus broken, the working is effected by the assist-
ance of gxiupowder, which is exploded in holes cut to a considerable depth
in the rock. This is done by the aid of an iron instrument called a borer,
aimed at one of its ends with a steel bit, provided with cutting edges. To ,
use this tool one of the miners holds the sharpened end to the rock to bo
pierced, whilst another hits the opposite extremity a heavy blow with a
large hammer or " mallet." As the hole deepens, the person who hold.?
the tool turns it between each blow about a quarter of a revolution, and by
this means a deep hole is ultimately obtained.

The borer is from time to time removed from the hole during the
operation, in order to take .away the crushed portions of rock, and a little
water is added, for tho double purpose of cooling the borer and facilitating
its action. Wlien the hole has attained to what is thought a proper depth
—which necessarily varies with the nature of the rock — it is carefully

AN ILLUSTUATKD CYCLOP^KDIA OP THE GREAT EXHIIMTION OF 18r>l.

ini

clcnnoil out, niul a quantity of coarwo powder is dopositoj iit tlio bottom.
To confine tlio [jowdia', and tlioroby give greater force to itH explosion, tlio
liolo in now filled up liy ramming in a cpiantity of soft scliist, called
" tamping," a small liolo being loft by the nse of a copper needle, wliicli i»
snbsoipiontly witlidrawn, to alford means of igniting tlin charge when
required. Tlic ancient mctliod of doing tlii« was l)y a reed or rush tilled
with fnic powdci", which wa.4 let down into the hole, and which Rerved aH
a ehainirl lor the spark to ho commnnicated through the medium of a
hIow match, during the burning of which tho miner had time to o.scapo out
of danger.

Itecontly theso rudo and dangerous contrivances havo been almost
entirely superseded by tho usk of Bickford'a patent safety fuse, which not
only itself acta as a slow match, but has also the great advantage of being
sal'ei', niid, at tlio same time, more readily used. This fuse consists of a
hempen tube, mailo w;iter-tiglit by a covcnug of resinous or pitchy matter,
and iilled witli a composition wliicli, when once united, bums with a certain
lixcd rapidity, imtil it roaches the cliarge of pow<ler which it is designed to
explode. A specimen of this fuse waa exhibited by the inventor, coiled
oi'ound a large reel on one of the tables which extended down the centre of
this section.

Considorahlo improvements in tho arrangements for boring and blasting
rocks hive lately been made by Mr. Rogers, of Aborcarn, wlio illustrated,
by ilrawings and a siries of tools, his process as ailaptcd to the sinking of
shafts through solid and extivmely hard ground.

It h;ii been often noticed that, since the application of gunpowder to
blasting purposes, little improvement has been made in the methods adopted
for cutting through hard rocks ; and the great expense of m.aintaining engine-
power for pumping and winding during the long periods occupied by these
operations is still the sole reason why some of the liest and richest mineral
deposits in Great Britain remain idle and unproductive, besides being the
principal cause of the serious loss of life which so often occurs from acci-
dental explosions during mining operations.

In boring it is customary to employ a tool of which the body is made of
wrought iron, whilst tlie bit, or end, only is of steel. No definite propor-
tion between this iron stock, or handle, and the breadth of the bit, appears
to have ever been preserved, and from tlii,9 cause a very large proportion of
the power exerted by the striker has been uselesslj' expended.

The tools used for tliis purpose by Mr. Rogers arc made entirely of cast
steel, and from their gi'eatcr rigidity and superior hardness are found to be
much superior to the ordinary borer, in which the shank is of ii'on, and
common shear steel is employed for the bit. In tho manufacture of these
tools, it is found to be of the greatest importance that certain relations be-
tween tho size of the bits and stocks, or handles, should be observed, in
order that they may work freely in ilie bore, and at the same time spring
as little as possible under the blows of the hammer. The following propoi'-
tions have been found by cxpei'imeut to answer these conditions : —

Duimotcr of Octagon Breadth of Face

(Jast Steel. of )!it.

1 inch , . . . . ■ 14 inch.

■^3 Jl • • ' • • • • ^ i n

H 2 „

If 2i ..

n „ 2i „

The oldest method of sumping, or di-awmg up water from the bottom of
a shaft during the process of sinking, was the Hogar-pipe, which was about
four feet in length, and made of leather, stiffened by metallic rings. But
the coustant damage to which this was liable in blasting soon caused it to
be almost eutirely abandoned, and in its place was introduced an apparatus
known as the stock and slide pipe, which consists of two cast-iron tubes
sliding into each other as a telescope, and kept by a stuffing box perfectly
tight in the joints. This contrivance, besides being very expensive and
ItUfficult to manage, is also liable to breakage during the blasting of holes ;
land ns the sump can only be made directly below the i5ump-trees. it follows
that during a great portion of the time occupied in sinking the shaft, two
or three men only can be effectually employed, which, particularly when
[the shaft is of large size, causes considerable delay and inconvenience to
jthose employed in sinking it.

Mr. Rogers has substituted a gutta percha tube for the leather Hogar, or
itock and slide, previously employed, and has found it less liable to acci-
lent and much more easily repaired than eitlier of these combinations ; it
Iso allows of the sump-hole being made in any pai't of the shaft, and thus
nables a greater number of persons to work in it at one time.

The greatest advantage has likewise been derived during these operations
ly the substitution of the galvanic battery in place of the ordinary methods
if igniting the charges of powder which are to bo exploded. By this appa-

,tus any number of holes may be readily discharged at the same instant,

,e effect of which is to lift up and separate the entire mass of rook wdiich
s contained in the space between them ; and three or four holes, if well
placed, are found to produce more effect than double the number fired
;eparately. By the use of this agent, perfect safety to the miner when
blasting is also secured, as the circuit of the battery is not completed until
;he whole of the workmen have reached some place of safety.

The extraction and in-epar.atiou of mineral ores will furnish the subject
of another paper, in which will be noticed the various improved machines
for this purpose, which were exhibited ou the different tables of this
section.

KINGS OA.S COOKING RANGK.

Mr. Strode oxliibitod a gas cooking rango, which Id confstructcd on a

plan peculiar to the town of Liverpool. It wa« doHigned by Mr. King,

chief engineer of tho gus work» of that town. It 1« divided into thro

comp.artinont« of differout aizcg for roasting and Imking, lacing fumi»hed

iiiJ^iLAQJULn JJl.n.QJLA(VnJlJLnJ! n n r. n n n n n n fi n n n r. n fi 1^ n r, fi n n

with a damper to regulate the flow of air through them. Tlie burner is
arranged inside the oven, .at bottom, around the sides, back, and front,
with a dripping-pan occupying the centre. The meat is hooked on to a

sliding frame or carriage, whicli, when pushed in, allows it to be suspended
surrounded by the gas. Ou the top of tho range are eight spiral burners?,
in round woU-holes, for boiling, stewing, frying, &o., any of which opera-
tions can be done with the same facility as on a hot plate or over a char-
coal fire. The meat roasted by this range, owing to the rcgulaiity and
certainty of the operation, is of a more nutritive character than that cooked
by the ordinary process, as more of the juices of the meat are retained,
which is ascertained by the comparatively small loss of weight after
cooking. By the operation of broiling, twelve chops can be cooked at
once, at a cost of not more tlian twopence per hoiur for gas, which gives at
the rate of sixty chops at an outlay of only twopence for gas. Comfort
and cleanliness to the cook, and economy to the consumer, ai'o among the
qualifications of this useful invention. The gas is lighted with a gas-torch,
or portable jet of iron pipe, attached to a flexible pipe.

A Gerjian's Reflectioxs on the Great Exhibition. — The VossiscTie
Zictung of Berlin, has the following remarks on the close of the London
Exhibition ; — " Human cultm-e has made a mighty step forward, and in
spite of all the apparent success of a reactionary policy, religious and
political, it is not for a moment doubtful what the final result will be for
the development of society. That peaceful assembly in the building of the
Exhibition has done more to strengthen the feeling of self-consciousnesi;,
to discover defects in many branches of public activity, and for insight
into the connection between political and material interest', than a
thousand political clubs could have effected ; and while at fir.st fears were
entertained of serious disturbances during the Exhibition from foreign
exiles, it has been shown that hollow and abstract declamation remains
totally powerless by the side of such a gigantic fact. In the building of
the Exliibition the propaganda of reasonable progress, peaceful development,
and independent energj- erected its throne and made countless proselytes.
This gi-eat event alone has sufficed to mark the year 1S51 as an era in the
history of nations ; its memoiy will remain to distant ages powerful in its
consequences, when the temporary pettiness and narrow wisdom of diplo-
matists shall long have found the oblivion they deserve. And if there are
many who look round on the present -with depressed glance and broken
courage, when almost everywhere, and especially in Germany, we find dis-
content sprung fi-om disappointed expectations, and indifference to the
interest of the State, and censure of a system of government that is more
founded on a strong police than a statesmanlike wisdom, the observation of
this Congress of Industry will dispei-se many gloomy clouds, strengthen
the conviction that the progress of nations is unceasing, and animate us to
renewed and more scU-confldent exertions."

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

THE IjUIiEN AXD PRINCE OF WALES.

Thk statuette gi-oup of lici- Majesty and tlie Prmco of Wales is from a
design by Mr. J. Bell, and liiis been produced by tlie electrotyije process, iu
a very effective manner, by Mcssi-s. Messenger and Sou.

CARVED FRAME, BY BARDETTI.

This Ls one of the very beautiful specimens of wood-carving from
Tuscany, which we mentioned in oiu- ai-ticlo on that Bubject in a former

number. The foliage, imd the little figures of Cupid, are alike exquisitely '■I
finished. 'I

CARVED FRAME, BT ROGERS. II

We have here one of Mr. Rogers' happiest productions in this line, the il
flowers being executed with a roundness and boldness of character which
betray the hand of a master in his art. The portrait inserted is iutrO"
duced by us for the purpose of heightening the eifect.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OP THE GllEAT EXHIBITION OF 1851

153

SCULPTCREn PEDESTAL. BT F. DliAHE, OF BEKUN.

The above four Engravings give a representation of the bas-relief on the
f jircular pedestal, by F. Drahe, being a plaster model of that which supports
i Ihe monument erected by the inhabitants of Berlin to the late King,
< M-ederick William III. It is a pleasing composition, composed of passages
I >f gardens and rural pleasures — as a mother listening to the rippling of a
k brook; a young man and woman near a well; a boy trying to catch a

squirrel which is running up a tree ; girk with flowers ; others feeiUng a
swan ; children at a bird's nest ; and, throwing a hallowing sentiment over
all, a patriarch resting on his crutch, and smiling benignly at the happy
groups which surround him.

SOLITaDE. — EXHIBITED BT THE AUT-UNIOS SOCIETY.

" SOLITOBE " w,as one of the small plaster models sent in in competition
for the prizes of 100 and of 50 guineas, offered by the Ait-Uuion Society.

154

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITIONS.

IV. — Expositions op Fraxce in the Nineteenth Century.

JAPOLEOX'S commercial polic}-, extolled so often and so loudly for its
penetration and completeness, was, however, marred by the force of
his prejudice against England ; since we find that while, on the one hand,
he was eudeavouriug to encourage and elevate native industry by industrial
exhibitions, and the establishment of gratuitous educational institutions,
on the other hand, he could not forbear from the vindictive exclusion of
English manufactures from the French territoiy. He prohibited the
importation of British rausliug, cotton cloth, both plain and colom-ed, and
other cotton articles ; while he subjected cotton thread to a heavy duty.
After the close of the fourth official exhibition, in 1806, and the dispersion
of the rival manufacturers who competeil at it, a long interval succeeded,
in the excitement of whicli, little attention could be bestowed upon the
peaceful battles of rival industries.

After an interval of thirteen years, in compliment to the restoi-ed mon-
archy, as the last had been to the glory of tlie man now dethroned and
dis<Taccd, splendid g^dleries were raised in the Court of the Louvre to
celebrate the file of St. Louis, by assembling all that the skill and genius
of the ooimtry could bring to swell the national pride in the excellences
of native manufactures and arts. The great feature of this exhibition was
the marked improvement in the manufacture of metal — a department of
industry in whi6h France was (and is) far behind other countries, as, for
instance, England, Prussia, and Belgium. In 1806 the only foundry in
France was that atCreusot; but in 1819 the furnaces of the Loire and
other places sent excellent specimens of metal manufacture to the national
exhibition. On this occasion, however, some admirable specimens of rolled
ii'on from the forges of Grossonore were presented : .and bronzes, stereotype
plates, and other metal manufactures of delicate workmanship, attested, by
the excellence of the specimens presented, that the Frencli artisans who
had escaped the wars had not rested from then- labours.

Thiis exhibition showed the rapid progress the country had made in the
manufacture of steel, since exhibitoi-s from no less than twenty-one
departments .showed excellent specimens of this commodity ; and in
every branch of manufacture where steel was used, most encouraging
improvements were displayed.

In the machineiy John Collier exhibited a model of his machine ; and
Jacquard (who, in the exhibition of 1801, g,ained a bronze medal) exhibited
a model, which was highly eulogised by the authorities, and for which he
was decorated. It is an encom-aging sign of the times, that the children
of the Lyonese who burnt Jacquard's machine have lately erected a statue
to the memoi-y of the inventor in one of their public squares.

The results of machinery about this time began to be properly appreci-
ated ; and manufacturers, taking advantage of the cheapened means of
production, began to compete for cheapness, as well as elegance of design,
Mid, by this means, to bring their manufactm-es within the reach of the
great masses of their countrymen.

The labom-s of Daniel Koschlin, of Mulhausen, which have tended so
materially to bring the printed c.ilicoe3 of France to their present high
artistic excellence, bore some of their welcome fruits to the national
exhibition of 1815. Dr. Ure, who visited M. Kcechlin's establishment at
Mulh.iusen, reports that so profouudly had this eminent man studied his
manutactiu'e, more particularly with regard to the niture and properties
of dyes, that he had in the laboratory attached to his establishment upwards
of 3000 labelled phials, filled with chemical re-agents and specimens sub-
servient to dyeing. The history of calico-printiug, both in England and
France, presents a moral which the histories of too many inventions
imhappUy furnish ; viz., that it is childish and short-sighted on the part of
a class to endeavour to impede the result of inventions for increased
production. Not many years after, the merchants of Paris, together with
those of Rouen and other districts, declared that " they came forward to
bathe the throne with their tears on the inauspicious occasion" of the
establishment of cnttun fabrics upon a footing of equality with other
industries. The Inspector-General of Manufactures appealed to the bodies
still discontented in these terms: — "Will any of you now deny tliat the
fabrication of printed cottons has occasioned a vast extension of the industry
of France, by giving profitable employment to many hands in spinning,
weaving, bleaching, and printing the colours. Look only at the dyeing
department, and say whether it has not done more good to France in a
few years, than many of your other manufactures have in a century ? "
t Other names of eminence occur in the report of the jury. Among the
exhibitors who were decorated were Vitalis (the Kcechliu of Rouen) ;
Raymonde of Lyons, who had invented a process for fi.xing a Prussian blue
dye upon silk ; Widmer of Tony, wlio gave to the manulacturuig world a
green dye of immense value (for the invention of which a prize of 2000
guineas had been offered in England) ; Arpin, the muslin manufacturer of
Saint Quontin ; Bacot, cloth m.anufacturer of Sedan ; Beauvais, Depouilly,
and Jlallee, silk manufacturers of Lyons ; M. Beaumier, who helped to
found steel manufactories m France; Firmin-Didot, the eminent printer;
Utzschneider, of the Sarregueniues potteries. On this occasion the title
of Baron was given to M5I. Ternaux and Oberkauf, the decor.atioii of St.
Michael to M. Darcet, 360 medals and 17 crosses of the Legion of Honour
were distributed among the 1662 competitors who appeared at the exhibi-
tion. Altogether, the juiy found that no loss than 609 of the exhibitors
deserved honourable mention.

Four years elapsed after the close of the fifth exhibition before the
manufacturers were again summoned to Paris. In 1823, the national exlii-ii
bition, thougli deficient in very remarkable productions, and showing a
decrease in the number of exhibitors from that of 1819, gave evidence ol
still fm-ther national progress in the application of metals to the purpouii
of manufacture and to the req\urenieuts of engineering. The most notiofr
able item in the galleries, but which the jmy treated coldly as impracticable,
was. according to Mr. Digby Wyatt, a model of the first French suspension-
bridge, designed by MM. Seguin Fi-eres, to bo thrown aoros.5 the Rhone, neat
Touruon. This model obtained only a silver medal.

It is remarkable evidence of the increasing popularity of these exhibitions,
that the authorities found it necessaiy to extend the time at each successivt
exhibition. Thus, while the first exhibition rem.ained open only three
days, the sixth was accessible to the public for fifty days. On this occasion,
notwithstanding a falling off in the number of exhibitors, the juiy dccidM
to distribute no less than 1091 rewards among the competitors.

The report of the jury of this exhibition includes notices of many ini'
provements in native textile manufactures, in the processes of metsJ
manufacture, in dyes, in optical instruments, and in papei*s.

Another interval of four years elapsed between the closing of the sixth
and the opening of the seventh national exhibition. The exhibition of 18J
was in every respect a great advance upon all preceding exhibitions,
building in the quadrangle of the Louvre was on a larger scale than befoi
and the number of exhibitors amounted to 1795. The progress of natioi
m.auufactures, and the effect of the use of steam power upon productli
were here remarkably shown. The manutactm'e of merino goods, wliij
in the beginning of the century was unknown in Fiunee, nowreprescn
an annual v.alne of 15,000,000 fr.ancs ; and shawl manufactures gave proo!
of a progress equally sudden and extensive. The improvement anc
extension of merino manufactures may be traced back to the notabh
exertions of Chaptal and others to improve the native fleece by iuter
breeding with the Spanish flocks which were noticed in the exhibitimi o:
the je.ar IX. of the Republic. In the silk trade great advances had alsc
been made. The cultivation of silk, which had been restricted to th{
southern departments, m the belief that the mulberry would not fiourisl
in the northern departments, was now extended to those colder lands, anc
found to produce silk of a purer and finer quality than that hitherto raisec
in the south : floss silk was introduced into many new kuids of matt- rial
and mixtures of silk and wool first appeared at this exhibition. In pviutec
cotton, ginghams, tulle, aud blonde, splendid specimens were displayed
the cheapness of which was as remarkable as their excellence.. The results
of the application of machinery to every department of manufacture wer(
shown in every article exhibited. P.aper-hangings, which French mauufac
turers could now, with the aid of machinery, produce in endless lengths
and which for artistic excellence surpassed those of England, now firs
enabled France to compete with us successfully in this respect. Bregue
exhibited cheap chronometere (priced as low as 40/. each). Vicat cani'
forward with some improved and new cements ; and from Sevi'es somi
fine specimens of .stained glass marked the restoration of this beautifu
manufacture.

The seven years which intervened between the seventh and eighfl
official exhibitions were marked by those commercial disasters wliicl
invariably follow political and social discord ; however, when, early in 1334
the Government appealed to the manufacturers of France to submi
specimens of their products once more to a national jury, no less thai
2147 exhibitors responded to the official overture.

Four great galleries were erected upon the Place do la Concorde
and the exhibition was opened with great solemnity. The result wa'
worthy of the importance given to the exliibition. In the report will hi
found a luminous history and an.ilysis of the progress of French manufac
tures from 1789 to 1834. It shoivs, as illustrative of the increased stud)
of machinery, that whereas, in 1798, only ten patents were taken out. u
1834 no less than 576 were issued. The mtroduction of cylindrical b! 'k-
to paper-printing earned a gold medal at this exhibition for MM. Zali i , o
Mulhausen, and increased this manufacture beyond the hopes of the mis'
sanguine. Shawls had fallen between 30 and 40 per cent, in value ; no
the close of the exliibition of 1827 ; the silk trade had increased with lapii
strides ; flax-spinning was becoming a popul.ar branch of industry ; anc
cotton manufactures, after a protracted aud calamitous depression, werf
reviving apace. While Normandy produced printed cottons of a Compara
tively coarse and common description for the use of tlie great industriai
classes, Alsace sent forth specimens of printing, which for their brilliani
dyes, superiority of design, delicacy of .shades, and beauty of manufacture
commanded for a long time the London market.. Alsace alone at thu
time produced annually no less than 720,000 pieces of printed cotton|
valued at 24.000,000 francs. The jui-y of 1834 commended highly tW
excellence of this brilliant manufacture.

A new manufacture was inti'oduced to public notice at the exhibition gi
1834, which has since become of considerable importance, viz. elastic thrcade
manufactured from India-i-ubber, by MM. Rattier and Giubal, who were
rewarded with a gold medal. For the production of some exquisite
specimens of marqueterie aud ornamental cabinet and inlaid work, this
exhibition was remarkable, as well as for some specimens which indicated
tlic revival of the art of wood-engraving, and works which promised to rival
the productions of the middle ages, in enamel and " niello," sent in t^
MM. Wagner and Mansion. The arts were indebted to M. Guymet, W
Lyons, for the fabrication of an artificial ultramarine (now well known W

AN ILLUSTUATKI) CYCl.Ol'yKDlA OF Till'; OliMAT KXIIiniTrOX OF lsr,l.

1 :.:,

(irtists (US Kiciicli iiltraiiiriiiiic), which wiis lirst publicly prcsonteJ in the
ibitioni,'iUlci-icsof l.s:M ; iiml tlio pcitterioH of Fninco cxliihited KpccinieiiH
a now coiiiliinntifm of cl;iyH, which was called iipaquo chiim, luiil which
Mcominciiilcd for ifs »upci'ioi-ity to carthenwiiro mid for its compiinitivo
ipnoss. Those hrilliiviit nchiovomout.s of Fi'orich iiidustiy wci'o
'grdrd by tho di.slriljutioii of 01)7 modulo imd 21! docomtious of tho

m of Honovir.

« tlio 1st of May, 1839, tho ninth official oxhibitiou of industry was

ined to tho Fronoli people. Tho increased demand for space had

lessitated tho construction of an immcnso buiMinj,' upon tho Carr6 do

rigny of tho Cliamps Klyscos. No loss tlian •l;i81 exhibitors contributed

;he great national baauvr. A Buperlicial spaco of liJ.SOO square metres

covered in to reoclvo flpeeinions of the goods of French niaiiufactm-ers

lusively; and, in ndilition to this vast space, it was found necessary to

listruct a separate building to receive tho splondiil products of Mulhauson.

^hibitiou showed tho manufactures of France as far in advance of

londition of 1831, as in that year they liad advanceil from tlicir

'f 18-7. Tho export trade of tho country had increased in an

'I lUnary degree ; and the peculianty of tho e.^hibitiou of 1839 was

lioapueas at which all tho manufacturers cndouvoured to produce.

iiiportanco attached to tho cheapness of production at this period is

I in tho cliissiDcatinn adopted by tho jury. Thus, tho Hrat section

I ised inventions and improvonients, ranged with referenco to the

I lance of their results in manufacturos ; tho second comprehended

iii[iortaneo of tho factories, and their situation ; tho third, tho actual

ill <ommcreial valuo of the products; the fourth, tho cheapness realised

iiu'roasod means of production. Here may bo discovered a glimpse of

D result for which the supporters of these institutions had all along

' )oured. The rewards and honours bestowed upon Jacquard, Aubert,

mnux, and Oberkauf ; the learned dissertations of Chaptal and Costoy ;

0 public drawing academies; tlie general knowledge attained by every
. auchman of tho manufacturing capacities of every district of his country,

W beginning to return their promised measure of fruit. Tho artisans of
lance were fast bocomiug artists ; the manufacturers, scientific men ; tho
.nufacturci-s of sabres, builders of steam-engines. The framers of the
)ort proudly described tho growing greatness of manufacturing France.
ioy found that their manufacturers had completely established the
.nning of wool by machinery, and were making great efforts for tlie
Itivation and manufacture of flax. They saw that the extension and
provement of machinery were the foundation of their successes. The
lindrical block paper machines, exhibited as a novelty at the exhibition
1834, were now exported from France to all the manufacturing states of
irope ; Jacquard's machine had been multiplied and improved ; il. Giumpe
,d invented an ingenious mechanism for wood-carving; well-boring
struments had been materially improved : France, that in tho beginning
the century possessed only about a dozen steam-engines, now employed
ty foundries in the construction of these machines ; warranted chrono-
eters were now valued at half the price tliey fetched in 1831 ; needles

1 the manufacture of which England had hitherto enjoyed a complete
onopoly.) were at this time bidding fair to rival those of Birmingham.
Two new materials wero also offered to the commercial world at this
.hibition — stearine and Prussian blue dye. In glass and porejlaiu mauu-
sture, improvement had been no less rapid than in the manufacture of
stile fabrics ; and the art of preparing leather had advanced so fiir, with
e aid of enlightened chemists, that France, which, in 1830, imported
nned leathers from England, had reversed this order of things, and now
ported her prepared hides to the British markets. Fine lithographic
anes, which had recently been discovered in one or two departments,
;ured at this remarkable exhibition ; and the marble quarries of the
yrenees contributed some splendid specimens of this beautiful material,
emer declares, in his work on native exhibitions, that the most hopeful
laracter of the exhibition of 1839 was the cheapness of all the manufoc-

; ires — the diminution in the cost of preparing raw materials for the use of
an. " Spun and woven goods, tools, furniture, begin to find their way into
le houses of the humble — thanks to the genius which directs industry."
Passing over another five years, we arrive at the year 1814, and the
ttraordiuary exei'tions now necessaiy to marshal the national manufactures
ito one building attest the remarkable progress which the country has
ade. It is tho lost official exposition at which Louis Philippe will preside;
id before another national exhibition takes place, the Tuileries will be
eked, the portrait of the King (that King who now receives the report of
10 Baron Thenaixl) will be turned to the wall ; and from Claremout an
tiled family, now loaded with honours and the envy of Em'ope, will learn
1 tliat concerns the exhibition of 1S19.

The official Exhibition of 1844 was the most splendid museum of a
itiou's industry over gathered together. In every department there were
gns of vigorous improvement. Those engines which visitors to the early
nhibitions laughed to scorn, now choke up the greater part of the space
I f the Carre Marigny ; and to their gigantic power the merchants point in
splanation of the splendour and cheapness of tlieir goods. Entering the
uilding by the Royal entrance, long galleries are seen stretching right and
ift. Turning to the left, the visitor at once discovered the secret of the
accesses of Parisian manufactures. In rows and piles he sees specimens
f Parisian cabinet-work of exquisite design, billiard-tables, pianos, inlaid
'Ork, clocks, stamped copper, bronzes, lamps, jewellery, terra-cotta, glass,
ooks, paper, musical instruments, all commanding foreign markets more
y beauty of design than by^great superiority of material. On the opposite

side of tho building tho Hplcndid inanufocturoji of Lyonx, Lille, Nijincii,
Avignon, Metz, St. (jucntin, Koubaix, Turcoing, Rbeims, Alon^on, Amicnx,
I^Iulhouso, and tiie tSeino Inferieuro, are ranged. Thin Hplcndid building,
doHigiied by M. Moroau, and raised within the Hpaco of 70 days, certainly
contained such a collection a« no other country on tho fiico of tho cartli
could have gathered together. The number of cxhibiton waa 3940 ; and
the varied nature of tho exhibition rendered it iiccessary tO appoint no louH
than ."iX juiy-mcn. The report which these genilemen publlsbed isafino spe-
cimen of art in itself. It is beautifully and profus'ly illuRtratod, and more
than any other French report on the Baine subject, enabloa tlii! readier to form
an opinion on the merits of the particular exhiliition with which it dcaU,

In the vast central apartment, <levotcd to maeliinory, some curiotui
machines were exhibited, A niuchino Hi'st exhibited on thi« occasion, woo
one by means of which a telescope could bo ea.sily directed to any quiirtcr
of tho heavens. This machine was called " The Coinet Seeker,"

The apparatus for the distillation of salt water, which woh hailol 08
affording security to the mariner against the evil of a lack of fresh water,
was Kigerly examined ; amlitlie specimens of electro metallurgy were then
novelties. Artificial manures wero also in tho list of curio8itie.s. Tho
manufacture of plate glass had been improved for astronomical investiga-
tiou.s, and that of sulphate of soda, of sulphate and muriate of potash, of
dyes and pigments, of pyrolignoous acid, and other chemical combinations,
had been studied and perfected. Here stood a machine, by means of which
the eartli could be bored to the depth of .^01) metres. There were endless
improvements in all kinds of agricultural implements. Side by side
machines worked by steam : the one raising a hammer weighing 9000 kilo-
grammes ; tho other a loom, which weaves two shawls at once, and then
cuts them asunder with the nicest precision ; the third, a Heating whistle,
to warn the engineer that tho boiler wants replenishing with water; the
fourth, a machine for stamping coinage; the fifth, a steam apparatus for
tho manufacture of boilers ; and then machines, moved by tho great
modern power, for piercing, sawing, raising, impelling, in short, for supplying,
in endless ramifications, the insufficient human muscle. All these engines
for converting raw material into manufactures for human use, told their
own bright story in the vast galleries with which they were suiTounded,

Of the 39C0 exhibitors on this occasion, .about 3250, including those of
whom honourable mention was made, and whose former rewards were
recalled, received marks of distinction, No less than 31 mauufactm-ers
received the decoration of the Legion of Honour ; and the jury wisely
adhered to the rule of rewarding those zealous citizens whose services to
national industry were not susceptible of definite exhibition.

The last exhibition of national industry took place in 1849 — the year
after the dethronement of Louis Philippe. The Carre do Marigny was
again tho site for the building, and M. Moreau wa^ again the architect
selected. The plot of ground covered on this occasion (exclusive of tho
vast agricultural shed) was a parallelogram of 206 metres by 100. This
building was, as may be seen from a eompai'ison of the plans, more com-
plicated and less imposing than that of 1844. In the centre there was a
quadrangle, open to the sky, where, on a mound of turf, surmounted by an
elegant fountain, flowers were exhibited. The entire buihling was of wood,
and consisted of about 45,000 pieces of timber, and was rooted with nearly
4O0O tons of zinc, Mr. Digby Wyatt found fault with the extra decoration of
the building, the pilasters being papered and gramod to imitate oak; and
mrlon-pierre trusses, painted bronze bas-reliefs, and other " shams " being
plentifully scattered about. According to M. Audiganue, this vast building
cost 16,000/., being an adv.ance of 950/. upon the cost of the building of
1844, or Is, 2i^d. per square foot English. Although the number of
exhibitors amounted to 4494, and that of the jury to 64, it is indisputable
that the exhibitors of 1819 told a lamentable tale of the industrial paralysis
which followed the convulsions of the spring of 1848. Those great manu-
facturing districts which were distinct features of previous exhibitious, on
this occasion presented only a few specimens of their power ; even Mul-
hausen made an insignificant figure. In the application of art to manufac-
ture, however, the exliibition still significantly attested the pre-eminent
taste of the French people. Bronzes, clocks, papier mdche, and other
objects of Parisian industry, pointed to the excellent national economy of
gratuitous elementary drawing schools. The President of the French
Republic might have referred with proper pride to the development of that
system which his great uncle originated. Ho might have seen the band of
the Emjieror in those faultless proportions — those daring originalities — ■
those evidences of artistic culture in which the workmen show themselves
to be superior to the artisans of every other country. The artistic excel-
lences of Frenchmen alone redeemed theii' exhibition of 1S49 fi-om insig-
nificance. The progress of silk cultivation was still evident, and promises
of future wealth dawned in tho specimens of Algerian produce grouped in
one of the galleries ; but, compared with the brilliant exliibition of 1844,
that of 1849 was a failure. The sword had hardly fallen from the warrior-
workman's hand ; too many looms had been turned to barricades ; the
excitement to social disorder had barely been quelled, when tlie Ministiy
summoned the people from their clubs to the great national bazaar. On
this occasion an agricultural show was added to that of manufactui'cs, and
the result of tho experiment w.oa successfid in every particulai-.

The French exhibition of 1854 will, no doubt, be on a grander and more
liberal scale than any of its predecessors ; and the example of England will,
no doubt, lead the authorities of Paris to a ditferent conclusion from that
to which they came on this occasion, viz., not to admit the contributions
of foreigners.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

ORNAMENTAL SILVER.

OcR present page contains a
group of various small articles in
silver, exhibited by sundry manu-
facturers ; all of considerable merit
in their way, and calculated to
sustain the reputation of the coun-
try in this branch of decorative
art. We speak generally of the

execution; in the choice of sub- """"' ''■'"'■' •'^--'"'-^'^ •'^" ^""s-

jects we do not in all cases
approve, as will be seeu.

The Silver Tea and Coffee Service, Br Smilet, are very beau-
tiful aud elaborate works; the designs, which are all punched and
richly chased, representing the v.irious stages in the culture and pre-
paration of the tea-plant. "VVe hardly approve, however, of the taste shown
in the introduction of the figures of her Majesty and Prince Albert as
ornaments or handles to the lids.

The Silver Wine Flagons, by Lambert as
Rawlings, are noble in form, being after the fashion (
the old camp-bottle, and decorated in the renaman
style, in silver parcel gilt. Just the sort of thiug I
grace the table of an old baronial hall, on a birthda
or other family anniver^aiy.

The design or the Silver Inkstand, bt Marii

and Co., represented as a Thistle, does not strili

us as a very happy idea, whilst the introduction'

hooks or rests for the pen upon the stalk is decidedl

an adcUtion not found in nature ; the execution, hoj

ever, is highly satisfactory. 1

The Silver Claret jug, bt Llas and Sons, is veiy handsomely shapao

ewer fashion ; somewhat classic in form, covered with vine-leaves, grap*

Ac. Designed by J. Fitzcook.

The Faeht Sdmmoneb is a fanciful and pretty idea, very pleasingl;
realised ; Puck shouts lustily, calling the spirits of the air to do hi
mistress's bidding.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPiI']DTA OP THE GRKAT KXIIIBITION OF 1851.

\r>7

SKINS, FURS, AND FEATHERS.

WITH aOMB ACCOUNT OF TlIK I'CR TRADE.

1 1; fur trarlo botwoen Europe and America cotnmciiced early in tlio

, <>voiitoontli century, ami was carried on by tlio early French emigrants.

.li.-c , and Montreal wore at first trailing posts. Tlio trade woa tlion, as

I barter of gnn.s, cloth, ammunition, &c., for the beaver and other

■ Uectod by the natives, and was effected by tho intervention of tlio

Jii'/ciir.*, rnyaf/es, or coureurs den hois. Those men carried burdens of

t rdiaudiso on their backs to tho Indian camps, and exchanged tlieir

< res for poltrios, with which they returuod iu tho eamo manner. Shortly

BuapiciouB. In conBequonco of this, and tho ovil foolingH naturally growing
out of a contrariety of interest, a war ensued between tho servants of the
parties, and a loose was given to outrage and barbaiity. AVearicd, at last,
in 1821 the companies united, and aro now known by the name of the
Hudson's Bny Fur Company. Tho colony cstablJBlied by Lord Selkirk soon
broke up, tho settlers going to the United .States, Few arc aware of the
extent of tho territory of tho Hudson's Bay Company. It covers one-
eighth of tho habitable globe. Russia comcH next in order of importance
in this respect, but the race of animals aro different.

Of all who have traded with the aborigines, the French 'wore tho most

FURS, BY S.MITH AND SONS, NICUOLAY, &c.

!r the discovery of the Mississippi, permanent houses, and in many
ees stockade forts, were built, aud men of capital engaged iu the trade,
troit, Mackinac, and Greeu Bay, were settled in this manner. The
oner of the fur trade has undergone no material alteration since.
n le/'O, shortly after the restoration of Charles II. that monai'ch gi-anted
Prince Rupert and others, a charter, empowering them to trade, exclu-
ily, with the aborigines in and about Hudson's Bay. A company, then
after called the Hudson's Bay Company, was formed iu consequence,
trade was then more lucrative than at present. In the winter of 1783
;, another company was formed at Montreal, called the North-west Fur
1 npany, which disputed the right of the Hudson's Bay, and actively
JOsed it. The Earl of Selkirk was at that time at the head of the
dson's Bay and conceived the plan of planting a colony on tho Red
er of Lake Winncpcg. Of this colony, the North-west Company was

popidar and successml. They did, and still do, conform to the manners
and feelings of the Indians, better than the English and Americans ever
could. Most of the persons now engaged iu the fur trade, iu the region
north of the Missomi, are French ; and they are much esteemed by the
natives, with whom they frequently intermarry. The male offspring of
these alliances are commonly employed as interpreters, engages, &c. They
are handsome, athletic men. Mixing the blood seems to improve the
races. The Indian trade on the gi'eat lakes and tlie Upper Mississippi, with
its branches, has long been in possession of the Noi-th American Fin
Company, the principal directors of which are in the city of New York.

In the year 1822, a new company, entitled the Columbian Fur Company,
was orgauised, to trade on the St. Peter's aud Mississippi. It was projected
hj three individuals, who had been thrown out of employment by the
union of the Hudson's Bay and North-west, as before mentioned. Its

158

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS ;

operations soon extended to the Missoiu-i, ■n'bither its members went from
the sources of the St. Peter's, -ivith carts and waggons, drawn by dogs.
When it had, after three yeai-s' opposition, obtained a secure footing in the
country, it joined with tlie North American. There was another company
on the Missouri at the same time.

Furs were also obtained from the Upper Missouri and the Bocky Moun-
tains as follows : Large bodies of men (under the pretence of trading with
Indians, to avoid the provisions of the law,) were sent from St. Louis,
provided witli traps, guns, and all things necesssaiy to himters and trappers.
They travelled in bodies of from 50 to 200, by way of security against the
attacks of the savages, till they arrived at the place of their destination,
when they separated, and pursued the fm--clad animals singly, or in small
parties. When their object was effected, they assembled with their peltry,
and descended the Missouri. They did not always invade the privileges
of the natives with impunity, but sometimes suffered severely in life and
property. This system still continues, and its operatives form a distinct
class in the state of Missouri. The articles used in the Indian trade are
chiefly these : coarse blue and red cloth and fine scarlet, guns, knives,
blankets, traps, coarse cottons, powder and ball, hoes, hatchets, beads,
vermilion, ribbons, kettles &c.

The com-se of a trader in the North-west is this : He starts from Michili-
mackinac, or St Louis, late in the summer, with a Mackiuac boat, laden
with goods. He takes with him an interpreter, commonly a haif breed,
and fom- or five engar/es. On his arrival at his wintering ground, his men
build a store for the goods, an apartment for him, and another for them-
selves. These buildings are of rough logs, plastered with mud, and roofed
with ash or linden slabs. The chimneys are of clay. Though rude in
appearance, there is much comfort in them. This done, the trader gives a
great portion of his merchandise to the Indians on credit. It is expected
that the debtor will pay in the following spring, though, as many neglect
tliis part of the business, the trader is compelled to rate his goods very
high. Thus the honest pay for tlie dishonest. Ardent spuits were never
much used among the remote tribes. It is only on the frontier, in the
immediate vicinity of the white settlers, that the Indians get enough to do
them physical injury, though, in the interior, the traders, in the heat of
opposition, employ strong liquors to induce the savages to commit outrage,
or to defraud their creditors. By this means, the moral principle of the
aborigines is overcome, and often destroyed. Spu'it is commonly introduced
into their country in the form of high wines, they being less bulky, and
easier of transportation, than liquors of lower proof. Indians, after having
once ta.sted, become extravagantly fond of them, and wiU make any sacrifice,
or commit any crime, to obtain them.

Those Indians who have substituted articles of European manufacture,
for their primitive arms and vestments, are wholly dependent on the whites
for the means of life, and an embai'go on the trade is the greatest evil that
can befal them. It is not going too for to say that the fur trade demoralises
all engaged in it. Tlie way in which it operates on the ludian.s has been
already partially explained. As to the trailers, they are, generally, ignorant
men. in whose bre:ists interest overcomes religion and morals. As they
are beyond the reach of the law (at least, in the remote regions), they
disregard it, and often commit or instigate actions that they would blush
to avow in civilised society. In consequence of the fur trade, the buffalo
has receded hundreds of miles beyond his former haunts. Formerly, an
Indian killed a bnftalo. made garments of the skin, and fed on the flesh
while it lasted. Now. he finds that a blanket is lighter and more conve-
nient than the buffalo robe, and kills two or three animals, with whose
skins he may purchase it. To ]irocure a gun, he mvist kill ten. The same
causes operate to destroy the other animals. Some few tribes, the Ottaways
for example, hunt on the different i)arts of their domains alternately, and
80 preserve the game. But by far the greater part_of the aborigines have
no such regulation.

The fm-clad animals are now to be found in abundance only in the far
north, where the rigour of the climate and the difficulty of transportation
prevent the free access of tlie traders, and on the Upper Missouri, and
towards tlie Rocky Mountains. Those unacquainted with the mercantile
relations connected with this article of commerce will doubtless feel sur-
prised at their magnitude, as shown by the following table of imports and
exports, which has been compiled with great care from various sources : —

EUROPEAN FUES FOB 1850.

IMPORTS

AND EXPORTS FOR 1850.

Total importa-
tion into
En;?land.

Exported.

Con.sumcd in
England.

523,000

fiO.OOO

83,000

9,6(X)

11,000

50,000

4,.300

1,000

1,600

20,000

65,000

120,000

245,000

l,O0O,fl<Xl

525,000

12.000

30,000

R.OOfl

11.0(10

5U,0o0

4,(->(lO

1,000

500

IR.dOO

50,(HI0

15,00(1

75,01 H)

l.'iO.orm

None.
4S.00O
55,000
1,500

None.

None.
1,000
2,000
5,000

106,000

170,000

8.50,000

None.
2,500

Non«.

(JhinctliUa

Fiiher

„ Cross

„ Silver and Black

„ Wbile

., Orey

Martin or Sable

Mink

Mnnquash

17,500 1 17,.-.(il|
15,000 1 I2,.T<10
19,0CO 1 1.5.000

W"ir

Martin, Stone, and Baum

S»iuirrel

Fitch

Kolinslti

Ermine

Imported.

120,000

2,271,258

05,091

53,410

187,104

Exported.

5,000

77,160

28,270

200

None.

Consnmed in
England.

115.000
2,104,008
.•ilvRlS
03,210
187,104

The first proposal as to the exhibition of furs was, that it should be
joint affair amongst the merchants, wholesale dealers, and retailers — ashaj
in which (although four of the leading houses in the trade contributed
the great case in tlie centre of the Western Nave, which goes by the nan
of the Fur Trophy) the project did not get carried out ; the wholesa
dealers at first hanging back, under the impression, that, though firs migl
be shoii\Ti of every class, and in every stage of finish, they scarce sufficient
Ibrmed an article of manufacture for exhibition : finally, however, near!
all dropped in. it being felt that a branch of trade occupying so large t
amount of capital and employing such a number of hands should Ije fair'
represented ; and, therefore, in the wholesale trade, Messrs. GeorLre .Smit
and Sons, of Watliug .street ; Robert C'lai'k and Sous, Cheapside ; Beviiigtoi
and Morris, King William-street; Lutze and Co., King Edward scree-
Jlyer and Co., Bow-lane; and George Ellis, Fore-street; and in the reU
Nicholay and Son, Oxford-street ; R. Drake, Piccadilly ; Ince and %
Oxford-street, became exhibitors either in the common case or in spaces
their own.

The skins and furs from the Arctic regions, sent by the Hudson s Bi
Company, selected from their importation of 1851, and prepared ai
arranged by Messrs. J. A. Nicholay and Son. her Majesty's furriers, were
great value, beauty, and interest. The groups of the varieties of fox
included the black, silver, cross, red, blue, white, and kitt. The black ai
silver fox is the most valuable of this tribe — a single skin bringing fro
ten to forty guineas; they are generally purchased for the Russian ai
Chinese markets, being highly prized in those countries. The cross ai
red fox are used by the Chinese, Greeks, Persians, &e., for cloak linings a:
for trimming their dresses. The white and blue fox are used in this a;
other countries for ladies' weai'. In the sumptuary laws passed in the rei
of Henry III., the fox is named, with other fur.s, as being then in use.
has been stated that the fox in the Arctic regions changes the colour of
fur wdth the change of the seasons. Such, however, is, we believe, not t
case, with the exception of the white fox, which is in winter a puiv wbii
and in summer of a gi-eyish tint. Among other groups shown in
beautiful specimens of the otter (LiUra, Canadensis). The Hudson's Bi
North American, and European otters are chiefly exported for t
use of the Russians, Chinese, and Greeks, for caps, collar.?, trimmin
robes, &c. It may not be uninteresting to state, that upwards of (
otters, the produce of this country alone, were exported dm-iiig the 1
year. '

Near to these was a beautiful and interesting group of beavers i Cas
Amcrkanus). The beaver, in former years, was one of the HudsMiis f
Company's most valuable productions ; but since its use has been alnn
entirely discontinued in the manufacture of hats, it has lost much of
value. Experiments have, however, been made, and are progressing sal
factorily, to adapt its fine and silky wool to weaving purposes. For ladi
wear, a most beautiful fur has been the result of preparing the beaver b;
new process, after which the surface is cut by an ingenious and losl
machine. It is exported in its prepared state for the use of the liij,'!
classes in Europe and the East. The rich white wool from tlio under pi
of the beaver brings at the present time a very high price, and is, we bolio
largely exported to France, where it is manufactured into a beautiful descr
tion of bonnets.

Passing from the beavers, we came to two groups, one of the lynx \Fi
Canadensis), the other of the lynx cat {Felis rufa) ; both of which, wh
dyed, were formerly much used. Their rich, silky, and glossy appearan
justly cau,sed them to be great favourites ; but the caprice of fashion
length banished them from this country. They are, however, still dyi
prepared, and exported in large numbei-s for the American market, wh(
they are much admired. In its natural state the fur is a gi*eyish whi
with dark .spots, and it is much used by the Chinese, Greeks, Persians, a:
others, for cloaks, linings, &c., for which piurposes it is very appi'opria
being exceedingly warm, soft, and light. The lynx of the present day
the fm' formerly called the " lucern."

We had next gi-oups of the AVolf (Canis occidentalis) ; of the Fisher {M
tela Canadensis); of the Wolverin {Gulo luscus). The wolves' skins a
generally used as cloak and coat linings in Russia and other cold cou
tries, by those who cannot afford the more choice kinds ; also for sleij
coverings and open travelling carriages. The other skins enumerat
aro principally used for trimmings, &c. The tail of the Canis occidcnla
is very valuable, and is exclusively used by the Hebrew i-ace on i,
Continent.

The North American Badger, of -which some fine specimens were show
is exported for general wear: its soft fine fur rendering it suitable for tli;
purpose. The European badger, on the contrary, from the wiry nature [
its hair, is extensively used for the manufacture of the superior kinds i
shaving brushes.

The Hudson's Bay Martin or Sablo {.Wiuitda marlcs), is princip.ally u»|
for ladies' wear, and is next in repute and value to the Russian fiablc. It|

AN ILLUSTKATKl) CYCLOPiEDIA OF THE GllEAT EXHIBITION OP IH'A.

]:,'.)

iiiHuiui"! in liu-Ko iiuiuititiou in tlii^ doniitry, in Fnvn<:.), nml in aci-miiny.
ho dnrko«t coloura ai-o tlio most vahmblo, mi tl>" lis'litoi' hIhuIoh lira fre-
lently dyoil to iniiUito tlio iliirlim- vfti-iotion. Tlio lioriiMicj iiBHuciationK

imneckidwitli tlio HaWlo rundui- it liislily intorastinK tii tlio liistoriun iind
10 nnti.|uui-y. In ovorv «go it liiw boan highly priaod. Tlio lining of a
ivntlo iiiado of liliick Hiildes with wliil<' Hjiots, mid iinwuiilud by tlio liisliop
■ r.iiiciilii to Hfiii-y 1., \v:w valued at C\M>, a Ki'oat sum in llioHO days. In
c^nry VIII.'h riii^'ii. a K\imptiiai-y law oonliiiod tUo U80 of tlio ftir Of Babies
. tlio nobility abovo tlio rank of vlueounti.

Tlio Mink {MuMda x^aon), ia oxoluHlvoly tlio prodiieo of tlio HudBon]ii
IV I'oiiipany's posHCSBioiis and otlmr ]mrt« of North Anicrioa. It is
Miiiimodiu Europo in iinmenso nuiintitiort, pi-iiic,l|ially for ladies' wear ;
. riiii. glos.sy appoaranco, and dark brown eobnir {-iiinilar to sable),
iiibinod with its durability and uiudcrato cost, justly render it a great
M'urito.

Tlio ninsqviasli, or large American luusU rat, is Iniportod into this country
iiuonso numbers: it was formerly used miioli in the niaimfaeturo of
liut the inlroduotion of tlio silk hat has entirely supoi-soded it. The
iia.'^h is now dressed in a superior way, uiul is luauiifaeturod o.xtensively
male wear, both in its natural and <Iyod state. It is a olic-ap, durable,
. lod-IookinK fur. This liuiublo artiele has, we lielieve, been iiitrorlueed

• •: iiublie under every iiaiiio but its real one, and thousands who
are lod to believe that they aro posacsaod of sable, mink, and other
irs.

■•■ beautiful fur known as "swan's-down," of which there were several
Dions, is obtained froni the swan after the feathers have been plucked,
ratliors, prepared .lud purified, aroused for beds, and being exceed-
durablc and elastic, aro particularly suited for that purpose. The
•u's I'ay swan quills are much iu demand for pens, and for
; V brushes or pencils, and oomniand a high price. A portion of the
ige ia also used for omameutal and fancy purposes, and military

10 white hare {Lcpus rjlacialis), from tho Tolish regions, and also fi'om

i;i. is perfectly white in winter, but in suumier it changes to a gi-eyish

The skins being exceedingly tender, it has latterly given place to the

Polish rabbit, which is more durable .and therefore more suitable for

uriiose. When dyed, it looks exceedingly rich and beautiful, and is

|ialiued off upon the inexperienced for superior furs.

Hudson's Bay rabbit is one of the leiwt v.-iluable skins imported by

iiiipany. Like all furs from tho polar regions, it is fine, long, and

but tho skiu is so fragile and tender that it is almost useless; it is,

Aor, dyed and manufactured for ladies' weair. and is sold by many

lo. we believe, under various names, and even frequently as sable ; but,

■ great annoyance of tho purchasers, it soon breaks, tho fur rubs off,

1 falls to pieces.

• large North American black bear is termed tho Army Bear, because
I- is goner.ally used in this and other countries for military purposes,
jis, pistol holsters, rugs, carriage haiumer-eloths, sleigli coverings, and
I paniments. The fine black cub bears are much sought after in Hussia

diiug shube linings, coat linings, trimmings and facings; the other
. with the latge grey bears, for sleigh coverings, &e. The skin of the
Polar bear, the supply of which is very limited, is generally made
rugs, which are often bordered with that of the black and grey be.ar.
1 rawn Isabella bear is at the present time used for ladies' wear in
iea. Forty years since the Isabella bear was the most fashionable fur
-land — a single skin producing from SO to 40 guineas ; but the caprice
1 lion causes similar skins at the present time to produce not more than
ny shillings.
ir the group of bears was a small and valuable collection of the skins

• Sea Otter (Eidnjdra vmritima). This animal is mostly sought after
i.lers on account of its value— a single skin producing from SO to 40
;3. It is said to be the royal fiu- of China, and is much used by the
ifficers of state, mandarins, &c. It is iu great esteem in Russia, and

iicipally worn by the nobles, for collars, cuffs, facings, trimmings, &c.

rouut "of its great weight it is rarely used by ladies.

long North American and Canadian skins, Messrs. Nioholay and Sou
Mi.bited likewise a group of raccoon (Pvocijon latur). The finest qualities
■ raccoon are, we believe, produced in North America, and are imported
to this country in immense numbers. They are purchased here by mer-
lants who .attend the periodical fur sales, and who dispose of large quan-
ies at the great fair at Leip.sic. They are principally used iu Russia and
roughout Germany, for lining shubes and coats, and arc exclusively eon-
led to gentlemen's wear. The dark skins are tho choicest, and are very
lu.able. Wehave next a group of Cat Lynx (FcUs riifa). This aninral is
ostly found in Canada, and is a distinct variety of the lynx species ; the
ins are exported, and are made mto cloak and coat linings, being very
.itable for cold climates, and very moderate in price.
Tlie North American minx is found iu gi-eat numbers in Newfoundland,
ibrador, the Cauadas, &c., and is the finest of the species. Several most
cellent specimens of this skin were shown.

Some furs of the Virginian or North American grey fox completed the
■Uection of the produce of the Canadas. Newfoundland, and Ijabrador.
bis fur is at present used to a considerable extent for opeu carriage wrap-
irs, sleigh wrappers, coat and cloak linings, also for fur travelUng bags,
ot muffs, &c. Its exceedingly moderate price, warmth, and gi-eat dura-
lity render it an especial favourite.

{To be continued.)

Till'; (illE.vr EXHIBITION.

(kIIO-M tub " ATHEX^UM," NOV. li^.)

It in to tho general public that tho producor of ovory nrticio uf utiliLv
turim for oncouragcment and Hupport — and it in therefore in the haiidn of
the great body of purchxicrs that tho futo uf artiatic dcaign an applied to
m.anufacturos lies. By their judgment, whctlier good or bad, tho key must
be given in harmony with which tho artist and tho workman must tuuo
their in<i)iration«. Many, wo have littlo doubt, first turned their attention
to their responsibitiea in thin matter on tho occaaiou of their repeated
visits to tho galleries of tho Crystal I'alaco. There, probably for tho firat
time, they entered on the task of selection in u aeriuus spirit. Aetual
eompiirison furnislicd them with an unerring test of cxeelloMfO ; and many
a losBou on tlio combination of utility and beauty wiw iloubtlcM thoro
intuitively acquired.' The forms of many of the objects diii(ilayed were
thus imprinted on thoir imaginations, lus stamlards wherewith to eomparo
otlioraon which their faculties a.sjudicious purchasers might bo aiibKequenlly
exercised. It is not to bo eipected, however, that the ideas thus formed
could bo otherwise tlian crude and imperfect; and it is fortunate that tho
power of graphic illustration which is now happily so universal amongst
us should bring to their aid the materials requisite for fortifying their
memories anil reviving their original impressions. Who tliat remembers
the costly engravings which illustrate such works aa Stu.irt and Revett's
" Athens," and the early publiciitions of the Dilettanti .Society and of tho
Society of Antiquaries — and turin from them to that wonder of the nine-
teenth century, the "Illustrated London News" — can fail to recognise tho
remarkable extousiou of tho power of graphic delineation in this oountiy
during the last hundred years ! Every draughtsman will at once acknow-
ledge the impossibility of depicting rapidly and correctly an uncea.sing
variety of subjects without the constant exercise of a nice power of dis-
crimination between those peculiarities of form which confer either beauty
or deformity on each different object. The plethora of sketching, which
is the great characteristic of the present age, as compared with the habit
of our forefathers, may be considered to amount almost to a mania ; but,
while it indicates the excitable temperament of a public ever craving after
fresh food for imagination, it by no meiins implies the absence of that
balance of judgment which should exist in every well-regulated mind.
While tlio unceasing swarm of modern periodical publications accumulates
from week to week, and aluiost from day to day, abundant material for
the study of the artist, it ministers largely to the amusement of the public ;
and not to their amusement only — since it provides for those who are
willing to use thorn lessons of no sUght importance. How many are there
whose impressions of picturesque form aro derived almost exclusively
from those sources — tho Protican variety of which serves to demonstrate,
that, when treated by the artist's mind and touched by his skill, almost
every diversity of style may be alike invested with the aspect of grace and
of beauty.

SALTER'S MODEL OF THE GREAT OPENING BRIDGE AT SELBY.

AMOUG.ST the interesting models exhibited, tli.at by Salter of the Great
Opening Bridge at Selby, on the line of the Hull and Solby Railway, is
particul.arlj- worthy of notice, the work represented being of so novel a
character, on account of its large sjjan.

The river Ouse is at all times rapid, and particularly so during tho times
of the frequent freshes or floods ; it required, therefore, that a bridge of
peculiar construction should be resorted to, in order to meet the requii'e-
ments of the peculiar case. By the Act of Parliament for the Hull and
Selby Railway, which obtained the sanction of the Legislature in 1S30, it
was stipulated that the bridge at Selby should have an opening arch of 44
feet span for the sea-borne vessels trailing to York. Messrs. Walker and
Burges, who have erected so many of the cast-iron bridges which are dotted
about iu differeut parts of the kingdom, were engineers for the railway : the
bridge, therefore, was executed under their tlirection ; tho contract fortheiron
work iDcing undertaken by the Butterly Iron Company, .and carried out
with the usual spirit displayed by th.at firm. The river at tlie pomt of
crossiug is about 200 feet iu width, and at low water 14 feet in depth, the
tide rising 9 feet at springs and 4 feet at neaps. The bed of the river
consists of silt resting on a thin bed of sand, beneath which is clay of a
hard qu,ality. The bridge was commenced in the autumn of 1837, and
finished iu the spring of 1840. The laud abutments are constructed of
brickwork and masonry resting on piles ; those imder the west abutment
being IS feet, and those under the opposite abutment 28 feet long respec-
tivelv. The intermediate piers for the support of the superstructure ai-e
formed of opeu pile-work, the piles being driven 15 feet into the soUd clay,
and their tops surmounted with cap sills of Large scanthng, upon which
the iron-work is bedded.

To o-ive additicntil stiffness to the two centre piers, a plan was resorted
to in the bracing, which, although novel iu itself, was executed with veiy
little difficulty, and is found, after yoai-s of experience, fully to .answer the
purpose. This was effected by rounding the centre piles for a portion of
their length, so as to allow the cast-iron sockets to descend and t;ike a
solid bearing on the square shoulders of the piles, to which were connected
the long timber braces; so that when the sockets, with the braces attached,
were let down to their beai-ings, the tops of these braces were brought to
their places at once, and secured to the cap sills.

160

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS.

TABLE AXD BOOKCASE.
BY G. J. MORANT.

t The table is of elegant
design, and distinguished
by the finest workman-
ship. It was made for
the Duchess of Suther
land, and, we believe, from
her design. The swans
are painted white, the
lilies and bulrushes partly
gilt and partly white. The
bookcase is also white
and gold, and of very
pretty design.

A Self-actixq Fire
Alarum and Railway
Whistle.— This is an in-
vention by Mr. D. Lloyd
Price, a watchmaker of
Breconshire, the novelty
of which consists of an ex-
tremely delicate andsensi-
tive expanding compomid
metallic segment, which
may be adjusted to suit
any temperature by means
of a small screw. The
exhibitor having deposit-
ed two of the instruments
in the Exhibition, one has
been since removed, by
permission of the Com-
missioners, to Somerset
House, where it was tested
by being placed in a
room containing about
2000 cubic feet of air.
The machine being ad-
justed afewdegrees above
the temperature in the
room, a sheet of paper was
ignited, and was found
BuflScient to raise the
temperature so as to set
the alarum inmotion. The
mechanism of the instru-
ment consi-ts simply of a
pulley and weight, and a
small lever, which is de-
tached by a helix — the
whole being enclosed in
a sm.iU case about 15 by
18 inclies, including the
small permanent voltaic
battery ; and when once
fixed, the inventor states
that it woiUd not require
to be touched for years,
and would alw.ays remain
like a sentinel ready
charged, giving in.stanta-
neous notice of the ap-
proach of the enemy. One
of these instruments is
sufficient for a whole
building, containing any
number of rooms, and it
may he fixed in any con-
venient position foralarm-
ing the inmates or police
in the event of an un-
usual increase of tempera-
ture in any part of the
edifice. It b also appli-
cable to the holds of ves-
sels, where, in long voy-
ages, spontaneoas com-
bustion and other acci-
dents by fire are likely to
occur. The same principle
of construction is applied
to the steam-whistle in-
vented by the exhibitor,
and which maybe adapted
to steam vessels or loco-
motive railway carriages.

CABINET. — BT TAHAN.

A PIECE of boudoil
furniture, upon which al
that good taste could
suggest and art accom
plish, has been lavished
with an unsparing hand.
It is of peai'-tree wood,
elaborately carved, with
devices in foliage with
birds. In the panels are
very successful copiea on
porcelain of Madame Mitt-
celle's celebrated studies
after Goethe's " Mignon,"
the originals of whir;
formerly belonged to tli-
Duke of Orleans, but ar
now in the possession l:
M. Mole.

Irish Chemical Peo
BUCE — Bamelton, Codn
TT OF Donegal. — W,
observed in the Great Ex
hibition a case of chemi
cal stuflfs, produced iron;
Irish sea- weed, %'iz.,iodin(
chloride of potasian sul
phate of potash, am
alkal ine or kelp sal t, maau
factured in the Rameltoi
Chemical Works, by the
exhibitor, Mr. John Ward
These works, the first o
the kind started in Ire
land, were established bj
Mr. Ward, in March
1845, in Eamelton — i
small town on an arm o
Lough Swilly, count;
Donegal, within abou
fifteen miles of Derrj
Previous to their establisi;
meut the people of th
northwest coast of Ir(
land had comparativel;
no home-market for thi
produce of their industry
in so far as regarded thi
manufactm-e of kelp fron
sea-weed, consequently
but little w.as produced
out since the opening o
the works in Ramelton, i
large annual consumptior
of kelp at the works, hai
caused it to be made ii
much gi'eater abumiance
and the prices raised tc
a considerable extent
creating, thereby, nol
only a large circulation
of money in that part ol
the country, but confer
ring gi'eat benefits on the
neiglibouring coasts, bj
the extensive employment
it affords to the poorei
classes in the neiglibour-
ing districts. A very con-
siderable shipping trade
has also sprung up in
vessels varying from .^0
to 120 tons, which the
importation of raw mate-
rials, and tlie exportation
of manufactured stuffs,
have been the means of
bringing to Lough Swilly.
We understand that the
iodine and other chemi-
cal produce of these
works already bear
good reputation in tl
London and continental
markets.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

SCULPTURE.

THESKUS ANn

THE AMAZdNS.

DY T. F.yorA..

This group, which
is tho property of
Priuoe Albert,
occupied a good
position in the
South Transept,
[ facing tho crystal
I fountain. Tho
artist is a Hunga-
rian by birth, but
has studied many
years in this
country, and also
at Rome, at which
latter place this
group was exe-
cuted.

I The situatiou iu-
tended to be pre-
sented is an inci-
dent supposed to
have occurred in
the coui'se of the
war of the Atheni-
ans under Theseus
against tho Ama-
is ; when one of
the female war-
riors being badly
wounded, a sister
in arms rushes to
her rescue ; and,
having seized her
iji her arms, is
about to deal ven-
geance on tho foe,
when on a sudden
a sentiment of
pity touching tho
breast of the
wounded Amazon,
:n she views his
I'l.istrate position,
-lie restrains the
.•ym which was to
!iivo dealt his
'I. :ithblow. The
-icup, which i.s
' xocuted in mar-
ble, is prettily eon-
eeived, and carried
fiut with graceful
rather than power-
ful effect. There
is in fact a certain
degree of tanieness
about it leading to
disappointment,
which may be ac-
counted for by the
fact that the artist

No. 11, December 13, 1861.

THESEUS AND THE AMAZONS.— T. ENGEt,

has not sought to
embody tlie Ama-
zonian phy^tiqu/i in
his female sub-
jects. 51. Engol's
heroine wants a
little of the mascu-
line energy of the
Amazon of Klw.
Witli this reserva-
tion, we must add
that the figures
in this group are
executed with
great artistic feel-
ing ; the character
of the heads is
dignitied and ex-
pressive. The
draperies are not
BO successful ; they
want flow and
smoothness.

The actions of
this race of hero-
ines whether fabu-
lous or not, were
often the subject
of the ancient
sculptor's chisel.
There ai'e varioa-;
representations of
the figui-es and
costume of Ama-
zons among the
terra-cottas in the
British Museum.
The battles of the
Athenians and the
Amazons ai-e re-
presented on the
tiiezes of the Tem-
ples of Theseus at
Athens, and of
Apollo Epicunis
on Jlount Coty-
liou, near the an-
cient city of Phi-
galeia, in Arcadia.
In the latter sculp-
tures, which arc
now in the British
Museum, the Ama-
zons are all repre-
sented with perfect
and weU-shaped
breasts. Indeed,
the s.'mie is the
case in all the
other ancient

works in which
'I Amazonsareiutro-
duced ; they are
invariably sculp-
tured with both
breasts entire ; but
they have gene-
rally, like the
huntresses atten-
dant on Diana, one
exposed and the
other concealed
by drapei-y. ^

Pmce On-e Texny.

162

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

MINING AND METALLURGY.

EXTRACTION AND PREPARATION' OF MINERAL ORES.
THE ores which exist in mineral veins are, to a certain extent, obtained
durinf the cutting of the longitudinal galloiies described in our last
article on this subject ; but as these arc situated at considerable distances
from each other, the ores tluis raised form but a very iucousiderablo portion
of the contents of the entire lode. To extract, therefore, the whole of the
I'lefcils contained in the vein, the muieral ore is worked out between the
diflFerent levels, and the space thus loft unoccupied is filled up with unpro-
ductive fragments of rock, arising from the other operations of the mine.

On reaching the surface the ores are broken by means of largo hammers,
and dirided into classes, according to their relative richness in metal, whilst
the stony and valueless portions are picked out and thrown away. Few
ores contain so large an amount of metal as to render their concentration
by mechanical meivns unnecessarj-, and various contrivances are conse-
riuently employed for the removal of these earthy impurities, before
subjecting them to metallurgic treatment.

In order to reduca the fragments of mineral ores, and particularly those
of copper, to a proper and uniform size for the subsequent mechanical
concentration, large cylinders of cast iron, moved in contrary directions,
either by water or steam power, are frequently employed. These rollers
are so aiTanged as to admit of being either advanced closer together or
separ.ated at a greater distance, according to the nature of the ores to be
crashed ; and in order to prevent accident from the passage of large pieces
of stone too hard to be broken, a certain elasticit}- is given to the app.iratus
by causing the cylinder to be constantly forced together by a long lever
acting on the bearings in which they work. The other extremity of this
lever is loaded with a hcai'y weight, by wliich, when a largo fragment passes
through, the arrangement is slightly lifted, and the apparatus itself j)ro-
tectcd from nipture. On passing through the rollers the crashed ore falls
into the higher extremity of an inclined cylinder of coarae wire gauze :
this, being set in motion by the same power as the rollers themselves,
ilividcs the mineral into two distinct classes ; the one passing through the
meshes of the trellis, and falling on the floor — whilst the other, which is
too large to pass through the apertvu'es of the sieve, is carried out at the
lower end of the hollow cylinder, where it falls into the buckets of an
endless chain, by which it is again brought to the level of the mill, where it
is rccnished.

Many minei'als, and especially the ores of tin, instead of being passed
between rollers, as above described, are pounded into small fragments by
Large pestles, moved either by water or ste.am power. The macliiue by
■.vhieli this is effected is cdled a stamping mill, .and the pestles or liftei-s by
whicli the ore is cruslied are sot in motion by an axlo, with cams spirally
nrri-mged around it, po that each lifter may give throe blows during otio
revolution of the axle. The lower part of this macliine, where tlie iron
heads of the pestles come in contact with the mineral to be broken, is
inclosed in a large wooden trough, in which are several openings fitted
with small laetallio gratings through which the pounded ore is washed by
a current of water, wliieh is constantly passing tlu'ough the gratings ; and
the powdered mineral is in tliis way carried off into large pits, wliere it
subsides in t'le form of a finely-divided sand.

The mechanical coni*ntration of ores depends in principle on the circum-
stance tliat, if bodies of very different specific gravities, and of nearly the
same dimensions, are fir-t agitated together in water, and tlien allowed to
subside, they will be found to have arranged themselves at the bottom of
the vessel very ne.-u-ly in accordance with their sever.al densities; and
therefore the lieavier minerals, wliea thus treated, are readily separated
from the lighter earthy impurities, with which they ai'e constautiy
associated.

One of the most simple methods of effecting this objeot is by the use of
the hand-sieve, which is made of a sheet of perforated copper fixed in a
deep wooden hoop. To use this it is first partially filled with tlie crushed
ore, and then held by the workman in a large tub filled with water, wiiere
he gives to it a sort of undulating motion, which causes the richer and
heavier portions to accuirmlatc on the bottom, and the earthy grains to
rise on the surface. After a short time ho withdraws the sieve from the
water, anl whilst it is resting on the edge of the tub, he scrapes off, by
means of a piece of thin iron, the particles thrown on the smTace. This is
followed by a second washing and scraping, and when the whole of the
worthless matter is removed, that which remains at the bottom of the sieve
is sufficientlj- pure to be at once subjected to metallurgic treatment.

Instead of using hand-sieves, machines are now generally emi^loyed for
this purpose. On the continent the sieve, instead of being moved directly
by the hand, is attached to the end of a long Imlauced lever ; and in this
country the use of the hand-sieve is almost superseded by the jigging-
machine, which consists of a number of copper .sieves fixed iu tbe lid of a
large cistern, in wliich the level of the water is alteniatuly r.uscd and lowered
in rapid succession by a piston, set iu motion by machinery. The water

wliich is thus made to pass through the meshes of the sieves produces on
the mineral which they contain the Siame effect as if the sieves were them-
selves moved in the water; and therefore, after i-epeatedly removing the
lighter particles which constantly accumulate on the surface, the ore which
remains at the bottom of the sieves is sufficiently pure to be ready for
immediate metallurgic treatment. Of the portions which .arc scraped off
the sieves, the lightest, which contains little or no metallic ore, is thrown
away, as being entirely useless ; but the second — which consists of a mixture
of gauguo and metalliferous substances, together with the fine dust which
passes through tho holes of the sieves— is sent to the stamping mUls, where
it is reduced to the state of a very fine powder, by which means gi'eater
facilities ai-e afforded for its separation from tho earthy matters with which
it is associated.

The water and fine sand escaping through the gratings of this machine
are now conducted into a kind of reservoir, where the heavier particles
are first deposited, whdst the poorer and consequently lighter parts are
removed to a gi-eater distance. By this treatment a certain classification
of the stamped ore is eSected, as those portions which have been carried
by the force of the water beyond a given point are collected in a scpai-ato
pit from those which have not an-ived so far from the stamping niUls.

The method of wa-shing and preparing these sands for subsequent metal-
lurgical tre.itment differs according to the nature of the ores which they
contain, and it is also more or less regulated by the state of division iu
which thoy occm'. In all cases, however, these operations are dependent
on precisely the same physical principles ; and the prepai'ed ores, when in
a finished state, should be so far freed from earthy impurities as to admit
of being advantageously fused in properly constructed furnaces^ for the
purpose of extracting the metal which they contain.

Among the models of machinery relating to this subject exhibited was a
jigging-machine, and a huddle for washing gold ores, by Mr. J. Hunt. The
jigging-maehine consists of a set of sieves, to which a rapid up-and-down
motion is given by a earned wheel acting on tbe ends of levers, to which
they are suspended ; and it differs only from that iu general use, inasmuch
as the sie\e3 are in most instances moved by either a crank or exocntric,
which, although subject to very much less wear and tear than the cam
motion, does not give such decided or rapid movement to the particles of
ore resting on the meshes.

The huddle, or washing-box, for gold ores, differs from that in common
use, in having moveable buttons on the head-board, by which an even
thiekness of water may be directed over its wliole surface. This, in many
operations, is of much importance, and in such cases the aijparatus will bo
found advantageous.

The different processes by which the concentration of the metallic ores
may be effected, were best exhibited in a model of the Tywarnhaile dressim;
floors, which included some of tbe latest and most important improvements
which have been introduced into this branch of industry.

There was also a caso in this department, containing a series of products
obtained by Mr. Lougmaid, iu the purification, according to his patent
process, of the various metallic ores of which sulphui' forms a principiil
ingredient. This proces' consists in calcining, iu a furnace having several
successive floors, a mixture of the ore in fine powder with a proper ijuau-
tity of common salt, by v liich means, sulphates of soda, and some of tiio
other salifiable ba.ses present, are produced ; and those minerals, such as
the oxide of tin. which do not afford a strong base, are subsequently obtained
as a residue of lixiviation.

The less arsenic contained In the ore the better it will be for thi.5 purpose,
althouLdi its presence is not an insurmountable objection, especially if
associated witli a small per-centage of copppr. A charge is by this method
drawn about every twcuty-four hours from the front bed, and each of the
three remaining c arges will then be moved forward to the next lower beil,
and a fresh charge put into the upper one — each of the charges being
kept regularly raked in its turn. A brisk fire is to be kept up i:i the
furnace during the whole time, and a damper is applied to the chimney to
obtain regulation. As the decomposition of the salt and oro proceeds, the
mixture IS gradually prepared for the increase of temperature obtained by
removal from the upper to tbe next lower bed. and so on, approaching tho
fire. The opeuation appears to proceed best when, ou the bed nearest the
fire, it has been brought to a semi-pasty conditi m, or when the mas.s 1 as a
tendency to agglomerate, and seems to be moist on tho surface. By the
increase of temperature to which it is here exposed, the charge soon begins
to dry up. so that it is eventually dra^-n in a granular condition. The
sulph.ate ash obtained contains sulphate of soda, or salt-cake, chloride of
sodium, oxides of iron, a soluble salt of copper, and oxide of tin (if any tin
was present in tbe ore employed), provided tlic ore be iron i).vrites; aud if
other ores are used, other products will be obtained. Tlie ash, being
lixiviated with water, affords the oxides of iron aud tin. If oxide of tin be
contained in the ore employed, it may be 5epar.ated from the residual
matters by washing— the gi-eater specific gravity of the oxide of tin render-
ing the separation comparatively easy. 'I'ce copper may be separ.ated from
tlie solution either with iron, as is well understood, or by the adiliti"u of
lime slacked in wat- r, forminga milk of lime. Iron precipitates the copper
in a metallic form, but it is thrown down by litn" as art oxide, associated
with tlie excess of that earth employed, ami with some small portion of
sulphate of lime. Tho precipitate, having been separated by filtration
from the refined liquor, is -.veil washed, ui order to effect the complete
separation of sulphate of soda, and chloridi" of todiuni— the liquora
obtained being employed in the lixiviation of fresh sulphate ash.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPyEDIA OF TUK GREAT EXFIIBITIOX OF IBr.l.

K,3

Thin pi'' i:
very much

ijiilatB is bulky, but by filtration nnd (li'yii)c; its volunio in
(liiniuiKl)od, iiiiil it ia tlicii obtiiiucd in a cuiulitiini fit for
reduction t'l tlio Miotallic state by tho \i.~ual nioLdluixical pruccs). The
Holutiou from which tne eiipi)er hiis- been Bepirutod nmy, if roiiuired, bo
eoiiconlnitod by boiling, and sutasidu to crystjiUiaa iu suitiiblB vesael-<, very
fin- crystals of Kulpliate of sodabeiLig obtuinalil-.

In connection with this subject, the Bcries of spocimons illustrativo of
tho priiceai invented by Mr. Kobert Oxland, of I'lyinouth, for dre-'sing
<irea of tin a.-'sociatcd with wolfram, ia particularly iloaenung of attention,
•■w "'xlcibitiiig the benefits dorivable from the direct application of scientific
irinciplos to practical purpose--. Thirf proccs-) is in comniou operation ut
Diako Walls tin mine, on the bauka of the Tamar. Tho ore raised in this
mine is os-sociatcd with a largo quantity of wolfram, as well as with th»
ordinary matrix of eartliy matters, mixed witli a variety of uiotallic com-
jiounds. Tlu-.io aro princii)ally .silica and alumina, with iron, ami arsenical
and copper i)yrito.i Tiie ovc, wlien fir.it lirouL'ht to the surface, is in
largo ma!ises, and is then hand-picked and spallod, or broken over, to
separate, ai much as possible, the earthy matter.^, aud to reduce it to a
suitable aizo for tlie crushing mill — which consists of a pair of heavy iron
rollers revolving a-^'aiust each other, driven either by a water-wheel or
steam-engine.

Tlie crushed ore is subjected to a series of washing operations, both in
running and instill water, by which means tho earthy matters, which are of
a much lower specific gravity than tlio tin ore, aro separated therefrom,
and tho '' black tin " of the miner is loft associated with the pyrites and
wolfram. In tlii.-i condition tho product of the w.ashing is termod witts ;
and it is also denominated jigged, tluran, smalcs, slime, or rows, according
to its degree of fineness, varying from a coarse grain, about the size of a
pea, dovMt to that of tiie finest flour.

The diffcsrent kinds are now sep.iratoly subjected to calcination, at a rod
heat, in a reverbtratory furnace ; the suliihur and arseuie of the pyrites
are thereby converttd into sulphurous and araenious acids, botli of
which are, at tho same time, volatilised, aud carried up tlie cliimuey — aud
thu-i, not uufrequently, the wltts put into the furnaee are found at the end
of the calciuiug operation to be reduced to less than ouG-half of the original
weight.

Tho residue consists of tho black tin and wolfram, both of which have
resisted the influence of fire, with the oxide of iron and copper of the
pyrite-!. The calcined ore is subsetpicutly removed from th» biu'ning
hotise, or furnace, to tlie " burning house floors," where, by a series of
wasliing operations, the residuary eartliy matters are removed, tog^-tber
with the iron and copper — whilst the black tin, or oxide of tin, is left,
associated with the wolfram, which cannot be sepai'ated by any of the
operations already described, ou account of its being of greater speoiflo
gravity than tlic tiu itself.

Under ordinary circumstances, the ore, by this series of operations,
Vionld have been now brought into a saleable form, ready for the smelting-
hou.ie : ami although it formerly obtained a very low price from the
siu'-ltor". the dressing of the Drake Walls ores was tenniuated at this stage,
until Mr. Oxland inveut-'d a procesj for the supplementary separation of
wolfi-uii. This process con.sists iu mixing with tiio dressed, ore a certain
proportion of soda a-^h, the crude carbonate of soda, or of the crude .-ul-
phat" of Foda, with powdered coal, and subjecting the mixture to a calcining
opcratiou, at a red lieat, iu a revevberatory furnace of ])ecuUar construction.
The decomposition of the wolfram is ejected in the following way : — Tlie
tungstic acid leaves the oxide of iron and enters into combination with the
soda, producing tuugstate of soda, which, being soluble in water, is removed
by w:is!iiug — the oxide of iron, &c., being carried off iu mechanical sus-
pjnsion ; aud th« resiilue consists of the pure black oxide of tiu. The
tungstate of soda is obtained by the conceutratiou of its solution, and
sub.5ciiueut crystallisation. Ores thus operated ou have been increased in
value from 42/. to 57/. per ton; aud after charging every expense, without
allowing anything for the value of tlie tungstate of soda produced, a profit
has accrued of from 71. to SI. per ton. The tungstate of soda is at this
time being introduced as a mordant for dyeing purposes, and in this form
it will produce a much more than sufficient amount to repay all the cost of
tlie process, leaving a profit of nearly 20/. per ton ; aud thus, by a simple
eheuiical process, a -ubstauce originally prejudicial to the ore is converted
into a highly useful agent.

B2ET-R00T SUGAR.
AT the last meeting of the Britiih Associatiou, Professor Hancock read a
paper " Ou tho Prospects of the Beet Sug.ar Manuliicture of the United
Kiugdom," of which the following is an abstract ; — Public attention had
been directed to this manufacture by the effort to establish a public com-
pany in London for its introduction into Ireland. He had learnt that, at
Maldon, the manufacture had been attempted by a private company ; but
this attempt led to failure in a short time. A manufactoi'y had been
recently established at Chelmsford, and contracts had been entered into
with tlie farmci-s in that neighbourhood. The prospects of the manufae-
tiu-e depended on the answers to throe questions : 1. What was the price
of beet-root likely to be for a series of ye;irs ! 2. AMiat was the price of
refined beet-sugar likely to be after 1854 ? 3. Would it be profitable to
carry ou the manufactm'e at these probable prices of the raw produce aud
manufactm-ed article? As to the price of beet-root, its price varied
in France fi-om an average of 13-s. lid. per tou in the uorth-ea.st, to

18». 5(/. per ton in tho northwcat. Tho uvcrago for tho wliolo of Franco
w.as 15». !}(/. per ton. In Ireland tho price htatcd to bo contracted
for tho Sugar liect Company w.th 15». (Sd. per ton, and the price ia t^nnex
was from 18*. to 20i». jier ton. TIiuh it appeared tliat tho preocnt price in
lieland wufl higher tlian tho average of Kranco, and tho present price in
Ireland was higher than the average of tho highest-priced districtii of France,
What tho future price in Ireland and Knglaml w,a« likely to be wfis a difH-
ciilt question, and had not been as yet fully inveatigatod. As to the second
ipicstion -the price of refined Ijeet augar after 1854— it was necessary to
tako tho year 1854, beoau.so at present there wa.s a diffcrantial duty in
favour of home grown boot sugar, whiph would diniiniah each year, and
coafio after July, 1854. After that timo the abort price of rcfiuotl beet
sugar would most probably not exceed 27a. to 28s. per cwt,, and tlio long
price would most probably not exceed 40». 4<l. to 41». id. per cwt. Indeed,
a full bolow those prices might bo anticipated from three causes: 1. From
the diminished cost of production of ro ined cane sugar, consequent on tho
increased consumption produced by the fall of its market price from
49». id. to 424'. id. per cwt. on the equalieation of the duties. 2. From
the removal of the absurd restrictioDS now imposed ou cane-sugar refiners.
3. From the competition between cane-sugar and beet sugar, if the Latter
were maniifiicturcd to any extent. — As to the thinl question, would it be
profitable to manufacture from beetroot at the Irish price of 15j. !id. per
ton, or the 1-^sscs i>rice of lUa. per ton, refined sugar to sell at 28«. per cwt)
The calculations on this point which had been most relied ou were two in
number— that of Mr. W. K. Sullivan, chemist to the Museum of Irish
Industry in Dublin, and that of M. Paul llamoir, of the finii of Serrct,
Hamoir, Duquesne, and Co., the largest manufacturers of bcet-'^ugar at
Valenciennes, dated 18th of April, 1850. These estimates were as follows : —

Mn. Sullivan's iistimate fop. inELAXD.

60,000 tons of beet, at 15.^. per ton £4.'».0O0

Coat of miinufacture, at Ua. per ton of beet 27,000

Total Olltloy . . .... 72.000

Produce, 6 per cent, of sugar, at 28s. per cwt 03,000

. £'21,0«0

Estimated proSt . ....

SAME ESTIMATE APPLIED TO E.SSE.X.

00.000 tons of beet, at 19s. per ton £57.000

Cost of manuCactui'e, at Oj. per ton of beet 27,000

Total oatlfiy (M.OOO

Prodliw, 5 per cent, of sugar, at 2.S^. per cwt ^3,000

Estimated profit only £tf,00O

11. PAUL IIAMOia's ESTIMATE FOB FHANCE.

Gl,!j07 tons of beet, at 12s. lltf. per ton ... . . 6-''.S,400

Cost of manufacture, nearly 13s. per ton of beet . . . 39,900

Total outlay .... . . 78.300

I'lvdnce, i\ per cent, of nugar, at 39s. por cwt. . . . . 114,000

Estimated profit in France ... . £35,700

SAME ESTIMATE APPLIED TO IHELAND.

(U,G07 tons of beet, at 15s. G(f. per ton

Co.st of manufacture, nearly 13s. per ton of beet 39,900

. £16,080

Total outlay aijOSO

... 81,430

ri-o.luce, 4i per cent, of sugar, at 2Sj. per cwt
Estimated loss in Ireland

S.iME ESTIMATE APPLIED TO ESSEX

61,607 Ions of beet, at 19s. per ton

Cost of manufacture, nearly 13s. per ton of beet

Total outlay

Produce, 4i per cent, of sugar, at 2Ss per cwt. .

. £1,550

. £5R,.527
. 39,900

98,427
81,430

Estimated loss iu Essex £16,997

From these simple calculations it appeared at once that, by only intro-
ducing into the estimates the Irish and English prices of beetroot and of
refined beet-sugar, tho result was so v.aricd as to turn a profit of 35,000/.
at the French prices, on a capitiU of 78.000/., into a loss of 4000/. at the
Irish jjrices, and a lo.ss of 16,000/. at the Essex prices. It followed, there-
fore, that the French estimate did not, as had been alleged, corroborate
Mr. Sullivan's estimate ; ou the contrary, it showed how fallacious it was
to reason from the success of the manufacture in France to its success in
tho United Kingdom, without taking into account the difi'erence of the
jirices of beet-root and refined beet-sugar in both countries — the difference
iu economic conditions between the two countries being aloue sufficient to
make that which was profitable in France unprofitable here. The manu-
facture of beet-sugar had been fii'st commenced in France when the couti-
uental system of Napoleon and the ret.aliation of Enghind had almost
excluded cane sugar from France. From that time, to the present, beet-
sugar had always had the protection of au artificial price — (tie present price
being 39s. per cwt. iu France as compared with 28s. per cwt. in this country*.
In every other country iu the world where beet-sugai- b.ad been produced-
it had the protection of an artificiitl high I'l'ice. The conclusion was mani-
fest, therefore, that, from any calculations yet submitted to the public, it
appeared that the manufactm-e of beet-sugar could not be profitably carried
ou in the United Kir.^idom.

164

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

t FOREIGN AND COLONIAL
DEPARTMENTS.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM

CEYLON.
"pEW, if any, of our East-
em possessions were
fairly represented at the
Great Exhibition, not even
the East Indies, where all
the power of the Company
was brought to bear. This
has been in great part
owing to the shortness of
time permitted for the
collection of objects ; but
many complaints have been
made in the colonies that
they received no official
notice of the Exhibition
for two or thi-ee months
after it had been mentioned
in the papers, and that
therefore no persons felt
inclined to act. Added to
these delays were the in-
diflerence of the native
population in Ceylon and
elsewhere, and the natural
obstacles of climate, diffi-
culty of transport, &c.,
peculiar to those tropical
regions.

■ As regards Ceylon, it was
not until March, 1850, that
a local committee was form-
ed; aud to ensure the arrival
of the goods by the pre-
scribed time, the 1st of
March, they had to be ship-
ped by the end of Septem-
ber, thus leaving but six
clear months for articles
which requu'ed at least a
year. The consequence was
that there was scarcely any-
thing exhibited in that art
for which the natives of
Ceylon have been justly
celebrated, that of carving
in wood and ivory. It is
quite impossible to per-
suade a Cingalese carver to
work fa.ster than is his cus-
tom; he will not depart
from long-established usage.
The ivory-work of Ceylon
isscarcely known in Europe,
and it is deeply to be regi-et-
ted that no worthy speci-
men of this species of carv-
ing arrived on this occasion.
The inlaid furniture of
ebony, calamander, &c., i.s
jierhaps unequalled in any
part of the world ; yet but
two specimens came to
hand. t - 'i

Ceylon is prolific in
fibrous materials, many of
which arc well adapted a?
substitutes for Uax and
hemp. Some of these were
sho^vn in the raw aud ma-
nufactured state.

The earthenware of the
Cingalese is more curious
tliau valuable ; the art of
pottery with them being,
in all probability, not more

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPiRDLV OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

1G5

adviuiccd iLaa in tiio tiiuu
Tuitod

when riutc'iiiy aiul tlio Arabian navigiitoi'ii fiint

The utmost riidi.tii itil.-, T.'xl>r'jhano.

The Bamo rcniai-k will apply with equal truth to thuir agi-icuUiual and
manufacturing implLMncutn. The C'ingalesi; women may still bo sucn
grinding tlicir corn, " two at one stone," aa doscribud in Scripture.

The bows and arrows employed by the wild Vcddalis of tlio Ouvah and
Bintonno districts, in the hunting of deer and buflidocH, ai'e remarkable for
llttlo beyond their siinplicity and diminutiveness.

The coffee, the cinnamon, and the cocoa-nut oil of Ceylon are articles
well-known in the commercial world : they are o<iual, if nut superior, to
the production of
any other country.
There wore aUo to
be found models
of the building.=!,
machinery, and im-
plements employeil
in coffee iilanta-
tions in Ceylon.
Models of the Cinga-
lese fiahiug-eanoea,
which are of very
singidar and beau-
tiful construction,
unlike those of any
other country, were
displayed with their
nets and gear on a
proper scale.

First in value and
importance were
specimens of cinua-
mon, a spice highly
prized from long
antiquity, and pecu-
liar to the " utmost
Indian isle." Java
has in vain at-
tempted to pro-
duce cinnamon that
should rival the
fine spice of Cey-
lon, and the rough
coarse bark grown
on the Malabar
coast cannot be
compared with it.
The Portuguese and
Dutch preserved a
strict monopoly of
the cultivation and
trade in this arti-
cle ; and it waa not
untU the year 1833
that the British
Government threw
open the privilege
of dealing in it to
the public. Since
that period, the
preserved Spico
Gardens h.ave been
sold, and are now
cultivated by pri-
vate p.irties. It is
sorted into three
qualities, and is
just now worth an
average price of 2s.
the pound in this
market.

Cinnamon is the
bark of the Laurm cinna/iioni, freed from its outer cuticle, and removed
from the sticks in long narrow slips : these pieces of bark are rolled into
pipes or quilh, in layers of three or four, and are dried gradually, first in
the shade, and then in the sun.

A cinnamon plantation of 800 acres will produce annually 400 bales of
spice, of 100 lb. each. The present consumption of cinnamon of Ceylon
gi-owth is about 3500 bales per annum, of which not more than the 500
are used in this coimtry; the remainder are taken chiefly by France, .Spain,
and South America.

Of far more recent date, though equally important as an article of com-
merce, is coffee. Twenty yeara ago, the Cuffea arabica was scarcely known
in Ceylon. It was not until the years 1S32 and 1834 that a very few
Europeans commenced the cultivation of the coffoe-bush. There are now

IIOO ostatcH, comprining 50,000 acres of laiiil, all uniler coffee; the iihip-
ments amounting to 360,000 cwt. anniuUly. Thin article is all grown
inland, at varioun altitudes, tlio bent being from tlio liiglicHt cntitea.

('iiir fibio and mjiu m made fri>in the outer husk of the cocoa-nut;
the kernel of the nut yielding a most uhcful oil by prchsurCi which is
exported to Europe in large quantitio«.

Paddij is rice with itH natural Hkin upon it, and in this state m gircn to
all sorts of cattlo and poultry. The rice of Ceylon is not nearly so fine aa
that brought to thw country from Carolina and Bengal, but it has very
nutritious qualities, and the Cinga'cse and many Kuropcans prefer it to any
other dtscription.
The woods of Ceylon are scarcely inferior to those of any other country,

and exist in great
variety. There are
upwards of four
hundred kinds, of
which one-half aro
employed for a va-
riety of purpo.sce, '
the remainder being
useless. Thp orna-
mental woods are
ebony, calamander,
satin, cocoa-nut,
peyimbeyo, teak,
tamarind, jack, pal-
myra, &c. The most
abundant of the
woods used for
house and ship-
building, of which
specimens have been
sent, are halmanilla,
teak, morotto, daw-
ete, mango, keena,
hall, and horra.

Besides coir, there
are several fibrous
substances in Cey-
lon capable of being
turned to useful
purposes. Amongst
those forwarded to
the Exhibition were
fibres, both in their
natural and pre-
pared state, fi-om
the pine-apple, hi-
biscus, plantain,
Hansei'cira zctonica,
and Adam's needle.
There are a num-
ber of giuns and
resins in Ceylon
unknown in this
country, most of
which are employed
medicinally by the
native practition-
era. Besides these,
a collection of medi-
cinal plants, roots,
and seeds, in a dried
state, was exhibited.
Many of them pos-
sess valuable pro-
perties, well kuomi
iu Ceylon, in the
removal of fever,
dysentery, liver, and
cholera. The Dutch
and Cingaleso doc-
toi-s seldom have
recoui-se to any but
vegetable medicines, and these are often found to succeed where European
remedies have failed. The collection was forwarded by Mr.T. Piries of Kandy.
Under the head of Machinery, Implements, &c., we observed three models
of the various works and their fittings, as employed on coffee estates.
Fii'st, there was the pidping-houac, with its pulpers, cisterns, &e., for remov-
ing the outer red husk of the coffee beny ; and afterwards washing the
mucilage from it. Nest came the stove, and moveable trays running on
wlieeled platforms, whereon the washed coffee is exposed to the sun in its
inner covering of parchment-skin. When thoroughly dried to a flinty
hardness, the berries are removed to the adjoining building, the peeling-
house, where a pair of copper-covered wheels are revolving in a circulai'
trough, under which the parchment rapidly breaks, and becomes detached
from the coffee beans.

CONTRIBUTION'S FKOM THE IONIAN I.?LAND.S.

166

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

Near these was another model of a store for curing coflee. This is of
pecuhar construction, and fitted xip according to a process which ha'! beeu
patented by the ingenious inventor, Mr. Clershew, of the Rathongodde
estate. It "is formed on the principle of curing the cofiee whilst in the
parchmtnt by means of a current of hot air, to be used dm'iug weather
when out-of-door drying would be impossible.

The models of Cingalese palanquins must be regai-ded rather as curiosi-
ties than as specimens of fine work. Too much praise, however, can

IN"L.^ID WOOD T-VIILK, FKOM CCVI.OM.

scai'cely be accorded to the constniotion of the three Cingalese boats,
which are unique, not only as specimens of handicraft, but as models of
very singular and beautiful vessels. The long sailing canoe, to be fully
admired, .should be seen in full sail when' going at a speed of fourteen
miles tlic hour-, which it frequently does. The flat-bottomed fishing
dhoney, with its nets and accoutrements, is a very pretty thing. The large
dhouey is such as is employed in the coasting trade of Ceylon, for the
transport of rice, tobacco, salt, betcl-uuts, &e. They vary in size from 30
to 200 tons, and not the lea.st singular feature about them is, that not one
iron nail is used in their build, notliiug but wooden pegs and coir string
holding the planks and beams together.

The plough, harrow, and rake of the Cingalese agriculturist attest the
little improvement effected m their operations, which have uo doubt
remained unchanged during the la.st ISOO ycai's.

Amonsst manufactured articles, the most attractive was, undoubtedly, a
table and stand of ebony, richly carved, and beautifully inlaid with fifty
variously-tinted woods of Ceylon. There was also a desk composed of por-
cupine quills, a Ciirved ebony box, .an ivory stand in imitation of a cocoa-
nut blossom, and some other trifles. These form but a titlie of what
might have been exhibited, had time permitted.

There were some rather grotesque specimens of native pottery, the only
one worthy of notice being a painted tea pot used by the king of Kandy,
which wa.s of immense size.

There were a number of specimens of cordage, &c, woven from the fibres
previously named : also a pretty Kandiau mat, and scvei-al ornaments dis-
played by the Kaudian kings on state occasions, made from fibres, and
dyed with indigenous roots.

The Veddah bows and arrows exhibited were such as are actu.ally employed
in the present day by a wild and almost unknown race of Cingalese, in the
pursuit of deer, buffidoes, and wild boirs. 'I'liis singular cast of aborigines
dwell entirely amongst rocks, or perched in trees hko monkeys, living
chiefly on roots, seed, and a little deof or buftalo flesh.

Tlie manufactured oils of Ceylon are mumcrous, though most of them
are at present unknown in this country. They may be divided into medicinal
and commercial. Many of the former are said to possess valuable
properties, yet, with the exception of the castor oil, they are not known
to any but native practitioners. These were forwarded by Mr. Pines, of
Kandy. Of the oils of commerce, the cocoa-nut, cinnamon, lemon-grass,
citronella, and kekuna are tolerably well known, the first being highly
useful for bumijig in lamps ; the second is chiefly employed in medicine
and confectionary.

Arrack is a spirit distilled from the fermented juice of the cocoa-nut
tree, called loddy, and has long been known in England as forming the
chief ingredient of Vauxhall punch. The sample sent is very curious,

having been upwards of thirty years in bottle, and coming origmally from
the cellar of the last Dutch Governor of Ceylon.

THE IONIAN ISLANDS.
The Ionian Islands is the collective name given to a straggling group of
islands iu the Ionian Sea, off the west coast of Albania, and of the seven
principal of which the following table gives the names, area, and population,
mlS14.

Area in

Population

sfiimre miles.

in 1844.

Corfu

227

ci.era

Cephalonia . . ...

3iS

69,98i

Corigo

lie

11,694

Sauta-Mxura . . . .

180

18,676

Paxo

5017

Tlieaki

4-i

10,821

Zanto

Totals . .

151

38,929

1097

219,797

They are included in the list of British Colonies, because although
nominally a rex>ublio, they were by the treaty of Piuis, 1815, put under tlis

EILVRR DROOCn, FKOM TJH-: I0.1IAX I3I..VNDS.

protection of the Sovereign of the British Empire, who exercises his
authority, through a Lord High Gommisnioner. By the Constitutions!
Chai'ter of 1817, the executive government is reposed iu a Senate, com-
posed of six members, of whom the President is nominated by the Crown
of England, upon the recommendation of the Lord High Commissioner.
The rest of the senators are chosen by the Legislative Assembly, from
amongst their members, with the approbation of the Lord High Com-
missioner. The Legislative Assembly consi>^ts of forty members, of whom
eleven are cliosen by the Lord High Commissioner, and are styled the
Primary Council, or integral part of the assembly. The other twcnty-uiue
are chosen by the elective bodies of the various i-lauds, which are iu pro-
portion to their population, with the proviso only, — that they must be
chosen from lists of candidates prepared by the Primary Council. It will
be seen tlierefore that the power of the Britisli Government, through its
representative, is to all intents and purposes absolute ; there being no
original authority, executive or legi.^lative, to dispute his will.

The expenses of government for 1814 were 143,198?., the revenue
120,236/. There is a state debt, but the amount we are not aware of.

These islands rise in irregular rugged abruptness from the sea, and
consist chiefly of limestone, gypsum, and sandstone. The climate is
beautiful, thougli occasionally oppressively hot. Earthquakes and hm'ricane.i
are not uncommon. The .available land for agricultural purposes amountii
to about 500,000 acres. The chief productions are the olive, corn, soni'S
cotton, flax, and cuirants; the best of the last named in Cepliahinia and
Zante. The annusil produce of currants is between 17,000,000 and
18,000,000 pounds; that of olive oil, from 100,000 to 120,000 barrels, and
that of wine about 200,000.

There are few or no manufictures. Earthenware, salt, soap, and sonio
coarse woven goods are the piincipal industrial products. Ship buildiii;,'
and the fisheries give employment to a considerable number of hand.-.
The coasting trade is important. The import consists of sugar, coflee,
tobacco, and ch'ugs; raw and raauufacturi'd silk and cotton; wool, and
woollen cloth ; glass, hardware, iron, timbei', staves, Indian corn, rice, cattle,
sheep, &.C. The import and export is chiefly carried ou in British ships. Tiie
average value of imports is about G30,000Z., of which in 1849, those of
British produce amounted to about a quarter, or 163,805/.

Though the above statement would not lead us to expect a very exten-
sive or varied display of contributions from this little soi-ilisant republic,
it might warrant us in expecting something, .at least on a par with Ceylon,
Tunis, and other primitive states, which have as j'ct felt but in a small
degree the influence of the modem. And surely such would have beeu tlio
case, if the inliabitauts had received any eucoiu-agement from the present •
High Commissioner, Sir Henry Ward, to mingle with others in the
world's fair. Why his Highness has neglected to do so, and why, ns

AN ILLUSTRATED OYCWVMDIA OP THE GREAT EXII1J5ITI0N OE 1851.

167

fur ns imtivo oxhiliiioia go, tlio (Jreiil JCxIiibitioii liiw bi'on tu llio I.niiim
LilmitU IV blmik, uru circum^taiicci upon wliiuli we ni'u left to iiidulgo in
wliiit collections wo may. Cui-laiiily tliey coiistiUito a fact which iloo.s not
say niucli for our civiji/.iug iulluouce, whcu exercised in the form of a
protectorate.

Tlio Ollicial Illustrated Catalogue states that, "owing to sone inis.ip-
prehension, the loniuns woro without knowledge of the o'ojeetsa: I purports
of the Kxliiljitioii .if 18.11, until very recently. Uuwillin;,', 1. .wover, that
•the nnnio of the Ionian Islands should alone ho w.mtiug in the list of
nation.'* on this great occa-sion, the ICxcoutivo C'oinniittoo appealed to an
Ionian gentleman, wiio has h^en induced to c.pllect together tho kind oou-
trilintions of certain miblo and eminent individuals who have served her
Miuo.-fty in these iblands (tlieio ai'o in all si-x exhibitor.s) such articles in
their ijos.fe.s.sion as might servo as specimens, to a trilling extent, of the
product:), skill, and industry of the InniauB."

These products are principally articles belonging to the cla-saes of textile
and ornamental manufactures. The specimens of embroidering are ex-
tremely rich and beautiful. Tho fdagree work is delicate, and illustrates a
department of skill in the workmg of precious uiotals which has no
ropresentativo in this country.

In tho civso shown at the top of our ongi-aving ia a gold-emhroidercd
Greek jacket, and two tastefully bordered knitted aprons, the work of a
peasaut girl at Corfu ; below it, in a case, are silk scarfs and handkerchiefs,
from Zaute ; pur-ses, cigar-cases, tobacco-boxes, and bags in gold em-
broidery on velvet, tlio work also of peasaut girls (and very tastefully
worked they are), at Santa Maura: and gold and silver bracelets, brooches
of hammered and fdigrce work, from Corfu.

Lord Soaton exhibited a largo silver brooch, of which wo give an en-
graving. It is of extremely elegant design, and of the fiuest workmanship,
combining in the centre the lion and crown of Kngland, as a largo med il-
liou, with seven mecl.illions of the seven islands depending from it. Tlie
centre medallion repre-^ients the arms and emblem of the island of Corfu —
"Tho flower of the Sea" — a female figure, supposed to bo Corcyra, the
daughter of Asopus, who w.as carried off by Keptuue to the islands, seated
upon a rock, holding in tho hand of her extended right-arm an olive-
br.auch. On the ono side of her is a cornucopia, denoting the fertility of
the island ; and the other, an ancient galley, emblematic of the commercial
spirit .and wealtli of its inhabitants. This sliip, whieli is rudderless, some-
times stands alone as the arms of the island, and has been .also suppciod
to take its origin in tho shi25 of Ulysses, which was fabled to have been
transformed into a rock, somewhat of the figure of an ancient vee.sel, which
now stands at the entr,auce of the harbour. The letters Kep aro the abbre-
viation of Kcpinpa, the ancient Corcyra.

The medallion, on the right, is mni-keJ by a tripod for Zauto, and tlie
letters Za^-, the abbreviation of ZaKwBos.

The next to this, on the right, is the medallion of Santa Maura. Tiie
liarp upon it symbolises its fame, as the death-place of Sappho ; the letters
Aeu being tlie abbreviation of its ancient name Aevnaoia, Leucadia. Another
emblem of this island is Bellerophou, on a winged horse, attacking; the
ChiniaMM, which it derives from its Corinthian colonisation.

Tho last on this side is Ithaca, marked witli t!ie head of its king Ulysses ;
the lettei-s Ida being the abbreviation of Iflam;, Ithaca.

On the right of the Corfu medallion is that of Cephalonia, the next
island in m.agnitudo, rcjiresented by Cephalus, the son of Mercury and
Creuza. who, wlien condeumefl by the court of Areopagus to perpetual
exile for h,iving unwittingly killed his wife Proems, cam? to dwell upon
this island. Ho is represented as repo.-ing after the chase, a dart in his
hand, and his dog at his feet. The lettei-s lU<p are the abbreviation of
Kc<fi!iAA-<)C'=. Cephalonia, the ancient designation of the island.

Cerigo come;; next. The letters KvO denote KuSalpa, the ancient Cythera,
represented on the medallion by Venus, to whom the island was sacred,
and who was fabled here to have had her birthplace and her domicile.
The goddess is standing on her shell, drying her hair with the one hand,
and holding in the other the famous apple.

Paxo, the smallest of the islands, comes last. Its sacredness to Neptune
ia denoted by his trident. The letters no are the abbreviation of Ua^o, Paxo.
This isl.and is also represented by the helm, or rudder, of a ship within an
olive garlimd.

ARCHITECTUR.'VL AND BUILDING CONTRIVANCES.

♦

BELLHOUSE'S FIREPROOF DOORS FOR WAREHOUSE HOISTS.
■JHE recent fires in Manchester — especially those of George-street and
York-street, and more particularly that cf 'Westhead's wai-ehouse, in
Piccadilly— have caused every feasible scheme for the prevention of this
disastrous cause of destruction in so vast a town, who.se buildings are
chiefly filled with stores of valuable produce, to be regarded with attention.
In tlie mimufacturing districts generally, where the warehouses and fac-
tories are a considerable height, consisting of many stories, tho ordinary
staircase is generally superseded by the " hoist " or " lift," which is pre-
cisely the same thing as the well-hole of an ordinaiy staircase previous to
tho^ stairs being fixed therein, but with the addition of the hoisting or
lifting apparatus. Mr. Bellhouso, who is an extensive buUder in Manchester,
Uas particularly turned his attention to a mode of preventing such well-

holes from becoming, in c.vic.sof lire, lai-ge ventilating hhafts, which uaturjily
cause tho fires to rage with gicater fury. Tho uoudm wliicli he Iioh adopted
for this purpose, and a model of which wa,s exhibited in tlio machinery
department, consists of iron doors sliding vertically in gi-oovcd framca . f
the same innterial, so that tho communication between the different flooin
of tho building and the wcU-holo may bo entirely shut off in cases of fire.

Tho illustrations consist of an elevation (Fig. 1), plaa (Fig. 2), and a
section (Fig. 3).

Hollow iron bricks, c c, are built into the brick walls of the well-hole .as
tho building progrossos; B u are side jambs of cast iron, having slidoa fur
tho doors, tho jambs being bolted to tho hollov/ bricks ; A A, stationarv-
plates of cast iron bolted to tho side j.imbs, which plates form tho lintel
in the ease of ono doorway and the bill of the next ; ii and E represent two
sliding doors, tho foi-mor opening upwards, and the latter downwards. The
doors ai'o moved cither upwards or downwards by means of clioins, v f,

UELLnOUSE'S FIP.E nicj.ir DOOBS FOa WAREnOUSE HOISTS.

which are attached to the upper angles of the door, E E ; the chains pass
downwards, in gi-oovcs fonned in the sides of the upper door, H, and over
pulleys, u u, and .oi-e fastened to the upper side of the door H. Hence, ia
wh.itever direction the door H is moved, the other door, E, must nece--
sarily have the reverse movement. The weight of the doors is so adjusted,
that the excess of weight in the door H causes them both to close when
left to themselves.

The slides or grooves in which the doors move are so arranged as to
prevent them coming into contact with each other. In order to keep ti^e
doors open while the cradle is being loaded or unleaded, an ajiparatus of
simple construction is attached to its interior, s is a bolt sliding to the
left and right ; T is a link connecting tho bolt s with a point which
slides perpendicularly in a groove as sho^vn. If this point be moved
upwards from the position shown, the bolt will be moved towards the left;
and if the cradle is stopped at any particular place, and the dooi-s open, the
bolt will keep them in that position ; but as soon as the craelle has to be
removed, the bolt being withdi-awn for this pui-pose, the balanced doors, i;
and E, are allowed to close. Let us take a case : the cradle has been left;
oppofsite to a door at the top of the well-hole, and a person at the bottom
wishes to liberate the hoist : having first given notice by " ^^'hishaw^s
telekouphonon," or speakmg telegraph, of his intention, he withdraws the
bolt s s, by means of the rope passing over the pulleys, o o, at the top and
bottom of the well-hole, and at the same time ensiu'es the closing of the
doors as already mentioned. By these self-closing arrangements, none of
the apcrtm'es communicating between the apai'tments and well-hole need
be left open, and the sliding dooi-s are themselves lii'e-proo£

MESsns. Eroadwood's Gkand Piano, manufactured for the Great Exhi-
bition h.is been most generously presented to the Royal Society of Musicians :
its sale to be appropriated to their funds, which h.ave already been enliaged
by previous donations. The workmanship of this magnificent instrument
has co.?t nearly GOOl. — Art Journal

168

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;-

POT.TiERY, PORCELAIN, TILES, &C.

( Continued from 2Mffe US.)

DEESDEN AND OTHER GERMAN MANUFACTURES.

Ji^OTWITHSTANDING the futility of the means resorted to for keeping
secret the processes at Meissen, these merms were continued with the
same rigour long after most of the processes and materials used in the
manufacture of Dresden porcelain became known, and when other manu-
factories of fine porcelain had been established in various parts of Europe.

So late as the year 1812, the late M. Brogniart, director of the Royal
manufactory at Sevi-es, waa sent by the Emperor Napoleon to inspect the
porcelain works of Germany, and, among others, he visited those of Meissen.
So rigorous, however, was the system of exclusion and secrecy then
practised, that in order to obtain admission the King, at the special request
of Napoleon, solemnly released M. Kuliu, the director, from his oath of
cxclu-sion, so fai- as related to M. Broguiart, but refused to extend the same
favour to the associate who had been sent with Brogniart by the Emperor.

The style of the Dresden porcelain is familiar to all amateurs, and,
whatever difference of opinion may prevail as to its taste, there can be none
as to the admu-able excellence of its execution. All who have visited the
collection at Dresden will be familiar with the series of animals represented
on a tscale approaching to the natural size, inlcuding bears, rhinoceroses,
vultures, peacocks, &c., made for the grand staircase which conducts to
the electoral library. These were fabricated as early as 1730. At a later
period, when the manufacture had undergone improvements, large orna-
mental pieces of porcelain were made, such as slabs of consoles and tables,

GKi.rP OF ruIXA FROM EAVARIA.

POIiCELAIX V.VSES itc— .MANSAIID "F r.M'.l

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPiEDLV OP THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

169

lomo of wliicli inoiisuro I'roiu ii to 5U iuclios by 2.1, iiml are i-iclily do-
^oratcd witli flowers.

Anion}; tho vai'iotias of Drosdon iiorccliiiu the grotcsi[uo Cyiu'cH and

;roup.s liavu always been much adiuirod for thoir execution, if not for tlieir

tylo. Tlio costumes aro especially admirable, and the representation of

Uio work, Ruch as laco, truly wonderful. Some specimen.s of thiii were to

)0 seen in the Exhibition. Ono of tho gi'otosquo pieces which has attained

nost celebrity, and is familiar to all amateurs, istho famoiLs tailor of tho Count

lo Bruhl, a figure which is remarkable for tlio difficulty of its execution,

iwiiig to tho numerous accessories which it includes. Tho figure of tho

' !■ is represented riding on a gnat surroimded with all the implements

ippeudagca of his trade, and is about twenty iuchcK in height. Thi.s

iii-ated group was composed by Kiiudlcr in 17()0, and is usually sold for

111 12;.

riie Dresden, mauufacturo has always been remarkable for its representa-

11 of flowers ; and a beautiful specimen of this work was in the E.'diibition,

istiug of a camelia japonica with leaves and white flowor.s iu 'porcelain

;ilt pot ou a stand of white audgoUl porcelain. This article was priced

11 long the other articles exhibited by the Royal manufactoi-y of Meissen
I iv bo mentioned two v.ases of light blue, with portraits of the Queen aud
1 iiico Albert, adorned with escutchcous filled with flowers aud rich gilding,

iilh postaments of a like description; a girl playing a guitar, with l.-ices ;
lliitoplayer; &u etaijere with girandoles in flowers iu relief; a picture of

he lacomaker, after Sliugeslaudt — price, 50 guineas ; a figure of Ganymede,

fter Thorwaldsen ; and statuaiy porcelain.
Besides the ornamental poroelain exhibited by the Royal mauufactoiy,

wo collections of paiutings on china after classical pictures were exhibited

y tho well-known artists of Dresden, Henry Bucker and Gustavus Walther.

il. Bucker exhibited 11 paiutings in gilt frames, from Correggio, Carlo

Onoirp OF rOKCRI,,UX, FttOSI MF.l?'^nS'' IN- PA>:ONv;

CKOVP OF SEVRK-S PORCELAIN

170

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

Dolce. Titian, Murillo, Gessi, Guido Rsiii, Eaflaellc, Jkus^, P.attoni, and
Leotards. The prices of tliese paintings vary from C?. to 20?. Tlie same
artist exliibitcd IS pamtiugs of larger size, varying from 1«'. to 90?.- after
Mm-illo. Titian, Holbein, Guido Bcni, Correggio, Eaffuelle, Sasso Ferrato,
Euysdael. Claude Loraine, &c.

M. \\'alther exhibited six large paintings, varying in price from 16 to 42
guine;u;. after Cignani. Correggio. Guido Reni, Murillo, and Rafl'aelle.

The Impci-itil Manufactory of Porcelain of F/fHiifi was established in the
year 1744. One of the foremen of Meissen, named Stobzel. had deserted
from that establishment about the year 1718. and escaped to Vienna, -n'here,
aided by a Belgian named Pasquier, and favoured by a privilege, or a sort
of monopoly, for 25 vears, granted to him by the Euiper..r Charles VI., he
established.' in 1720, "a small porcelain manufactory. Not having, however,
sufficient capital to carry it on. it declined, and was finally jiurchased by
the Empress JIaria Theresa in 1744. and erected into a Royal manufactory.
During nearly 20 ye.ara it i-equircd considerable subsidies for its support,
but at lengtli. bv good management, it became profitable in 1760, and in
17o0 yielded an "annual profit of about 4000?. The nuaiber of operatives
who were "lately employed in this factory was about 400. The kaolm or
porcelain clay "used in this factory, until 1812, was obtained from the
neighbourhood of Passau, on the confines of Bavaria, and from Prinzdorf,
in Hungai-y. Lately, however, it has been supplied by clay obtained from
the ueighbourood of Briin, in Moravia, and Unghbar, in Hungary. As
deserters from Jleissen were instrumental in establi.?lung the manufactory
of porcelain at Vienna, deserters from Vienna soon spread the knowledge
of the art to a greater or less extent in other parts of Germany. Thus
Ringler. one of tho.^e who had originally deserted from Meissen to Vienna,
again escaped from Vienna to Munich, where he was appointed director of
tlie porcelain works established in 1758 at

Nymphcnbuiy, within a few miles of that city. This establishment still
continues, and is now the Royal porcelain manufactory of Bavaria. The
white biscuit is manufactured at Nymphenburg, and its ornamentation
effected in workshops at Munich. The porcelain clay used in this manu-
factory is obtained neir Passau, already mentioned, the feldspar from
Raberstein, in Bavaria, .and the quartz from Abensberg, nearliatisbon. It
was, in like manner, by means of inform.ation brought by deserters and
runaways from factory to factory tliat the fabrication of porcelain came to
be established successively in the Royal manufactories of Louisberg ueai-
Stuttgard, at Berlin, Copeuh.agen, Brunswick, and St. Petersburg.

Berlin. — After the peace of "Hubertsburg, Frederick II, of Prussia, erected
the Royal manufactory of Berlin. While he was master of Dresden he sent
a considerable quantity of the porcelain clay of Jleissen, and several of the
operatives of this factory, to Berlin, to aid in the establishment of the manu-
factoi-y in that city.

Sevres PoncELAiN.
AVhii.e the fabrication of porcelain thus made progress in Germany, a
factitious pai^te was introduced in France of which a porcelain was manufac-
tured, since known by the title of tender porcelain, as distinguished from
the hard porcelain of Germany and China. This ware, fabricated by a
process complicated and expensive, diflfered altogether from the porcelain
of Chma and Japan, and. in spite of its brilliant qualities and the gorgeous
ornamentation of which it was eminently susceptiljle, means were still
sought in France for fabricating a hard porcelain, which were not discovered
and brouglit into practice for 00 years after the establishment of the
manufactory of Meissen.

At length a vein of clay of the finc.5t quality was discovered by accident,
which again played a remarkable part in the history of lias mauufiictm-e.
Madame°Daruet, the wife of a village surgeon, residing at St. Yrieix, near
Limoges, accidentally found in a valley in the neighbourhood of that town
a white unctuous earth, which she regarded ax Ijeing capable of being
rendered useful in the washing of linen. Witli this purpose she showed it
to her husband, who, better informed, suspected other and more valuable
effects in it, and undertook a journey to Bordeaux to submit it to a chemist
of that place, namdd Villaris. Tliis person, who had been already informed
of the qualities nece3s.ary for porcelain clay, and of the eagerness with wliich
it was sought for, suspected tliat the specimen brought to him by M. Daruct
possessed these qualities. It was accordingly sent to Macqiier, the chemist
at Paris, who was then occupied in experiments on the improvement of
porcel.am. He immediately recognised in this specimen of clay the true
kaolin, and went to St. Yrieix in August, 17C3, where he found a large vein
of this precious material. Experiments were made upon it upon a large
scale at Si-vres, where all doubts upon the subject were soon removed ; and
the kaolin of St. Yrieix, near Limoges, was immeiliately adopted as the
material, and the fabrication of the hard porcelain on a considerable scale
was commenced.

M. Brogniart relates a curious and interesting anecflote connected with
thi.4 subject. He says that, iu 1825, being at Sevres, where he was still
director, an aged woman addi-essed herself to him one d.ay supplicating
temporary relief, and apparently ?uftoring from extreme want, bhe asked
for aid to enable her to return on foot to St. Yrieix, wlionce she had ccmie.
This woman was Mailame D.iruet, tlie discoverer of the kaolin of Liinogos.
Tlie relief she 3ou.;ht was immediately given to her ; and on the application
of M. Brogniart Louis XVIII. granted her a small pension on the civil list,
which she enjoyed till her death.

The progress of the manufacture of porcelain in Prance was marked by
two epochs— the first commenced from 1700, about which time the manu-

facture assumed a national character, and the second commencing in 17C
the date of the discovery of the kaolin of Limoges.

Duriu'' the first iuterval the French porcelain was that known by tl
name of the porcdainc tmclre, or tender porcelain. This ware w.as eompngs
of an artificial paste which contained no porcelain clay whatever. Tb
factitious paste was composed of nitre, sea salt, alum, soda, gypsum, 8i
sand, which, being reduced to a frit, was mixed with about one-thud of i
own weiglit of white chalk and calcareous marl. The paste thus prepare
havinf scarcely any plasticity, did not admit of being shaped in a moi
state on the potter's latlie, and was with difficulty even moulded. AVbt
the article was roughly joined by moulding, and rendered hard by exposu
to the air, it was put upon the wheel and reduced with a cutting tool to i
exact form. But, as it was liable, from its want of tenacity, to cnmible
this op-jration, a solution of tragacanth gum was added to it, to which w
attributed the saline eiflorescenoes whicli were occasionally manifested i
the articles fabricated. In the process of turning the moulded pieces
saline and silicious dust was produced, which was extremely iujuriovs
the potters, and caused asthmatic and pulmonary complaints. This \v
one of the reasons why the fabrication of tender porcelain was the wo
readily discontinued after the discovery of kaolin.

Owin" to the want of plasticity aud coherence in this artificial p
gre.at difficulties were encountered in the several stages of its mauui'artui

The want of tenacity rendered it necessary, when tlio articles were plao
in the oven, to support all the projecting parts during tlie process of hakiv
and, in order that the forms of theso parts might not be distorted, it w
necessary that their supports should be formed of the same paste a.5 f
articles themselves, so tliat the whole mass, including the supports, laij
contract tigether. The linear dimensions contracted in the baking by oi
seventh, and consequently the bulk or volume of the article was diminish
iu proportion of three to two.

The epithet (t»i?tr applied to this porcelain must not be understood
im],)lyiug the quality of softness. It is intended, on the other hand,
express two qualities by which it is distinguished from the hard po;-,?elai
first, that the paste is fusible at a certain temperatvire lower than that
which the hard porcelain is baked ; and secondly, that the glaze is so si
that it may be scratched with a steel point.

The Koyal manufactory of Sevres continued to fabricate tliis tc-m
porcelain exclusively imtil the discovery of the kaolin of Limoges, alrta
mentioned, iu 17G5. After that time both kinds of porcelain, the hard a,
the tender, were manufactvu-ed, but the former in nuich Larger quoati
Tlie fabrication of the tender porcelain was not altogethn-r discuutiuu
until 180-i.

Among amateurs in porcehain, including even those who are otherw
well informed, there prevails a notion that the art of fabricating the teni
porcelain of Sevres has been lost, and that, since it is impossible to reprodi
the articles, they must necessarily have a high value iu the market. Tl
however, is erroneous. All the materials and processes for tlie fabricat:
of this clescription of artificial porcelain are pi'eserved at Sevres, aud i
manufacture can be re-established whenever it is desired to do so. Inde
we are informed at this moment that the Administration entert '
an intention of recommencing the fabrication of this description of porcel:
for articles 'of ornament, sucli as vases, pictures, &c., the imperfectii
incidental to it not affecting such objects.

All the Sevres porcelain in the Great Exhibition was of the kind call
7iart?, that being the only description fabricated iu Sevres for the 1
50 vears.

The portraits of the Queen aud Prince Albert, which were exhibited
the great aisle of the Crystal Palace, are fine specimens of the lai^
porcelain painting which liave been produced at Sevres. Theso portrai
after Winterhalter, were executed by command of Louis Philippe, a
presented to the Queen. They were coiniuenced before the Revolution
February, liut not finished until afterwards. Louis Philippe claimed thi
as liis private property, and they were surrendered to him by the Kept
lican Government ; but the portrait of Prince Albert had met with
accident, by which it was broken. Louis Philippe desired to have anotl
made, but the Queen would not hear of this expense being incurred, M
the fracture bcmg repaired at SSvres, the portraits were sent to Engla
aud delivered to Her Majesty.

Among the splendid collection of paintings aud vases exhibited by t
National manufactory of Sevres the most valuable aud most worthy
attention and examination are the following : —

The painting of tlie Virgin, known as the Vierije au Voile, by Madsi
Ducluzcau, is copied from the celebrated pictm-e by Raffaelle in the Louv
The porcelain is of the same magnitude as the original, and measures
inches by 19. This work was executed in 1847-8, price 1000?. Auotl
paiutiiig after Tintoretto, on a plate of porcelain 45 inches high, by Madci
Diicluzeau, price 880?. A flower subject on a plate of porcelain, 40 iao!
high, by M. Jacobber— SOO?. A iiortrait of tue I'resident Kichardcau,
M, Beranger— 440?. A portrait of Vandyck, by Madame Ducluzeau — ^28
A painting on a plate of porcelam eight inches high, reduoed fr<
Raffaelie's " Madonna," by M. Constanliu— 100?. A large cup, 45 iucl:
diameter and 34 inches high, porcelain biscuit : the three pruicipal figui
upon the cup represent Industry iu tlie fields and the workshop a
Education ; the three corresponding medallions represent Ceres, Vulcan, »'
Minerva ; around the foot of the cuii are grouped throe figures represBBti
the Fates. This work was designed by M. JJieterle, the bas-relie& »|
figures round the foot by M. J. Feuchires, and the cup itself was prodMl

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOryEDLV OV THE GREAT EXHIBITION OP 1851.

171

,• Iho prc)i;oss ol'ciistiiig (foiUa;ic) Ijy iM. Oivilcr— 32o/. A vane, cgj^ almjio,

) iiiclios liijj;li mid Hi inulios diainotiM', flowuni pivintiMl on blue ground, by

• . Scliilt - ;J20^. A Viiso of antique form, dccoi'iiti'd willi llowcriiiind budH,

. • M. Sdult '210?. A pair of viWcj.i, bhio ground, ornamoutud in Indian

1 (do, oxecutod by AIM. llioliard and iHurigol, aftiT tuoili'Mign.<<)f M. Diotcrl'!,

, iuclio« liii,di and 13 inches diamotor — \iiOt, A vase, 10 inelica liigli and

I i inchcrt diameter, ornamontu iucnistod iu coloured piiste umler tlio glazo

2001. A pair of Ta.si.'.s, Cliiuoso de.iign, executed liy casting (cnuhiijc), sca-

\ con ground, ilowerrf and bird.s modollc<l upon the ground iu white and

I lourcil paste I>y Fiselibag. after the proccsseB invented by M. Louis

( )bert, supcrintoiident of the painting departni»nt at Sftvrca, designed by

I Dii^torle, -JO incilie? hijli and 10 inches diameter — 112/. A vase of

tiquo design, 32 inches Iiigh and Ifl ine^ei diamelci", ornaments in gold

a bhie ground, by M. Krugonard. Tiio manner of this painting is

ientially ddVeri.'nt from the usual pointing on porcelain. Tlio paintini; in

is Ciiso luu been executed on tho ungbized porcelain, and the painted

rfaca lies lietweon the porcelain paste and tho glaze. A pair of vases, 28

;he3 high and 15 inches diameter, land.5eapes ropresflnting tho Seasons,

mposed and oxoeuted by M. J. Andre, tho ornaments Ijy M. Barriat — 21lii.

pair of vases, of new design, by M. Klagman, 21 inclics high and IC inches

imoter, illustrative of agriculture; one of tlie principal bas reliefs,

jresents the horse, surrounded by allegorical liguros rejiresenting force,

iftuess, courage, and beauty ; tho other represents oxen escorted by tho

ir Seasons ; the lesser bas reliefs represent pastoral subjects. These vases

re exccutcil by the jiroooss of castings by M. Oreder — SO/. A pair of

^C3 after tho anticpie, 20 inches liigh and 10 inches diameter, executed

M. Barriat after tho designs of M. llamon — "lit. A pair of vases, called

)j Vases of Lesbos, decorated with figures, composed and executed by
Ronssel, ornaments in gold and colours, by M. lliton, after the designs
» H. Dieterle — 168/. A pair ofvas&s called the Rimini vases, 19 inches
i ;h and 11 inches diameter, painted iu blue, by M. l'\ Uegnier, and orna-
nted in gold by M. J. Ricliard — IU. A pair of similar vases representing
iverbs, composed and executed by M. Ronssel, and decorated by M.
;hard after des'gns by M. Barriat — 72/. A large cup of Cliinese design,
iuche-i diameter and 21 inclies high, sea-grecu ground, ornaments in
ite and coloured paste, execu'-ed by M. Maserit after t!.e designs of
Dieterle — 40/. A large cup, Chinese model, blue ground, handles and
h mounting in bronze gilt, by Bouquet; the models of the mounting by
Choiselet, after the designs of M. Dieterle— IGO/. A cup, after
nvenuto Cellini, 16 inches high and 13 inches diameter, painted iu blue
Regnier— 100/.

\7e give several engravings of Sevres, Nympheuburg, aud Meissen china,
iinches of manufacture particularly referred to in the preceding article.
e also give a group of objects iu stoneware, chiefly after classic or alham-
lic models by Mansard, of Paris. These are production.? of a geuuiuo
iss; and, although somewhat too gaudily colom-ed occasionally, are well
apted for room decoration. The large vase in the centre is decorated
th sacred suVjects : the Saviour at the top ssated, aud the twelve Apostles
compai-tments around.

THE GREAT EXHIBITIOls AV\'ARD3.

Fourth Notice.

UESUING our observations upon the Great Industrial Gatlieriug, aud
its recorded practical results, we open the list of awards at Class 8,
; !faval Architecture, military eugiueering, ordnance, armour, accoutre-
sats," &c. ; aud here, of nine council medals, we find two only go to indi-
iuals — the one to Sir W Snow Harris, "for his system of lightning con-
ictors;" the other to the Duke of Noi-thumbcrland, " for having caused a
'go number of models of life-boats to be designed, with a view of obtaining
e best form of boat for tho preservation of life aud property in case of
ipwreek." Against the first of these awards we have nothing to say, nor
iieh against the other, for it provokes a smile which is more expressive
ui speech. That the Duke of Northumberland has done a very useful
ice of sorvije to the scafai'ing commimity, aud especially to the hard-
irking boatmen of our north-eastern coast, which bounds his Grace's pro-
rty, by offering a prize for the best model of a life-boat, there can be no
eetion ; no question he is entitled to the thanks of the public for the
licitude manifested by him in a cause of general interest : but to pretend
it, for so calling iuto competition the ingenuity of others to supply an
pnowlodgcd desideratum, he should be considered to have a claim to .share
the highest honours ina^rjat industrial and scientific congress, is not
ly most absurd, but most contrary to the true principles of equity
the coiumouwealth of intelligence. The anomaly is rendered the more
uing by the very fact that Bceching, the inventor of the design which
tained his Grace's prize of " 100 guineas for the best life-boat,'' gets only
ordinaiy second-class medal. This is putting the cart before the hor.~e
th a vengeance. So much for encouragement of individual merit. The
iier council medals iu this class all go to public Government establisli-

meiits, for tho exhibition of cliarUi, modclM. &c., from tho archives of the
rcupectivo dopartmouts. ThuH, tlic Admiralty iH rownrded for liydrographic
! charts and modoU of ships; tho (ieologirid Survey iJcpiirtmciit, "for tho'.i"
gcohigica! Hurvoys and inap8 of the United Kingdom;" tlio Ordnance De-
partment, "for tho illustrutioiis of tho gnat onlnanco survey of Oreiit
JJritaiu ;" tho Marine Do|>artmunt aud tlio War Du|artmcnt of tlio French
Government respectively have council inolals for bui-vovh and maps of
France ; and the EcoU lies Minen, for the goologiail uiaji of Franco ; finally,
the Military Topographical Departtimnt of Auiitria are rcnardcd "for their
8ur\ cys and detailed maps of the country around Vienna, and of Italy."
All these works are doubtless of considerable public interest and value, and
have been ably performed ; but so ought all work.s to be having tho com-
niaud of tlie host talent of the country, together witli unlimited pccunury
and other facilities. Wo will not trouble our readers to go through the
list of common medals scattered amongst the oi iroWol in thin class; wo
canuot help, however, remarking that Colt's revolver, ono of the most re-
markable weapons of offence and defence which has been invented in our
age, and which must prove of material importance to our colonial defences
wlien brought into general use, has been denied a medal ; it has teen passed
over with " honourable mention."

In Class 9, the jurors, after a great deal of ficld-practico between the
various competitors, have been as unfortunate as their fellows, having givc:i
satisfaction to nobody ; nhilst in the case of the only reaping-machine
honoured with a council medal, they have, upon proof well established,
selected that which was not the best, whilst the very best existing is not
even " honourably mentioned." We have heard a good deal of the carcle:is
and capricious manner iu which, with all the pretence at trials, the Uonour.i
and rewards have been dispensed iu this cin.ss. Many an exhibitor dis-
covered, when too late, that his works had never been examined at all;
whilst one more fortunate than the rest, who discovered tliat he had been
so overlooked, and would probably be omitted altogether from the awai'd,
managed to pin one of the jurors just in tho nick of time, induced him to
take a glimpse at his collection, and had his reward iu Eihibition honours,
though the most important of his exhibits was not mentioned in the award.

As for Class 10, with its omnium (lathcrum of musicil and surgical instru-
ments, of clocks and microscopes, and other pliilosophicjil ai)paratu.s, it ha.s
already come in for a prettj- large share of our notice ; and may, perlnps,
as far as the clockmakers and piimofortc-makersare concerned, come under
revision.

Considering that we are especially a manufacturing country, and that
Manchester and Leeds are, as it wore, the capitals of tho manufacturing
world (each iu its department), and that Spitalfields in its own way is no:
unimportant — considering the ingenuity and the capital daily called into
operation iu devising and improving the wonderful machinery and processes
by which our cottons, our woollens, aud our silks are brougiit to perfection
— considering, also, the linen manufactures aud poplins of Ireland — we arc-
certainly disappointed, upon looking over the awards in Classes 11 to 11
inclusive, to lind that the whole of the wide field of industrv comprised in
them has not beeu considered entitled to a single council medal! In
Class 19, " the Govenimeut Manufactory of Gobelins Tapestry" receives a
council medal, for " extraordiuaiy excellence of execution " in a peculiar
and favoured branch of iudustry, which was brought to perfection long
before our generation. Iu Class 25, the "Sevres Porcelaiu Manufactory" —
anothA- Government corporation — is awarded a council medal for " high
art," which had attained its height of perfection above a century ago, since
which time a very beautiful colour, the Rose du Barry, has beeu lost, until
now in course of revival by British manufacturers. Surely, if these honours
were due to achievements of departed genius in France iu articles lif luxury,
some testimonial to the historic and still active skill of Manchester in
manufactures of essential utility might in some fashion, and under some
pretence, have been accorded. But no — none of our great staple branches
of industry are held v.-orthy of " decoration" in the face of artistic Europe.
There can be no doubt that the combination of " foreign interests" so inge-
niously provided for by the regulations of the Commissioners, has led to the
covert attack but too obviously contemplated in this supercilious ignoring
of the industrial pretcnnons of a nation of ''shopkeepers; ' aud ti:eomissici
becomes of still greater signiflcauco from the fact that the only couiK-d
medal awarded to the whole range of textile manufactures is one, aud tliat
to a Frenchman (Class 15), for "the discovery of a new and important
process in the production of elaborate designs." ^\'hat this process of
■producinrj " designs " may be, we are at a loss at present to guess ; perhaj's
the promised Reports of the Jm'ics — which, wc understand, already extend
to eight or ten thousand folio pages — may oue day eulig-ateu us. Meai.-
while, sympathising witii Manchester, Leeds, Paisley, Dublin, and Belfast,
iu their exclusion from the hono'^u's cf 1851, we cannot but admire the
tradcsmanlike astuteness with which various woollens and cottons of sundi'v
continental mauufacturei-s are entered in tlie prize list with special additions
of '' lowuess of price," ''with relation to cost,'' i-tc. ; a hint evidently bor-
rowed from that great card at all ticketing shops, " Look at the prices !
^Vorth double the money ! ! " Our readers will bear- in mind that the
question of "prices " was one specially excluded in the oriijinal scheme of
tlie Commissioners ; a restriction honourably conformed to by Britisii
exhibitors, though unblushiugly evaded by their foreign rivals.

We have not yet exhausted the subject ; aud shall return to it from time
to time until we have done full justice, to the best of our judgment aud
ability, to all parties concerned in this great industrial scramble. — Illus-
trated London S'ens.

172

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

'clclolDlPlclcldoMclclciClclcjc^
fll i I I I M IJ 11 I 1 MJJIiUJJULlJ M I 1 I I I I I I I 1 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ■!■•■ 1 1 I

t^^J^l;££±J::i:^;s:ai£yL£±i^^

WALL DECORATION— MOUANT.

CEVERAL very ambitious designs for wall-decoration were displayed

on the British side of the Crystal Great Exhibition, which will be cou-

fidered at some length in subsequent articles on " Decorative Art." Mr.

Morant's design is vei-y elaborate and showy, combining colours and

sculpture- work in great profusion. The style would pretend to bo thill
Louis Quatorze, but for the introduction of rabbit.9, spaniels, &c., wh
savour more of rococo. The principal object is a female figure, of '
Bacchannal family, standing in the midst of a sort of trellis-work frame, W

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

173

li, biriK (logs, Ac.,
iiipartmcntH. This
loBed within nn ai-
tiirnl composition
rblo pilaetcrs, sur-
icl by a rich frieze,
ipitals of tlio pilas-
I. resent Cupids iu
enamel peeping

I richly gilt foliage.

iDKY.-C. N13LS0N.
IIS isapiecoof sculp-

II marble intended
iiiicmorato the sor-
iiil memories of tho
s and men of the
lii^giment who fell

banks of tho Sut-
II is of tho tomb-
iirdcr of art, and as

may pass without
u h ; but for any
claims to notice
mnot admit them.

.■lI)l:O.MEDA.— J. BELL.
Ills is certainly one
the most gracofu'
Bell's numerous
luctions, and it has
most satisfactorily cast by the Colebrook Dale Company. Descending to
, wo may object with justice to the elaborate treatment of the chain, and to its
[artificial disposition. It must be obvious, that such a chain, so disposed, could
4ve been attempted in marble or plaster; -and tho pains bestowed upon it, and
I ostentatious manner in which it is displayed, the material happening to bo
kl, betrays an error in judgment. There is no honovir in producing iu bronze an
lie which any manufacturer of hardware could make by the dozen ; the chain
pent should therefore have been neglected, or treated conventionally, as almost
ath the attention of the artist, instead of being seized upon and made the most
has been evidently tho case. Since its location in the Crystal Palace this work

been purchased by her Maje.sty.

LIBERATION OF CAKACTACUS

By P.VXORMO.

This, though some-
what roughly modelled,
was one of the most
expressive and well-
studied pieces of sculp-
tm-e in the British Ex-
hibition. It is by a
yoinig artist of the name
of Panormo, a student
of the Royal Irish Aca-
demy. The incident
represented is well
known to all readers of
our country's history.
Caractacus, after nine
years unequal combat
with the Romans, is
subdued and taken cap-
tive, along with others,
to Rome. Whilst being
paraded through tho
magnificent streets of
that city, he exclaims,
in a tone of sublime
melancholy, " How is
it possible that a people
wlio ai-e possessed of
■such magnificence at
home, should envy me
a poor cottage in Bri-
tain !" The Emperor
Claufhus was so affected
by the homely truth of
these few words, which
he overheard, and the
noble and interesting
bearing of his royal
captive, that he imme-
diately ordered him to
be set at liberty, toge-
ther with tho rest of
the prisoners.

VICTOltV — G. NELSON",

LlliKR.VTiO.N OK CVU.VCr.VOUS,

AXDnOMKDiV. — J. CELL

174

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.

PLOUGHS— AXCIENT AND MODERN.
•TnERE wers few compartments in tho Exhibition wliich illustrated ift- a

more stiikiug manner it? great end and aim — that of sUowia^ the point
of development which the nations of the world have reached in tho great
task of subduing nature to their use — than that devoted to the display of
atTicultural implements. Who is tliero that has traversed the spacious
area occupied by these articles, who haa not felt that hei-e was indeed a
romai'kable subjection of the products of the mineral world, for the purpose
of subduing the earth'itsslf, and of causing it to bring forth its harvests with
abuudance ! Passing from this area, filled with the results of human
ingenuity and the skill of the mechanician and engineer, to the compart-
meutd of India and other lesj favoured countries, contrasting their rude
implements «l husbandry with our own -perhaps in no department of the
Exhibition could a more striking lesson have been conveyed, or the progre.ss
of the human raoo more completely demonstrated.

In the Indian compartment were to be seen models of the old plough,
fashioned ia tho sarao ruda manner as it wa-s centuries since, with the
driver standiug upon the framework ; tho oxen yoked in the same ancient
otvle as when Elisha was seen " ploughing with twelve yoke of oxen," or as
w!>en, in the time of Samuel, '■' an half acre " was considered as much as a
pair of oxen could plough in a day. There also was the model of a squalid
and wretched-looking sower scattering and wasting the seed ; another iu
which tho hoofs of oxen tread out the grain after the same fashion as existed
centuries ago— while iu this country the steam-engine, improved drills,
horse hoes, and thrashing machines jierform the work thus badly and
tardily accomplished by the Indian peasant. The Exhibition showed that,
iu matters of husbandry, the vast majority of the natives of our Indian
empire are stationaiy, while Great Britain and the United States of
America, on the other hand, indicate the most striking improvement iu this
respect. The same remark applies, but in a more qualified manner, to most
of the Continental States of Europe ; they have advanced beyond the rude
and earlier stages, but it is not too much to say, judging from their display
at tlie Exhibition, that they are still much in arrear.

There is probably no implement which has received a greater .amount of
attention on the part of the implemcut-makers of this country than the
plough. During the last twenty or thirty years the improvements which
have taken place have been of the mo.st extensive and practical ch.'U-actei- —
a cirounstancc which is no doubt mainly attributable to the impv.lse which
has been given by the practical trsts to which they have been frequently
submitted before practical judges, for the purpose of ascertaining which
jjcculiar construction of plough, did its work iu the best manuer, and at
tho least expenditure of labour and money. To the solution of these
questions tlie most eminent agricultural engineers have devoted their time
and attention, and, as the display of this kiud of instruments proves, with
very great success. The best display of ploughs in the British department
was, undoiibtedly, that of the Messrs. Howard, of Bedford.

The new "patent plough," made of wrought iron, we engi-avcd and
described iu our fli'st number, page 13, to which therefore we refer the
reader.

A patent iron Kent plough, brought out by the assistance of Mr. Russell,
of Famingham. Kent, is intended as a substitute for the large four-hoi-se
Kentish plough; it is fitted %vith mould-boards, or breasts, Vi-bich turu the
furrow over " round,'' leaving a perfect "seam," iu the same manner as
tlie Kentish " turn-wrist plough." It m.ay be used with a pair of horses — is
Huitable .almost for any land — and is held in high esteem in many parts of
Kent and Surrey.

The well-known firm of Messrs. Ransome and May, of Ipswich, contri-
buted some very excellent specimens of their m.auufacture. A plough for
two-horse dra'iglit, marked Y L., iu their catalogue, is especially deserving
of notice. At the trial at Southamptou it was shown that, Viy simply
changing the " mould board," it will answer equally well for heavy or for
Ught laud, and upon that oecassion it obtained the double prize of the
Royal AgricMltural Society. Its con.struetion is exceediugly simjile, and
its draught light. In its original form it was first introduced by Mr. Richard
Raker, into Rutland, and wa' very generally used there, and is now known
as tho Improved Rutland Plough, Y L. The new patent \vi-ought iron
plough, marked Y F L., suited for two or four horses, is well adapted for
craiKrant', as, by an easy arrangement, the handles can be taken off and
sectired to the beam, thus reducing tiie measuremeut. Several other
jjloughs exhibited are also of a cliaracter to sustain the well-known repu-
tiition of this eminent firm, and many of them liave obtained premiums at
the meetings of the Royal Agricultural Society in various parts of the
country.

Mr. Bcntall, of the Heybridfre Foundry, JMaklon, Essex, exhibited a
patent broad share .and subsoil plough, which appears admirably calculated
to supersede many of the older, more costly, and cumbrous implements.
Messrs. Barrett anrl Exall showed Keveval verj' excellent specimens ; their
" Universal Plough " is deserving of special notice, on account of its useful-
ness and economy. Messrs Hensmau and Sons showed thair well-known

patent iron jilough with patent coulter fixing, aud also an iron plough
deep work, fitted with high wheels and deep-turn furrows, whicli ailap
for ploughing 16 inches deep. Messrs. AVilkie and Co. had a good collect
of '■ turn-wrists," two-liorse sowing ploughs, subsoil, and anti-friction plouj
Amoug other exhibitors of tbis implement which we noticed are Mr. Peaj.
of Dorsstshire ; Mr. Law, of Shettlciden, near Glasgow; Messrs. Duf
and Co., of Red Lion-square, who showed a very creditable aud ust
subsoil plough; and Mr. Stuart, of Aberdeen, who exhibited a buVj!
plough. Messrs. Sewell aud Co., of Longtown, Cumberland, showed
well-known Netherby plough, which may be described as well adapted
cutting, aud leaving in proper position furrows of any required width u
any variety of soil.

A medal has been awarded to Mi-. Busby, of Newton-le-AViliows, i
Bedale. Yorkshire, for the best plough exhibited at the Great Exbibitic
1S51. Its chief jieeuliarity is iu the scientific form and great lengtli of
mould-board, which turns the seam in a better manner and with a ligl
draught than any other. It i.s a,lso fitted with a moveable nc^e-picc^
wluch the share is placed, and which will be found of great advan'
where cast-iron shares are used ; for, as these wear down, by this arrc
ment the plough still retains tho same hold of the ground; by the s
contrivance, also, the share may be set more or less to laud, aud it ■
work from fom- to eight inches deep.

In the Zollverein, Dr. C. Sprengel and M. H. Hartmann exhiliited
models of implements used in German agriculture, several of which \
uovel iu character. Among them were the model of a plough witli sixl
shares ; a subsoil plough, adapted for ploughing from 18 to 22 iuchei
Pomeranian fan plough, and a Belgian plough. The Belgian ploi
displayed appeared somewhat heavy ; they are strongly and stoutly m
but show a want of finish. Several ploughs were shown in the Aust
department, fiom the manufactory of agricultural implements of Pr
F. von Lobkowitz. stated to be the inventions of the Chevalier von Inl
the manager of the works ; many parts of the implements appeared c
to grave objections, while, in several instances, undoubted impro\ em;
might be pointed out. However, as a whole, they do not tend to cunv
veiy good opinion of the state of agricultm'al mechanism in Austria.

On the foreign side, the department which made the best chow of ploi
was that occupied by the United .States ; and the implements exhib
possessed many strong points of contrast, even with the English ]ilou
and with all others, in fact, that were put forw.ard for competition. Witl
entering into the question of the comparative meiit of Europoan
Amerian ploughs, the satisfactory solution of which is to bo found iu ac
use only, we will briefly describe those which have been furni-iied
Boston and New York exliibitors — these two sections having made
mainly the agricultural portion of the United States division of
Exhibition.

These ploughs are made from patterns of peculiar construction, aud
of great variety in .size, form, fix;ure, and adaptation to different condit
of soil and modes of culture. The wood part tif these implements h
most cases, made by machinery, and can be readily taken apart for rep
or put up for conveyance to distant parts. The timber is, iu nearl;
case?, a second-growth white oak, of peculiar toughness. The iron uss
composed of an admixture of several- kinds, producing a metal of gre
strength aud durability than tho ordinary iron, and which will endure
chilling process, applied to the point of the share and the base of
l?.udside, with safety. The mould-board, landside, and point of som
these ploughs ai'e ground and poli.shed, and coated with blue vamis
making them resemble blue steel — to prevent rusting. They are
bettor fitted for adhesive soUs by this process, the dirt being prevei
from sticking upon them, and impeding tlieu' progress.

Among the ploughs exhibited were the root-breaker, sward, stub'
centre-draught, corn, double mould board, ditching, side-hill, &o. &c. T
were of various sizes, and calculated for all kinds of soils. Some are
tended to have the common, some the Scotch clevis; some have
draught-rod, and otliers the crane clevis attached, so that tlie team
walk on the swMrd instead of a wet furrow, or so that the ploughs can .
close by the side of a fence or ditch. The advantages claimed for man;
these ploughs are, that they are smoother and better made, and more dun
and cheaper than the common plough in use ; that they work much m
effectually, cutting a deeper, wider, more even, and truer furrow; and t
they will do their work with less expenditure of team power. They '
also pulverise the earth as they lift and turu it over, thus effecting t
minute and gener.il separation of the particles of the soil which is so essen
in preparing it for the ready admission of the rootlets of the plants^ i
eu'ibling tliem to draw their food from every portion of it.

One principle, alluded to above, in these ploughs, is too important to
I>assed lightly over. From the complicated structure of the plough, i
the manner iu which the draught must be applied to it, many misoonc
tious have arisen as to the true operation and proper application of t
draught. Too little is undei'stood of the principle involved in this to ena
tliC jiloughmau to attach his team and arrixnge his clevis so that the inst
ment sluiU do its work with the least force of power. The draught is :
the end in view, but merely the means by which the end is accomplishet
the former being made to subserve the latter ; so that if it be not rigb
applied, good work cannot easily be done. If, for example, the ploi
inclines out of the ground too much, or takes too wide or too narroi
furrow slice — both uvUa usually aiising from a wrong application of '
draught — the ploughman must exert a force to direct it properly, in addit

led. '1

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPJIDIA OF TUB GREAT EXIHBITIOX OF 18:.].

173

'bich ia roquirod to ovoi'come tho iiicqualitius of tlioHoil; while,
intrmy, if llio druiiglit ho ri;5litly iipplioil, tlii; plougli will move
,tcly an not only to porform (;ooil work with uioro caso to both
jui iui'l to.iin, hut, ill woil fieo from obstruction, oven without boing
This upplicnt ion of the dr.ui^'ht to tho plough id chviuied to bo

miporior iu tlio American ploughs to that ill any othora. Thia claim of
siipi^riority can bo eawily tosted by tliu npplication of thodynsinornctor-an
instriini''nt ni.ide for muxsuring the exact amount of power employed ; and
wo under-ituud that tho exhibiiori are willing for a trial of competition
wli'-novor tbia Hhall be allowed as ouc of tUo olemootM of excoUoncc. lo a

AMERICAN STAHBUCK PLOt'OlI.

otand carefully conducted trial iu Massachusetts, upon tho merita of
ghs, it was found that a dillereuce of power, even between the best and
; modern inveutious, existed to the extent of more than ouesisth — that
i 4121b. to SOGlb.
le American side-lull, or " Starbuck " ploughs, we understand, are being

used here with much acceptance. Thoy are so constructed that the mould-
board can be instantly changed from one side to tho other, which enables
the plouglimau to perform the work horizontally \ipon side hills, going
back and forth on the same side, and turning all the furrow-slices with
great accuracy dowuwartUi. They aro employed also for level ploughing.

--*^. ^'

■-C--.4V

BUSBY'S PATENT ria/.l. fL'JU.ii,

le ■work leaves the field without any centre-dead or iiuishing furrow,

without the banks or ridpes of turuirg two furrows towards each other.

also save labour, by allowing the team to turn short about at the end

,e furrow, instead of obliging it to travel across the wide ends of each

in the field. For ploughing down the banks of ditches they are the

nugh which will turn the furrows from the ditch, thus carrj'ing the

pon the level ground. (,Sce Engraving).

Althou.^h the uumber of each kind of agricultural implement exhi-
bited from the United States was small, the variety was very consider-
able. The remaining specimens included harrows, rakes, hoes, potato-
hooks, (a good invention to save the potatoe from injury in uncovering
tho soil), scythes, forks, shovels, spades, farming mills (one, especially,
of a now and valuable kind), grain reaper.s, mowing machines, seed-
sowers, axes, &c.

xo's Cigarette Machine. — This machine consists of two travelling
whose parts are made with great accuracy. Each liuk is composed
c pieces, which aro cut out of iron by machinery. One portion of
'v is fixed on the chain, and tho other portion is moveable. By
1 separate and distinct operations this maeliiue makes and finishes
lettes with greater neatness and perfection than can bo done by
:ud the economy of tobacco is so great, that, solely in this respect,
e of the entire manufacture by baud labour is wholly saved. More
'ity cigarettes may be made by this machine in a minute. Paper of
'cr width and thickness is caused to pass over one of the travelling

insisting of links corresponding with the scantling of the cigarette.

;e paper has a siifficicnt uumber of indents, fine tobacco is put into

y the machine, and the wa.ste falls into a trough beneath the

As the chain on which the paper is first placed moves forward, a

y means of a reciprocating moti'm acrc^s the machine, separates the

form the cigarettes, wiiich are finally folded entire, by passing to the
ivelUng chain; and by pressure from above the cisarettes aro com-

ady to be removed from the machine. In the English m.arket there
ly any demand for cigarettes, but in .Spain aud the American repub-
le is a great consumption of them. In Mexico, 8,000,000 dollars

I o;g.-u-ettes aro consumed in the course of a single year. The cou-

II of cigarettes in Spain aud Havannah is proportiouably greater.

Model of Prinoe Albert's Birthplace. — The tableau of plastic work,
extending about 18 feet in front, aud 10 feet wide, and representing a rural
fete at a suburban chdtcau belonging to the Duke of S.-ixe Cobm'g Gotha,
the birtliplaee of Prince Albert, aud the residence of her Majesty the Queen
Victoria when on her visit to the Duke, exhibited at the Crystal Palace, in
the Prussian deparlmeut, was soil by auction in Leadenhall street, by order
of tho ZoUvereiu committee. The tahlmu, which will be well remembered,
contains about four hundred moveable figures grouped in dances, bands of
music, aud festive pai'ties, all set in motion by much complicated machinery,
the cost iu the construction, as authoritatively asserted, being more than
800?., subscribed by an association of manufacturers at .Sonnenberg, Duchy
of .Saxe Coburg Gotha. The object, it is stated, was to present it to Prince
Albert, who, however, declined it, but profiered to purchase it on a price
being named. From some cause not explained, the model fete remained
with the ZoUvereiu committee, wiio, since the closing of the Great Exhibi-
tion, obtained its passing the Customs at tho loiv estimate of 7?. ICs. At
the sale, ou the 2Sth ult., it was sold for the comparatively trifling sum of
20i. — Tllusirated London Ncks.

176

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS.

OU-MOLU CLOCK.— nOWELL & JAMES.

OK-MOLU CLOCK.— EY HOWELL AND JAMEfS.
Amongst the ruagnificeut cU.splay of jewellery and decoration articles
by Messrs. Howell and James, was a clock, which we engrave, after au
exquisite design by Mr. Adams. It represents the Hoiirs dancing round
Mount Olympus, the Seasons scattering fruits and flowers, &c. The whole
ie finished with great delicacy and artistic effect.

,?TOVE.— BY JEAKES AND CO.
This stove is cue of tlie most chaste and novel which has appea^
for a long time. It is Elizabethan in design, and the execution .
a gorgeously ornamental character, though not beyond the bounds of gc
keeping. The material is polished steel, inlaid with ornaments in gold.

STOVE.— MESSRS. JEAKES & CO.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOP.'EDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITIOISI OF 1851.

GOTHIC BOOKCASE.— I.EISTLER.— PRESENTED TO THE QUEEN'IBY THE EMPEROR OF AUSTRIA.— (See Paos 183.)

TEXTILE MANUFACTURES.

WEAVING.
JN our first article on cotton nianufnctures are described the various
[ proeepsea by which cotton wool is brought into tlie shape of thread
fit for weaving and other purposes : we now proceed to give a general
description of the machinery employed in weaving it into cotton-cloth
nr calico. Although we have taken cotton as the most important of our
No. 12, December 20, 1851.

great textile manufactures, as the illustration of these processes, they
apply with more or less of variation to silk, wool and even flax. The
peculiarities in the manufactures of these articles will be treated of sub-
sequently under their several lioads.

The act of weaving is of veiy ancient date ; it is attributed to the Egyp-
tians ; but it has received great and important improvement in modem
times, more particularly in the application of water-power, or steam, in
place of band labour.

Price One Pbkmt.

178

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

Woven textures derive their strength from the same force of lateral
adhesion, which retains the twisted fibres of each thread in their situations.
The manner in which tliese textures are formed is readily imderstood. On
inspecting a piece of plain cloth, it is found to consist of two distinct sets
of threads, running perpendicularly to each other. Of these, the longitudi-
nal threads constitute the tmrp, while the transverse threads are called the
weft or woof, and consist of a single thread, passins backwards and forwards.
As the threads which constitute tbe warp are liable to much friction in
the process of weaving, they are subjected to an operation called clressint/,
the object of which is to increase their strength and smoothness, by agglu-
tinating their fibres together. To this end they are pressed between rollers,
impregnated with mucilage made of starcli, or some gelatinous material,
and immediately afterwards brought in contact with brushes, which pass
repeatedly over them, so as to lay down the fibres in one direction, and re-
move the superfluous mucilage from them. They are then dried by a
series of revolving fans, or by steam cylinders, and are ready for the loom-
In weaving with the common loom, the w.arp is wound upon a cylindri-
cal beam or roller. From this the thread passes through a harness, com-
posed of moveable parts, called the hcddlcs, of which tliere are two or more,
consisting of a scries of vertical strings, connected to frames, and iiaviug
loops, through which the ii-arp passes.

When the heddles consist of more than one set of strings, the sets aro
called leaves. Each of these heddles receives its portion of the alternate
threads of the warp, so that, when they are moved reciprocally up and
down, the relative position of the alternate thread of the warp Ls i-eversed.
Each time that the warp is opened by the separating of its alternate
threads, a shuttle, containing the woof, is thrown across it, and the tlu-ead
or woof is immediately driven into its place by a frame called a lai/, fur-
nished with thin reeds or wires, placed among the warp, like the teeth of
a comb. The woven piece, as fast as it is oompleted, is wound up on a
second beam, opposite to the first.

In plain weaviue, every thread of the warp crosses at every thre;«l of the
woof, and vice rersa. But, in articles wliich aro twilled, or twccled, this is
not the case ; for, in this manufacture, only the third, fourth, fifth, sixth,
&c., thre;ids cros.? each other to form the texture. In the coar.^iest kinds,
every thii'd tliread is crossed ; but, in finer fabrics, the intervals are less
frequent, and, in some very fine twilled silks, the crossing does not tako
place till the sixteenth intei'val,

A loom, invented in the United States, has been applied to the weaving
of twilled goods by water-power. Jeans, dimities, serges, &c. are specimens.
In double weaving, the fabric is composed of two webs, c^ch of which
consists of a separate warp, and a separate woof The two, however, aro
interwoven at intervals, so as to produce various figures. Tlie junction of
the two webs is formed by passing them at intervals, thi-ough each other,
80 that each particular part of both is sometimes above and sometimes
below. When diiferent colours are employed, as in carpeting, the figure is
the same on both sides, but the colour is reversed. The v,'oa\ ing of double
cloths is commonly performed by a complicated machine, called a draw-
loom, in which the weaver, aided by an assistant, or by macliinery, has the
command of each particular thread by its numbei'. He works by a pattern,
in which the figure before him is traced in squares, agreeably to which the
threads to be moved are selected and raised before each insertion of the
woof Kidderminister carpets and Marseilles quilts are specimens.

Cross Wcaviii/). — This method is used to produce the lightest fabrics, as
gauze, netting, catgut, Ac. In the kinds of weaving which have been pre-
viously described, the tlireads of the warp always remain parallel to each
other, or mthout crossing. But, in ga\ize-weaving. the two threads of warp
which ii.ass between the Bame splits of tiie reed, are crossed over each other,
and partially twisted, like a cord, at every stroke of the looni. They are,
however, twisted to the right and left alternately, and each shot, or inser-
tion of t!io woof preserves the twist which the warp has received. A great
variety of f mciful textures are produced by variations.

Palti.rn Weaving. — Having thus given our readers an account of the loom
for plain weaving, we must briefly notice the fanciful and ornamental part
of the bugincss. Figures, or patterns, are produced in the loom by employ-
ing threads of different colours either in the warp or weft. By the proper
use of these, some colours may be concealed, or kept back, whilst others
are thrown into tlie front of the fabric. These are made to change places
at the will of the vv-eaver, or, as in the case of the Jacquard loom, by tlie
agency of machinery. In other eases, tlie same end is accomplished by
employing two or three shuttles, with diiferent coloured threads, either of
which may be introduced at plea.sure. These processes will be more particu-
larly explained when we come to describe the machinery actually exhibited.
Power Weaving. — In 1678, M. de Genncs invented a mde kind of weaving
machine, intended to increase the power of the ordin.ary looms ; and otiier
looms were invented, which were intended to be worked by a winch, by
water powci', or by some contrivance more expeditious than the common
hand wearing. But the most important step in advance was made by the
Kev. Edmund Cartwright, in the invention of the power loom, in 1785.
He took out patents for successive improvements in it in 1786, 1787, and
1788. He had, in the mean time, estalilished at Doncaster, in Yorkshire,
a considerable manufactory, worked by a steam-engine, wlioro muslins,
calicoes, &c., were fabricated by this nuichine, very little, if at all, inferior
to those woven by hand.

In the year 1791 or 1 702. a person of the name of Grimshaw made an attempt
to introduce Mr. Cartwright's looms at Manchester. He built a manufactory on
a large scale, and several of the looms were actually erected, ready for work-

ing, wli -'U the whole establishment was destroyed by fire. As there was reason
to suspect that this was not done by accident, no other manufacturer chose,
at that time, to render himself obnoxious by introducing the use of
machinery ; and Mr. Cartwright's attention being directed to other inven-
tions, from which he expected to derive greater advantage, his machine foi
weaving remained for some years nearly as much disregarded by liimsell'
as it appeared to be neglected by the public

The great advantages necessarily resulting from this species of loom
ultimately induced sevei'al manufiicturora to attempt modifications of thi.'
apparatus, so that its use has now become one of the chief features in oui-
largest manufacturing establishments.

lu the manual operation of wearing by the ordinary hand-loom, the
workman swings the ribrating batten to and fro for the purpose of eualjliu^
him to form a close and perfect texture of the woven fabric. Tliis process
is readily effected by machiuery, and when so arranged it is called tlie
power loom.

COTTOSr MACHIBTES.
We have already described (p. 71 — 2) the extensive plant of cotton mae'iiim,
for carding and spinning, exhibited by Messrs. Hibbert and Piatt. The
next cotton machines that we came to were those contributed by Mesi
Parr, Curtis, and Madeley, of Manchester. The first of these was a car
engine, with the patent coiling motion of Messrs. Tatham and Cheetlii
This machine, however, was not in movement! The next machine sent
this fli'm is a drawing frame of three heads, with the patent coiliug moti
— here shown in action — and the patent stop motion of Aitkens and Hol(
worth. This latter is of great importance, for by it is attained the certaiutj
of stopping the machine when one of the slivers breaks ; and this stoppag)
prevents what are called "singles" in the roving — that is, single instotw
of compomid threads. That is effected as follows : — When the sliver i
di'awn along by the drawing-rollers, it passes under a small brass fork am
keeps it up; but when the sliver breaks, it lets tho fork fall into a notci
in the bar below, which is alw.ays in motion endwise, and holds it fast, anc
by a couuexiou \rith tho strap, throws the machine out of gear. ~i

The slubbiug-frama comes nest, and contains some improyemofl
patented by this firm. One of these is the application of a coiled sprlhl
to the pressor, and is considered to be a gi'eat improvement on the comnjcf)
spring, as it allows the weight of the flyer to be reduced. A large pt(
portion of the trade use this, by licence of the patentees. Anoths
inqjroveraent is the application of a frame fastened to the beam for su)
jiorting the carriage which carries the tension weight of the cone straj
instead of letting it rest on the grooved shaft, as is usual. Gearing is a!j
applied to the shortening and traverse motions.

The roring-frame, which we observe next in order, has the same patente
impi'ovemeuts as those applied to the slubbuig-frame, and, in addition, ;
has wheels made of gutta percha, as an experiment — which certainly |i
almost noiseless, as compared with the usual iron wheels.

Tlie self-acting mules next claim our notice, and contain several improvi
ments, patented by this firm. Three different headstocks are exhibited i
the three mules, to show the arrangements of these improvement.s.

In the first or twist mule, made on Sliarp and Roberts's plan, instead (
tho usual cone shaft, put in motion by friction, for producing the change
required for spinning, a catch-box, with an eccentric boss, is used, as moi
certain in its operation, being less liable to Ijreak the bands and iujiue th
machine. Another improvement is the position and application of tw
scrolls instead of one. These prevent the cords from chafing and rniibia
against eacli other, and render them more diu'able than wlien one scroll onl
is used. The arrangement of the filler motion is the next improvement
and here the fallers ai-e made to act more easily upon the yarn, so thfi
when the backing takes place, no recoil ensues, as is ofteu the case v/hV
the cone shaft is applied ; and thus snarls imd damage of tlie yam ^
obviated. A spiral spring is applied to bring the conical dise in con^to
witli the backing- off wheel which renders the backing-off capable of grft
nicety. Tiie squaring shaft is also driven by gearings instead of baufls, |
previously used in self-acting mules. The general ■■u-rangemeut of the half
stock is much lower than usual — which makes it steadier, and, by obstruy
ing the light less, enables the spjinner to sec all the spindles from any pfll
of tlie machine. There are 45B spindles in this mule. .

The next mule, of 500 spindles for weft, is arranged on the principi
kno\vii as Smith's. The mangle wheel and stripping motion ai'o hero used
but tho winding on is done by the radial arm, and the rollers are worke
independently of the mangle wheel. This allows the rollers to be put i
motion when desirable, or to be stopped at pleasm'e. One strap only i
used, instead of two, as in Smith's, and one mule.

The third mule contains other improvements, as follows : — A douW
coae-expanduag motion for winding on the yarn ; a self regulator whic,
varies its form to suit the figure and size of the cop, and thus regulates th
winding on itself independently of the spinner, who need only be able t
piece the ends, instead of being a skilled operative at high wages. This i
a great object where experienced workmen are scarce. This mule has
spindles, but many mules on this plan have 800. More than 500 old mulJ
have been altered to this plan, and 100 new ones have been made.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

179

REED'S rATKN'l' .SHdTTI.HI.KSS I'dWlCItLOOM.
Tbb ordinary loom foi' wonviii;,' lildjoii.s iiml otlicr uuitdw I'ubricM rcquii'ca,
for tho jififijct jiluy of tlio Hlmttlo, a tpace three or four times greater tbui
is occupioti liy tlio
wob. in all looms
hitherto cou-

stmeted, the shut-
tle has 1)0011 nil
indispeiisalilo no-
oessity. To over-
oomo tbia, iiml
ecouomiso Bpaco,
and, consequently,
greatly to rcduco
the cost of pro-
duction, has been
tho aim of tho iu-
vention of T. S.
Reed and Co., of
Derby, the paten-
tees of the loom
we aro now do-
scribing. Tho priu-
cipl6 is original,
yet simple, and
may introduco
many improve-
ments in the art
of weaving. Tho
loom is now filled

if h a fringe about
itichcs wide, of

-..ch it produces
M breadths at
lime, while the
ordinary loom
with tho same
length of beam,
could not pro- —
duce more than
thirteen or four-
teen breadths. Under
to tho vaj-ious parts of

Ihe warp opcn.i to reccivo tlio »liuto. the ilngor moves and carried Iho
thread ocrosN, At the namu instant a iiciidle rmia and catclie* the loop of
the returning thread, and holds it tight until the finger tuu retumad and

RRKD'8 PITKNT 8HUTTLELRS8 LOOJf,

the beam there runs a cam shaft, giving motion
the loom. Attached to the breast beam there aro

the batten advanced, when another change iu the wai-p thread takes place ;
then the needle, which in flattened at the upper, part and^ sharpened

■S or fingers ^that 'turn 'on a hinge horizontally : at 'the end 'of the I like' the blade of a tnife, by a'downward motion cuts the loop, and the
era there is a small eye, or hole, through which the shute nins. As | fringe is complete. This process is repeated very rapidly, and is very

130

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS ;

interesting. In addi-
tion to the economy
of space, it is clear,
tliat -where there are
no shuttles there arc
no pirns or quills to
fill, and no stoppage
of machinery whilo
the change of quill is
being made. The silk,
being wound on lai^e
bobbins behind ti'c
harness, is supplicil
with facility, aini
when the loom is once
started, it need not
stop until the w
finished.

I HARRISON'S Ili
PROVED POWE
LOOM.

Mr. Hakkison,
Blackburn, not
exhibited two modi
looms, for light
heavy goods respi
ively, but also add
much interest to thif
part of the Exh ibitiou
by placing, side bj
side' with his improved
machines, an old looai
made about half a
tury since, at Abbe]
Mill, Paisley, and
which is very similai
to the power-loo;
at first worked in
district, in 1796,
Mr. Robert Miller,
Milton Pruffield. m
Dumbarton. This oL
contrivance was ca]|j
sidered a wonder l^
the time of its inl
duction, altho' _
only capable of rui
ning sixty picks m
throws off of the
shuttle per minute
with advantage, be
sides requiring the
constant attendance
of one person. The
new looms may be
driven at the rate 03
220 picks per minute, i
and were kept wort|i
ing at that speedifei
the Exhibition. f
By the applicatioD
of several improved
motions, one pereon
is enabled to attend
to two, and in some
cases three, looms at
once. These motionc
are respectively

known as the " weft
protector," the " tem-
ple," the " positive
taking-up motion,'
the " loose reed and
break ;" the first two
of which motions
have been patented
by Messrs. Kenwor-
thy and Bullough, ol!
Blackburn ; the loose;
reed and break by'
Mr. Bullough, and!
the fast 3 reed and
break by Mi\ John
Sellers, of Burnley.

AN ILLUSTRATED CyCLOP/I<:DIA OF THE GREAT EXIII15ITI0N OF 1851.

181

The weft motion is a very einiplo nnd bcautifiil contrivnnco, conBisting I (Icnircd thicknesn tliroiigliotit ; wlicrcfw, without itH u»c the 'fabric may
of n small fork which acts in cnnnexion with tlip KottiiiK or liniullc of tho prcHont different thickncHBcn throughout. '"

loom ; Mill whoiiovor tlio woft Diread brooks, or is abflont from it» place, Tho loose rood and break of Mr. Bullough ia the most suitable for
tho machine ia immediatolv stopped by moans of either of the J light fabrics, and tho faat reed and break of Mr. Sellers for lioavy good*.

AVhcnover the

above - men -
tionod breaks ;
it would other-
wise go on
weaving witli-
outwoft,which
would leave

pai-t of tho
weft unfinish-
ed, and thus
the piece

would be cu-
; lirolydamased.
I This motion,
therefore, dis-
, peuses witli
she very groat
lareandwatoh-
'ulness hithor-
I io required on
the part of tho
operator, and
Bnablos him to
produce more
cloth in a
!,'iven time,
llius beuefit-
iiii; both his
■nijiloyers and
■ iniself. The
' tiinplo" is a
■nn semi-cy-

: 1 1 ioal box
I tuigh, into
. iiiih is fitted
I iLiUer, cut or
lutod to nearly
iiK-tlurd of its
LUgth at each
™d, BO as to
,'ive it the ap-
pearance of a
lie. The use
if this roller,
,\lnch rotates
m the trough,
>■ to keep the
.iliric at one
nil form width
hioughoutthe
lioce, and the
iidf s free from
ifrforatious
Lud rents, thus
giving the

vhole a more
anished ap-
ie:\ranoe than
i^iial.

lu tho old
uom, already
■eferred to, is
ilso a temple,
mt it requires
;he aid of the
)perator to
novo it: thus
lis utmost at-
ention is need-
id, without
vhich it might
iontinue to
nove with the

tabric until it _„

vould be of ^ ^ TUNIS COUET.-(See Paoe 183,

10 use at all ; moreover, it perforates, and very often tears the sides of
he cloth.

The "taking-up" motion is introduced for the purpose of ensur-
ng uniformity of thickness throughout the piece, and regulates the
lumber of threads of weft in a given space, by the application of a small
gieel containing a certain number of teeth or cogs, act-ing in connexion
I ^ v""^" °*'^^'' '"^'^ wheels, and the cloth beam, which latter at one
■nd the same time holds up the cloth and moves it so as to ensure the

shuttle failH in
traver'iing the
gley from one
end to the
other, a great
dcBtniction of
threads is al-
niont certain
to take place
in the ordinary
looms ; but in
tlKwe to which
Mr. Bullough's
invention ia
attached the
loose reed falb
outatitsplace,
and gives way
to the shuttle,
BO tiiat no de-
rangement or
breakage of
the warp can
take place.

The above-
named arc the
leading move-
ments of the
power-loom of
tho present
day ; but there
are many other
motions which
are but little
le-ss effective to
the complete
and perfect
working of the
whole. By the
old loom,

which stands
on the right-,
hand side of
the two im-
proved looms,
not more than
oue-thu-d the
amoimt of
cloth can be
produced as
compared with
the workings
of the new
looms, al-

though twice
the amount of
labour is re-
quired to pro-
duce the same
quantity in a
given time.'

We under-
stand that an
experienced
operative will
produce twen-
ty-sis pieces,
twenty-nine
inches wide
and twenty-
nine yards
long, of print-
ing cloth of
cfcren picks per
quarter mch, trom two looms m a factory working sixty hours per week!

The weaving of each piece costs 5|d. The same person, if set to work
at one of the old looms, could only produce four similar pieces, each of
which would cost 2s. 9d. for weaving alone ; thus an immense saving is
effected by the new looms for weaving alone. With such facts before them,
our readers will not be greatly at a loss to account for our vast superiority
over all other nations of the globe in the preduction of every description
of cotton fabrics.

182

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

FOREIGN AND

COLONIAL

♦

DEPARTMENTS.

EGYPT.
TSTE now pass from tlie Asiatic to tlie African continent, and propose to
take a surrey of the contribiitious of Egypt and Tunis to the Exhibition,
the former of which, in addition to their intrinsic merit, were interesting
from the imperishable halo of association that surrounds the land from
which they came— a land which has been the seat of four civilisations,
es-sentially differing from each other, and spread over the lapse of 4000
years ; for while Italy and Greece have been at particular periods more
resplendent by cultivation of the arts, Egypt is the only country that
still shows in its monuments distinct trocos of four Buccessivc epochs of
civilisation — a Pharaonic, a Greek, a Roman, and an Arabic. This, no
doubt, .springs from the peculiarity of its physical geography, as a country
of vast ten-itorial wealth witliin a narrow space, and forming the con-
necting link between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean ; while to the
Englishman, more than to any other inhabitant in Europe, Egypt has
become, since the development of steam navigation, that portion of the
East the political condition of which bears most immediately on the com-
munications between our vast Indian empire and tlie metropolis. There
was a time, and tliat not long since, when our relations with the Govern-
ment of that country were of the most hostile nature ; but it is satisfactory
to think that the most amicable intercourse now reigns between them.
THo Englishmaa in his senses tliinlis of a military occupation in Egypt
similar to that which was attempted by France. The objects of the British
Government limit themselves, first, to the exclusion of any European
power from military possession of the key of the Mcditerr.anean and Indian
seas ; secondly, to the development of our commerce in Egypt : thirdly,
to the facilitation of the Overland traffic. And it is satisfactory to find,
that the present Pacha shows every disposition not only to promote and
protect our passenger traffic, but to cultivate the most amicable relations
with the Government and inhabitants of this country.

In Egypt the extraordinary change that has been imprinted upon the
administration, the, commerce, the agriculture, and the manners of the
higher classes (for those of the great majority of the people remain
untouched) has been effected by tlie will of one man. It is true that
Mahommed Ali sometimes misapplied his resources, but there can be no
doubt of the extraordinary mental activity of the individual ; there can be
no doubt that all the productions of Europe have been subjected to study
— ^that their application to European commerce lias been tested, that tiie
climate and soil have been studied, and that va'st numbers of experiments
have been made in the vegetable world, and that many plants have been
successfully naturalised, wiiile the indigenous products have been much
improved in quality.

The Nile is the great feature of Egypt ; let u», therefore, begin with tlia
upper country. Highest of all were tbe articles from the Belledes-Asoudin,
elephants' tusks, sections of ebony from Seaaar, a rliinooeros horn, and
other objects from the " land of the blacks," as the term means, of whicli
the most valnablc is gum. Upon tliis trade the genius of Mahommed Ali,
remarkable as it was in m.any rerspects, liad not a I'avonralile influence ; the
European regulations and police, ;Which ho esitablished with absolute
power, rather frightened away than encouraged those who had objects of
tliis description to sell from the interior of Africa ; but, as the system of
the presout Pacha is less stringent, there is every prospect of tin extension
of tliis portion of the trade. And to this object, unquestionably, nol.liiug
would so much tend as the establishment of n fair, once every wiuter, at
Essowau, wliic'v is tlie highest point thr.t can be reached by steamers from
Ciiro, and is on tlic borders of Nnbia.

lu Ujiper Eirypt itself, the principal object* of production aro dates,
corn, sug.ir. a'.id Indian corn ; the first of whicli is the most striking
feature Of t!ie Egyptian landscftpe, and which is almost aa familiar to the
eye of tlie European, by thousands of faitliful representations, as to the
Egypti.m himself On clos< r exaToination of the vases in which tliey are
kept, we .«ec the vaiictios of their colcmfy some being of a dark red. some
of a li.dit brown, and otiicrs of a cream colour. Is'ot only is the date an
excellent food for the common people of Egypt, but we saw in this
Exhibition illustrations of tiie varieties of pm'poses to which they are
applied ; here were the crates of the branch of the palm ; tlie fly- flappers of
palm leaves, used by servants while tlie uiaster.'j dine; and, moreover,
specimens of the cordage into which the palm fibres aro made, and a
coarser description of which is in universal use in the Nile boats. Wbcu
we add, that the trunk of the palm is used for timber, that the nuts are
usefl both as camel fodder and as a combustible for the preparing of human
food, and that, moreover, a tenacious hairy sort of fibre from the palm is
used in cleansing the skin in batlis, it i? scarcely possible to over-rate the
TStne of this tree. /

Sugar-cane and eugar-loaves were also exhibited, the latter fr(Jto Ibrahim
Pacha's refinery. This remarkable man made great efforts to pu.sh tlie sugar
cultivation in Egypt, for which there can be no doubt that both soil and
climate are well adapted ; but the great proportion of the sugar used in
Egypt is still imported from Europe ; for whatever the will of Ibrahim
Pacha may have been, or whatever may bo the natural capacities of Egypt,

the incurable indolence of the people, and their indisposition to labour,
seem to be au invincible obstacle to Egypt ever competing with Europ^
in price and quality as far as this article is concerned. The true calling of
Egypt is, unquestionably, that in which Nature herself — the Sun .and the
Nile — have the largest share in the production. It is by her wlieat, her
cotton, her beans, her barley, her sesame, her linseed, and her flax, that
Egypt can increase her wealth with certainty. It is agriculture .and com-
merce, not m,anufactures, that Nature [has assigned to Egypt in the terri-
torial division of labour.

Of these the most important is certainly cotton, from the gi'eat extension
of its cultm-e during late years. We particularly remarked a specimen of
Sea Island cotton, cultivated by Mr. Larking, in the environs of Alexandria.
This ingenious gentleman has devoted many years to the horticulture and
agriculture of the Egyptian climate, and has been the means of reclaiming
from the Lake Mareotis a large tract of land, which would otherwise have
been useless, by diverting from the canal a portion of fresh water, which,
washing away from the alluvial soil the saline particles, has left the earth,
cleansed and productive. He has also been at pains to introduce, upon a
most extensive scale, the British system of agriculture, and the Belgian
method of cultivating flax ; but the inveterate habits of indolence and pilfer-
ing in the natives have prevented the experiment from being so succcsful
as could have been wished.

In the Exhibition was to be seen one of tlio."io curious machines ivitU

Kr,VPTI.\S I'LOroII ANH .NOREZ MACHINK TO SO^V BEEl). '

which the Egy[)tians conduct their agricultural operations (marked 174 in
the Catalogue), which shows that the case-loviug countryman makes his
own weight contribute to do the ^vork, while he is saved the trouble of
walking. The Catalogue states that the object of this machine is to sow
seed ; but, unless we are much mistaken, it is the machine used for ths
double purjiosc of thrashing corn .and cutting the straw ; the oxen pcr-
formiag a rotary motion until all the straw be cut and the corn squeezed |
out.

Of othsr vegelablo productions were specimens of opium aud senna,
which are well suited to the climate ; tombak, wliich is used as a substitute
for tobacco in the water-pipes ; aud rice, which is grown in very large
quautities on the low grouuds cf the Dalta, not far from the sea, and
cleaned for the most pait at Damictta and Rusetta, where mills have been
established on the American principle with great success. Nor must we,
ill our list of vegetable products, omit the rosewater of the Fayoum, which
is so frequently mentioned in the songs of the Arab poets, whole tracts of
land being devoted to this culture, aud in the season of plucking di&using
frngi'.ancc through the smiling land. It is also in the Fayoum (which is a
district to the west of the Nile above Cairo) that are to be found tlic
greatest qu,antity of olives, large plantations of which have been re-estsib'
lishcd by Ibr.ahira Pacha in various parts of Egypt, for the culture of olives
that had much fallen off under tlie Mamelukes.

The mineral productions of Egj'pt were very numerous, the most magnlr.
ficent of which in the Exhibition were the shahs of Oriental alabaster, from
the quarries to the south-east of Cairo, in the Desert, and out of which
material the columns of the new Mosque of Mahommed Ali, in the citadd'
of Cairo, have been constructed. There can be no doubt, that, if the valuB
and the beauty of this mineral were better knoivn in Europe, and if a rail-
w.ay, of however rude and cheap construction, could be established toBeni
Souef, on the Nile, it might become an .article of export of the greatest im-
portance. Aa a native manufacture, having a mineral for its component,

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

185

VI RW OF THE WISSTERN NAVE OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

186

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OP THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITIONS.

-♦-
v.— The ExmuiTimrs or Bzvatvu.
THE Minister of the Interior, while prcsidiiig at the opening of a Belgian
national exhibition of native industry in 1847, aaid truly. "The Belgian
people have always been dirtinguiiheJ for the aptitude they have dbplayed
for the industrial arta; fur the sacccss which has attended their manu-
facturiug enterprises, and for the rapidity with which they hare assorted an
honourable rank amomgrt European nation*." The flourishing condition of
this hberal and indvutriou-^ c«miitry, with its dense population and fine
manufecturing towns, atteJstB, [wrhapa more than any other continental
nation, the safety of relying upon the de\elnpmcntii of civilisation, rather
than leaning with perverse indolence or mistaken and childish pride, upon
traditional institutions.

Although Belgian productions have flgnred in other national exhibitions,
only three exhibitions oxcluriTcly Belgian have been held. Belgian con-
tributors figured honourably in the French official exhibitions of 1801
and 1802; and in tfas French exhibition of 1806 they occupie<l n
(Satinet and hmiourable rank. While Belgium was only a French proTincp.
her nianufacturerfl, of course, competed as compatriots with French manu-
facturers; but after the eepantion of Belgium from Fi-ancc and her union
with Holland, her industrial productions were exhibited at the exhibitions
of the Netherland Stfttes, of which she formed the southern province. The
fifteen years during which the house of Nassau governed the destinies of
Belgium form a melancholy cpocli in the history of this country, curiously
described by an old English writer as " the cockpit of Christendom." The
Bel^auB, with their intense love of nationality ond their Gallic blood, could
not amalgamate with the sombre, unimaginative Dutchmen. Each saw in
the other characteristics which kept alive a settled and determined enmity
each saw that the policy of their rcfpcctivo countries required separate
government. Holland, under the restrictive flyjifin of cummerce, which,
for the benefit of the Beldan provinces, was i r\i', found her

commerce decreasing, and that of Btlgiuni raj'j -the buBinej«.^

of Amsterdam was fast romQ\'ing to the bauh'i "> i.ir- iiLiieldt: it wa«,
therefore, with cordial pleasure that the Dutch and Belgians saw their
governments divided— the Dutchman retreating to his table-land to recou
struct, by hberal commerce, bis slackened businciis; and the Belgian to
cultivate hit fields and extend his faetorius. under tlic warmth of a firmly-
planted national fin^. The history of Bulgiuin, for tlio last fifteen years,
fills up the happiest page of her troublous records. Having felt the yoke
of three distinct continental tyninnies, she had now emerged from slavery,
to vindicate, under the blosting of native and congenial institutions, the
noble character of her children, and the fruitful capacities of her soil.
Among the patriots who directed the current of popular events in the
impetuous year 1830. and carried this country through the terriMo dangers
which attend even the tnoct righteous civil war, M. Silvain Van der Weycr,
now the representative of the Belgian nation in this country, was not the
least conspicuous.

Belgium figured in four exhibitions of iuduslry, conjointly with Holland.
Of these, the first w.is held at Oln-nt. in 1820; one in Toiimai, in 1824 ;
one in Harlem, in 1S25; and the limt in Brussels, in 1830, at the v«ry
moment when the Prince of Orange was cndcavuiiriiig to qnoll the dis-
content which Belgium thon openly manifested towards tfio house of Nafsau.
At the exhibition ul" 1320, thocontributoi-tiamininted toCflO only; whcreriB,
that of 1830, held under the disturbiiiK influt-nce of grave political develop,
ments, mustered 1020, of whom no Ichh than 818 wore Belgians. The
exhibition of 1835, however, ht-M at Bnut-ttiU, i^, strictly, the first exhibition
of industry exclusively Belgian. This rrr*t attempt to rally the manu-
facturera and agricultiiral farnters of B«lgiuui, uoming »••> soon after the
convulsions and consequent commercial stagnation through which the
liberated country ha^l atnigglod, but whiub it had cheerfully submitted to
for the sake of an idolized nationality, w';ui necessarily, when compared with
the hwt, a failui-c in jiokt of numbers, and in the impoit-uit wgns of pro-
gresfl which have always marked tiio repetition of industrial exhibitions
whenever they have neon conducted on national grounds. Only 631
exhibitors figured at itj ood the articlvs exhibited, tliough presenting a
hopeful picture of future promise, wore ccrt-xinly inferior in clmracter and
excellence to the liist exhibition of the Netherlands. The contnwt, which,
though it might be oaiily and fairly acci.nutcd for, did not flatter the
national vanity of a people who had been UfH that they could not support
themeelves bs an independent nation, raised fcan. and doubts in the minds
of many men in authonc .-'•"■. fi- - "^ - ' - - .,(3 were issued sum-
monmg the mdustnal ., tl,eir skill to their

capital in 1811. But the ■ „,V^n withm the six

years which inten-ened Lc-i.^.n, ;,„,. , r • lati exhibition

was immense and unprecedented. Pro, t.,o, it should

be remembered, in tlie teeth of unu«\i. ! ,r«— disasters

which generally allow the labourtra' U>oIk to rn t. auH the workmen
to starve.

The tenihle commercial crisis with which the year 1338 closed, and the
effect of which was bo hwting, very naturally called up feore in the minds of

man whose very independence was yet an experiment It was au easy
matlw to fill the r— --ii"— of the Bclgisn M— - *" ?.>=»..,.; imt
tlic mauufftCturers : led. that, in ^| .luous

efforts, the dcplf'i nmid which ; .ould

divulge their sad rtnuii- m iin- imture of their lii.niu. 1 .,1,. -, ijowever,
in the month of February, I8iO, the Chevalier do Theux do Meylandt, then
Minister of the Interior, issued a royal decree intimating that on the
16th of Jidy. ISil.apublicoxhibitonof national industry would be opened;
and that the govemmeut of the exhibition would be confided to a com-
mission consisting of ten members. Provincial committees were also
appointed, having powers of selection and rejection over articles viithiu
tbcir jurisdiction ; and the Ministi-y annoimced that the jury would pay
jiiirticul'ir fttf'-ntion, in it^ decisions, to the utility and cheapness, as weU
as t" r I 1 technical excellence, of articles exhibited. Tho

povr '-d to itself the power of acquiring, by purchMo,

any ^1 -1 the view of perfecting a iiaticiual musoum of

induslrv. Iiiu ixt'cir=i.-< of tarrlige wore defrayed by the government.
Exhibitors wore invited to send the ti-ading price of articlts to tho jury,
and they were allowed to display the prices upon their goods at tho
exhibition.

Delay baring taken place in the transmission or airangemout of goods,
tho exhibition was not ready till the let of August, 1841, on which day
M. Nothonib (the new Minister of the Interior) formally opened the galleries
of tlte Mu^C'u Indiatricl to tlic Belgium public. On this occasion, the
president of flic Kxhiliitii^n Committee addressed the Minister on the
character of f ■ ni these hopeful words : — " You will see, sir. by

the number .of the jiroducts exhibited, the extension and

devclojinieiK ^. lustry whieii have marked tho years which have

passed over u^ since uur last exhibition was closed. Though remarkable
for many manufacturing excellences, this exhibition will bo noticed chiefly
for the useful nature and cheapness of the greater part of its cuntentA
Belgium, having worked out the problem of economic production, now
pauses to find channols fur tho profitable export of her superabundance."
In reply to this address, tiio Minister referred to the sixty leagues of railway
whicli hod been laid down in Belgium sioco 1S35. Tho object of tho
exhibition of 1635 ynm to domonstrnte that Belgian industry had not
,„,..;. I, ..-1 ;,. the stnig^lo which had emancipated tlio cotintry; but tho
ikly owned that the couotry had other and brightor hopes la
11 upon which the doors were tlicn falling back. In con-
iiiKux 11. -'i, Notiiomb w^trned the Belgians that the brilliant bazaar, which
justly tiattored the national pride, by no means represented fully tho
industry of the oountry; inasmuoh as many and great dcpnrtmontf) of
indtistry— many ©ihniiatleM sources of wealth — as, for instance, coals (the
production of which ha^l lately been onormouely extended), couhl not be
reprcBonted at such an inhtilution.

The jury who reported on this exhibition. In a preamble to their official
declaration, cliaractori«ed tho gathering of industries as one where trials of
strength were r.aro, where cxceptitmal contributions were few, but where
thcra were a vast number cf articles, on the excellence of wiiich the manu-
facturing nrositerity of a country must rest " We are," said the jurv, " tho
first to admire an exquisite fabric, rioh and splendid lace, a model royal
equipage, or a grand palatial ornament ; but wo examine with more atten-
tion and interest than we devote to the>e acliiavcmcnts, those projects
which are destined for tho groat ma«8 of consumers. In what relative
importnnce does the finest fabric stand to that coarse material which is to
cover tho hare back of tho weaver V Happily the jury preferred to eoe a
product tlmt would carry comfort into tho homes of tho people, before tho
lace destined to cover— tho more to display — the heightened beauties of a
duchess. In tliis they sliowed how truly "they comprehended the spirit of
tho times tljoy were »ii.Mr,.,w.l,in<, «,,(! bow worthy they were to enjoy tho
complete indcpendcu' ,; countrymen had fstablishod.

The number of cr this exhibition was 075. Of these, 7d

were from Anvers, !• mt, 152 from West Flandefs, 186 from

East Flanders, 77 fj< , .j from Liege, 8 from Limbourg, 13 from

Luxembourg, and 3:.;

The growth and f flax, which Is tho great industry of

Bt-lgium, and pnrti. > .t and West Flanders, had increased

marvclloiwjy. Tho ii .had for years been worth an averago

of two milHonB stor untry, b-id been assiduously nurtured.

Belffium, that in IJ*:.'. ly one spinning factor)', boasted in 1341

no less than I'ivjht ill ! ■ qdoying forty-seven tliousand machines.

jFVoni the To I > ' i mm iiL.uchcr, fiax threads spun to the fineness

of No, 30n ^\> > .iiojurv, and tho manufacturers rcwiu<Ied by a

gold m<v(f>l. ,„tj ffictoi-ica nf tl.c S..,.-;,'to dti la Lys. of Ghent,

">" ''' Til, of Lieye, a . i old mediila. Tho

"'ierip 1 were not r,- 'he jury oxpresaod

Ihc"" • lure of canibii. ■ t which in Helglum

they lia.l i.'.vur.i. I i,i i\:^:,_ appeared to huvu ct:ased to exist. The manu-
facttti* of sadcOoths, however, had been considerably extended and
iinprored ly M. Kums, who had invented and patented a loom for wcaviug
this coarse but irnp-irtant fabric. In damask linens, however, the exhibition
was rich— -iudlcating tho brilliant future that lay in the spinning jenny and
the Jacquard niacliine. Manufacturers had begun to employ Jncquard'a
loom extensively, and, by the adoption of tlda economy in labour, to place
the maniifacturars of Courtrai in a position to compete with those of Silesia.
For Ppeeimens of daina-^k linens, MM. Pochnan and For\-acke, of Gbeilt,
and T. Gyabrechta and Lonsberg, of Malines, obtained gold medals ; and

we may also draw attention to the poroiw water-bottles made at Ghonoh,
on the Nile, which are in universal use in all parts of Ej^pt, from their
peculiar quality of exuding tiio moisture, which by evaporaUon cools tho
water within. U we descend tho Nile to the entrance of Cairo, we son
another mincr.U production, in spccimona of tho petrified forest of a valley
in Mount Mokattam.

The Cairo articles must be regarded under two aspects — those which are
indigenous, nnd thoso which have b^cn introduced by the late Pacha as
subservient to his military and political system. The latter need not
engage our attention, as they have no local colour, however illustrative they
may be of the superior mental activity of the family of the present Pacha.
Of the former, we may mention tlio saddles of crimson velvet, tlio j)addcd
one being most c!>.\v :ind cmveni'-nt fnr riilw,', givinc^ a good hold to tho
knee ; but tlic higli , > : 1 ,ng^ for it ia of the

same form as that i-j ist need to receive

tlio shock of the Fr.i I. ' , idiu, whose name is

so .issoeiatcd with i'' Damiotta, being still an

appondnge of ttie M- .. bears his name.

In no rc?!]>eLt luvl \- 1 ,., ,1 d to leave his impress upon

this country, been m iliuii in lii^i efforts to promote public

instruction; ami till- lablishod in I'!gypt will xmquestionably

do more for his repni .1 n ', h (lie wars in whicli he w.i3 engaged. Tho
printing-press at Boulak. has been sufficiently described by travellers; and
we Lave had sjiocimeus of its work in an Egyptian edition of the " Arabian
Nights," and other productions of typography ; the works themselves being
remarkable, not so much for their beauty of print and paper, is which
they cannot cumpcto with Europe, as for the osccssivolowness of price.

The articles of dress are so numerous, and aro brought in such quim-
titics by travellers to this country, that wo need not take up the reader's
time any further; simidy remarking, that while many of the imitations of
European manufactures have not been successful as pecuniary speculations,
that of Tunis caps, ostablisbed at Founh, has been in operation for many
years, aud has been eminently prpsperous.

THE TUNIS COURT.
The Tunis court or bay was tho first on the right hand after paaslng through
the iron gates at the south entrance. In front it was the width of a single
division ; but in the rear tt was moro extensive. Tho collection of Tunisian
productions which woro sent for exhibition by tho Bey of Tunis, imdor the
care of Sy Hamda Elmkfidden, pro-cnmuiissary appointed for the occasion,
aud Moses Santillaua, interpreter to his Exctdloncy General Sidy Mahmoud
Benyad, the Boy's commissioner, were more remarkable as matters of
curiosity than for their intrinsic value or importance. Tho moat striking
features in the outward show wcro some carpets, rugf, and blankets, and a
variety of singularly-fiiahioned garments, for male and female, of a mined
material of silk and worsted, and of all shades and mixtiu-o of colour; caps
of various denominations — calabash, orta, sake, majidia, kalob-shed, &c. —
turbans, ond other head gear ; silk scarfs ; in short, an endless stock of gen-
tlemen's and ladies' "icft^off clothing" — just such a stock as one might
expect to see in a native old clothes' shop at Algiers or at Cairo. Two hats
of gigantic proportions, in red m()rocco, were ttie astonishment of all
beholders. In tlio inner room wore others of similar dimensions, but made of
Btr%w, and ornamented with leather patches. Ilie shoes, boots, and slippers
of red, green, and yellow morocco, attracted the attention of the curious, tis
also some very Rubstantial aaddlo-bags of tho mum uiatorial, which, divided
in two, might form very serviceEi-blo packs for a walking tour in Watea or
Switzerland. Then there were samples of seeds, of saffron, of indigo, and
gloss jars full of swootmeate, which last-named the good natured Turk in
charge very freely dispensed, with wild gestures of welcome, to gaping
juveniles as they passed. Arms and gun-locks of clumsy make were displayed
in another comi:artment ; in another various articles for domestic use, made
of iron, tin, leather, and pottery, and of very primitive fashion ; squares of
" household soap," some candles also, veritable " dips " of a dirty brown
colour. In another we found musical instrumonts, including a lute and
a timbrel; and strewed about in all directions were skins of animals, dressed
and undressed ; pieces of matting, parasols, fans, ornaments in gold and
silver; claret bottles filled, some with scented waters, some with Begiu
snnff; and all sorts of odds and ends, mostly of the rudest description, btit
all admirably calculated to afford illustration of the manage and conremtncei
of the North African tribes. A tent made of cainers hair cloth, which stood
in tho middle of the room was a perfect picture, low, dai'k, dismal — a mere
shelter for the mountain wandei-er from tho blast and the fain; in which
8»ddle8, saddle-bigs, leather water-bags, leather bottle?. leather mats, clumsy
arms, and other articles for immediate use, and adapted for prompt removal,
Were scattered about iu admired disorder. In atr.mge contrast to this tatter-
demalion lot stoi)d two glass cases, containing some very splendid speeimens
of gold embroidered dresses and horse caparisons, and other articles of
vertu selected from the Bey's private wardrobe. Kormust we omit to men-
tion some very curious models of nrahescjuo carvings in gypsum, intended
for the decoration of tho interior of Moorish rooms. Their workmanship
is of a bold character, tho dovieee elaborate and pleasing, and the material
being pierced through, must have a very light and graceful effect when ftp-
plied to tho purposes intended. Prop.iratnry to the process of carving, tlic
gypsum ia inclosed in a wooden frame, with a back to it, which supports
and protects it till the design is completed.

183

ENGINE-PIT OP THK WALBOTTLE COLLIERY.

Is connexion with our article on " Coal, Peat, Ac," in the prwentnumber
we give on pages 188 and 180, two sections of th« engine-pit, Walbottu
Colllory, m tho county of Northumboriand, showing the anangcinent f
engine, pumpa, &c., ns erected in 1846, by R and W. Hawthorn, anddra ^
by John Hodgson, consulting engineer, flcale quarter of an inch ton"
foot. The drawings are each 12 fuot long and 4k feet broad, and reweaen
tho whole of the coal scams and strata, with the water levels, Ac ^'
principal feature in the arrangement is the economy and 8in)],Ii-,it.. *
working ft forcing or pi .. . 'v ith two Uftingpumps, by sji. ,u 1;,";

from the beamof ftdniii 1 lonsing steam-engine, ontliu ^■.,

principle, without anv !■ : 1 — ■ '^iit; the engine being eqti;dlv uU-di-
the in-door and out-door stroke.

We have selected for our illustrations the principal paits of the;Q beanti
ful and interesting drawings, to give our readers some idea how the water
by thi.i nrnutgemont is pumped out of the ooal-mioes; and we regret E
we canuot on a small scale represent the seetiona of the strata, so that fbxt
ouuld be general Iv understood. Theparto wo bare represented aw reducfti
to half the £i*c of the original drawings.

Fig. 1 is nu elevation of tho engine and upper portion of the delivcrr-
pipe of the foroing-immps, with the main spears or pump rods ; and Fig •■<
an end elevation of the same. Fig. 3 a section, and Fig. 4 an elevation Jf
tho forcing-pump, with the spears and the lop end of the hfting-pump^
showing tho cistern and method of connecting tha spears on each side of
tho plunger ; and Figs. 5 nnd G a section and elevation of the bottom ead
of the lifcing-pumps, showing the bucket and clacks.

Tho following are tho principal dimensions, via. :— Cylinder, 77 inchf*
diameter: stroke of piston, 10 feet; beam 17i feet and U feet = SIJ few
total lengtli of stroke of pumps in the pit, 8 feet ; diameter of the plungif
or ram 28 J inche<! : tho diameter of the two lifting or bucket pumps,16J inchtj
The pumps deliver from 1 100 to 1500 gallons of watei* per minute, accordiu.^
aa the engine is required to make 5 to 7 strokes per minute. '

The water level drift a, la connexion with other drifts to the Iow.tcmI
softms and tho pipe B, from a coal seam below tho forcing-pump, comen
the whole of the water from the workings of the colliery below a ceituu
level to the bottom of the pit, and it is raised by tho two lifiing-puoip* to
the cistern c. The drift d collects the water from the upper coalaeanii,
and is conveyed by a pipe to the chtem c, the pips beiug proridedwitL
a valve so m to shut off tho supply when neccssarr. Tho whole of tlu
witor, as it is thus collected into tho cistern 0, is forced by tho plunger
pump up the pipes E to tho surface wat«r level drift f, through which it
flow.-) to a neighbouring valley — the sizes of the two lifting-pumps, and the
supply of water from the upper levels, being 30 adjusted as to equil ttic
capacity of the plungor- pump— tho weight and load upon tlie cngiua bciu^
also equally adjusted at each retui-n of tho up and down stroke of the pumps.

GOtHIC BOOKCASE.— BY LEISTLERS, OF VIENNA.
This magnificent piece of furniture was sent over as a present from the
Emperor of Axwtria to hor Majesty ; the superbly bound books which oim-
ment some of the shelves ore also the gift of his Impeiiol Majesty. Thu
matei'ial is oak. The design, which is Qothio, is by Bcrnar<1o dc EemanliA
an architect of eminence, and J. Kraner, both of Vienna. It is nitber too
architectural in its arrangf^ment, and tho introduction of the 8t;itucttC8 in
all directions Is not to bo approved on the score of taste or propriety. The
exocutivo department hne been very creditably carried out; but at tii':
tinie it v-aa exhibited tho joining business had not been completed; and
wo understand several workmen belonging to Messrs. Lsistlcr's establish-
ment are now engaged upon tt, and will be so for some mouths, at Buokiiig-
ham Palace. ^

VIEW OF THE WESTERN NAVE.
Across the noxt two pag^s wo give a general view of tho Western ^a"
of the Ciystal Palace, exhibiting at a glance the principal objects in tbe
British nepartment. First, perhaps, in interest and importance, stands tho
splendid trophy of Spitalflelds silk, erected by Messrs. Keith. This richly-
clothed and decorated object formed a decided feature of the Exhibition,
and consistod of a parallelogram of mirrors with a wing at each of tne
anglei, ou which were draped the richest lui-niture dama-sks in wtll;seleetfl«
and effective colourings. Tho structure was divided into tlirce ticiis, m
rose to tho height of forty feet, above which were placoil tho flaga ^nii
banner, The lower tier dispkyofl the broad silks of the Im-gest pattern?,
and at certain angles thwo were reflecte"! in the mirroi-s ; wliitst '^'^^'^'^"^
of silks were aiTrtiiged upon a plinth which supported tlio whole, on oiw
mental /<ucia completing the first compartment. From thi3 ^''^g- ^
seo<md tier, in which, however, too many silks were crowded, and tho e
was lost in consi-quonco. The arrangement, too, might '"'^''^ li^"" f jijp
loose and pendent in its character, thus giving cose to t-''®.*^" , ."1: jiio
drapery. This remark applies especially to the upper tier, in '"^'''?^^^
loss costly, but, iu some respects, the more showy gooda, such iw sti V^
tabarets, were placed. Great credit, however, is due to Mes^rd. Jp''" ^ji-
Co., for tho spirit and energy they have displayad In taking up this cjjj
illustnUion of tbeii- trade singlc-lianded ; aud the exuiuplt-'s of -^"*, . ^
it was formed were, with a few exceptions, equally creditable to tucir
and taste as manufacturers.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOl'^liDIA OF TllK GIHCAT KXHIinTION 01' IH-A.

187

M. C. Dujardin, of Courtrai, tlio rocril of oiio given to liiiri at ii previous

pxliibition.

Tlio woollen innnufncturcs of UclKiura, wlileli, in npite of the iinponni-
hllity of growiiif! wod on tlio »mnll faniia of tlui oontiti-y, aii'l tlin necessity

if ivlyiiig npon I'l ircign inarUels for this raw nintcrial, liivl HUiailily iuui'eiuiud

n impoitanco, from an iivcmgo annual piii<lti(:tion of clolli in 178U of
!0,(inO (liocos. to one! of 1 22,000 |)iocoH in ISMS,* lif,'iirofl lionouralily at tlio

!elf»ian cxliiliition of ISll ; ami MM. Oraml Ity and I'oswiek, of Vervlor.'*,
ibtaincd a ^old medal iVn* tlicir specimens of Rpun wool. Other woollen
nanufact»rer.s obtained medals on this (iocn.sion ; and tlifi Helgian cloths
'xhibitoJ appear to have justified tlio high onlogiums which wcro heaped
11 thin fine iuduitry.
10 dJrcctori! of the splendid royal carpet manufaetoiy of Tounioi

»,.ibited on this occasion some fine specimens of thoir looms, executed
ifter designs in the style of the reuamana; for the Sardinian (.'ourt. These
,|icoiniens obtained for the manufacturers tlio award of a gold medal.

The cotton manufuctures of Jielgium, consuming an annual average
piantity of cotton estimated at 7,000.000 kilogrammes, and keeping 3U00
lower, and fiOOO hand-looms in constant activity, and concentrating a vast
iichistrial population around Cdieut, were but very feebly represented at
his exhibition. This weakness wa-, attributed by the jurv to a wish, on
ho part of the cotton lords, to appear dejected and miserabh', and to
saggerate tlie decline in the cotton manufactures of the country sinco the
Involution of 1830.

Tlie jury reported faithfully tlie successful efforts which had been lately
mule to establish silk mauufuctiires in Belgium ; and particularly referred
the great manufaetoi-y of Lierre, employing ninety looms with this
icautiful material.
The speeiraens of lace exhibited attested the siu'vival of that traditional
cellence in wliieh Belgium takes such pride. Around Brussels, Maline.s,
luvers, Bruges, Menin, Ypres, Grammont, and Aloot, nearly RO.OOO women
re engaged in the fabrication of lace. In the village .-ciiools of Flanders,
nd in the farm-hou-ses, the feminine industi-y of wliieh has been superseded
y the npinning-jenny. women and cliildrcn are taught to weave the splendid
attems of tbo.sc costly webs which Hoat abnit the forms of wealthy
■omanhood. A 6pleni:li<l .assortment of the ivsult of this industry wa'»
s^bibited in ISU. Without entering into tlio relative beauties of Brussels
oiiit, of Valenciennes, and other laces, it may be interestinc; to notice the
jecimen of laeo-work, representing, by means of a needle and thi-ead, an
llegorieal picture of the attributes of industry, commerce, arc, and science,
)r which a gold medal was awarded to M. TardentPoilet, of ISrussels.

The metallic wealth of Belgium, which, .after having labom-eJ under the
isadvantagcs and disasters which follow inish and impetuous speculation,
■,09 beginning to bear a salutary e^'ect upon native commerce, contributed
u'gely to the attractions of the exliibitiou of 1841. The exhibitors of
lanuiaetures in metals were numerous, their products wore extremely
arious, and decidedly indicative of a dawning prosperity. The reputation
i' the cannon foundry of Liege had already secured to its directors orders
■cm many foreign powers ; and the excellences of the fii-ms of Couillet
nd Mai-cinello, of the SoeictJ de Moucenux aur Sambi-e, of the Societe
e I'Esper.inco, Leraing. were tliouglit severally worthy of gold medals,
'hat part of the exhibition devoted to machinery was dwelt upon by the
iry with great warmth. Within ten years the mauufactm-e of machinery
1 Belgium had ri.sen from being an obscure and insignificant brauch of
ulustry, to assume the importance of a manufacturing specialty, worth an
nnual average sum of 18,000,000 fi-aiics.

Altogether, 41 gold medals, 11!) silver medals, 282 bronze medals, 72
ecals of fjrmoT mefUls, and 148 "mentions honorables," were accorded to
xhibitors on this occasion. Crowds of foreigners flocked to the e.<ihibition :
nd the solemnity with which tiic vai-ious prizes were distributed, in the
resence of the King and Queen, tended to give men a pleasing notion of
he honour which Belgian authorities attached to the successes of industry,
"ho loud .applause which gi-eeted a young girl belonging to one of the poor-
ouses of Bi-uges, when she advanced to receive a gold medal awarded to
.T by the jury, indicated that wdiolesome public esteem of skilled labour
hich other countries might well en-jy.

The last industrial exhibition of Belgium, held in the year 1847, was
emarkablo for a feature, the impoi-tanco and wisdom of which it is im-
;03sible to overrate. The jury for this exhibition were called upon by the
■len Minister of the Interior, in addition to the usual labours devolving
pon an exhibition committee, to .arrange a plan for the foundation of a
-■n- order of rewards, to bo specially reservdl for working men who dis-
ingnished themselves by their live's and their excellence as workmen,
u addition, this jury were furtlier instructed to inquire into the means at
and for the formation of societies in which tiie savings of workmen could
e placed to the best advantage. The letter of the jiluister of the Interior
n this subject well merits place in a history of industrial exhibitions :—

"FKOSt THE MINISTEP. OP THE INTEBIOR TO THE JURY.

" Bi-uescls, September 9, 1847.
"Gentlemen, — The labourer.^ and artisans who work imder the direction,
nd for the profit of mastei-s, have not up to the present time participated
1 the rewards and honours which the Government have been anxious to
ward to industi-y. Working-men — more than other classe-s— would esteem
igwy any public rewards accorded to them ; and tbeii- emulation being

* M. N. Briavoinnc, "V Indastric en Eelgique."

in this way awakened, would lead tli<-m to improve an labourer) and citiiMnx.
Medals of honour might bn dintribiitcl to workmen reeommcndcd by tlicir
m.a.'itorH, ax Hkilfiil, well behaved, nnil devoted to their fainilicn. By willi-
holding such distinctions from workmen who were diBcontcntcd, dc^t^oycl■.^
of (liBciplinc, not punctual in their houri, or given to drunken liabitK, tbrir
manucrw would in all probability be improved, and loMen the ncco»>it;, f.r
tbo ihijiosition of those finen which uro now seriou-n evils in m.anufactiiring
communities. The medals i-hould l,o manuf,icture I to be worn at the
buttonhole, and should bear the name of the owner, with the wordx
' Mkompenee Nalionale.' " SI. ItooiBR, Minister of the Interior."

M. Uogicr's plan wan not to strike medals to deeonitc every good work-
man in Belgium, but to flo an act of ju»tic(- to thoi-c men and" women who
had reali.fed tbo conceptions of the manufacturing exliibitora. It wa?
arr.inged finally, that a thousand medals should be sti-uck, and it was
cstiin.atod that of these about two hundred would relapse to Govcniracnt
every six years, so that this nmiiber could be aw.arded at every exhibition.
The medals given to women diflcred slightly from those aceordcfl to men,
bearing the words " Hahili, Morulili" instead of " Jle'compcMC Nutionale."
At the distribution of rewards to the exhibitors of 184 7, uincteen workmen
(of ndiom nine were lacemakers), and 201 workmen received dcconition.-!.
The policy or propriety of giving a reward to a man who has brought up
an unusually large family upon the smallest possible pittance of wages, is
at least questionable ; but the just recognition of the workman's relation to
the manufacturing condition of liis country, cannot be viewed with dh-
plcasure by any mind the vision of which is not distorted.

Tlie exhibition of 1847 Wivs opened on the 15th of July in that year;
and the price at which the public was admitted was fixed at ten sous on
three days of the week. T/nee days, weekly, the exhibition was opened
free; and on the seventh day, was given up entu-ely to the jury. This
exhibition included very few exhibitors of the staple produce of the couutrv
—flax : a deficiency which the jm-y lamented, and for which they could,
in no reasonable wiiy, account. Linen manuf icturos, however, had made
rapid and indisputable progress. The Societe de St. Leonard, of Liege,
rewarded at the exhibition of 1841 by a gold medal, and the Socifite de la
Lys, of Ghent, had. respectively, doubled the extent of their establishments
since that time. The progress of these societies \vas acknowledged by the
jury on this occasion with the recal of the medals given in 1841. The
depressed condition of the cotton manufacturers of Belgium kept them
from this exhibition, as from the last ; even printed cottons found only
five representatives. In specimens of rich lace, this exhibition also showed
a falling off in comparison with that of 1841. Ypres and Courtrai, the
great centres of the Valenciennes lace manufactures, were almost without
representatives. In the department of metal manufactm-es, the jury found
ample consolation for the deficiencies in that devoted to textile fabrics.
Iron maiuilactures, wdiieh in 1841 were in a complete state of stagnation,
began to revive in 1844, as railway speculation increased and the price of
English iron rose. Over-production, however, and the mania of 184(1, were
just then beginning to produce their lamentable consequences ; but these
were not sufficiently developed at the time of the opening of this exhibition
to make ironfounders indifferent as to the representation of their great
industry. Accordingly we find the metallic wealth of Belgium splendidly
developed in every possible way at this exhibition. At the distribution of
prizes on this occasion, M. Ciiarles de Brouchere, president of the jury (and
whose name should receive honourable mention in any notice of Belgian
exhibitors), addressed the Minister of the Interior in these tei-ms : — "This
festival, which crowns the gloiy of our industrial exhibition, receives
particular eclat from the fact that at this exhibition agricultural industry
h.as taken its place beside raauufaeturing industry. For the fii-st time we
behold the sources of our national wealth united and intermingled; for
the first time the Government extends its rewards to all classes of tho
industrial commuuity, and thus inaugurates a happy futui-e for Belgium.
Tlie exhibition of 1847 is .an advance upon all its predecessors, both as
regards the number of exhibitors and the character of the articles exhibited."
This eulogy was deserved. In textile fabrics, in machinei-y, in cutlery,
china, and hardware, in the chemical arts, and in beauty of designs, the
Belgian exhibition revealed a hopeful and happy picture of promise in the
future. All who admire an energetic and spiritual nation, wUl hope to find
this promise fully realised.

SurrLT OP Co.iLS. — Within the last twelve months, in consequence of
the f.xoilities aiforded by r,uhvays for the cheap and speedy tr.ausit of coals
from the various parts of the kingdom to the metropolis, the inhabitants
of London have enjoyed cheap fires as well as cheap bread. The supply is
on the increase, and consequently we look forw.ard to a farther reduction
of price. The Great Western and Forest of De.au Coal Company have been
established to supply the coals of that locality, which possesses many exten-
sive seams of coa! of fii-st-rate quality. The west, the north, and the mid-
laud counties will thus be brought into active competition in the London
market, .and the public must necessarily rt.ap the benefit.

Presents of the East India Ccvpant to Her Majestv. — The East
India Company have presented some of the most admired objects, contri-
buted by them to the Great Exhibition, to Her Majesty. This splendid
cadtauis composed chiefly of precious stones and articles of rertit; but
comprises also valuable shawls and rich miwlins, stuffs from Dacca, and
other places.

188

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

I .,','tv '""/mtiHii.

" " * "

\^■.'■'^

ENGINE PIT OP

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHTHITION OP 1851.

189

i ^m

^mM^M^^mmmm^m^^^mfm^^w^^i^^fm

Mm//MMm////M//MM//mmm////////m

THE WALBOTTLE COLLIERY.

190

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

fHC

COAL, PEAT &c.

— -* —

IE visitor an-iving at the Exhibition Building from the west, or passing
out from that extremity, could not fail to bo struck by a number of large
objects there collected and arranged, amongst which some gigantic blocks
of coal ^vere not the least remai-kable. These formed part of a noble series
of specimens of mineral fuel, most of tUem, as might be expected, the
produce of English mines, and capable'of giving to the general observer, as
well as the practical man, a most valuable idea of the relative as well as
positive importance of this source of our country's wealth. We propose to
detain the reader a little in the consideration of this suljject, as one worthy,
from its geuci-al interest as well as its importance, of special notice on the
present occasion.

Mineral fuel exists in various ways in the earth, if by this term we include,
as we may fairly do, all those deposits in any sense available for fuel which
form now an essential part of the earth's external layer or surface. Using
the expression in this general way, we understand it to mean peat and turf,
as well as coal ; and not only such coal as is brought to us from Newcastle,
Lancashire, Yorkshii-e, South Wales, or other places in the great coal districts
of the north and west, which chiefly supply London, but the less perfect
and much less valuable material obtained in other countries and other
places, and known technically as lignite, or brown coal.

Peat, like all other supplies of fuel from the eartli, is nothing more than
vegetation of some kind in a more or less altered state. When, owing to
any caitse, the decomposition of dead plants is checked or prevented, a
gradual and steady accumulation takes place; and, where circumstances
are favourable, this is mucli assisted by a particular kind of moss, making,
with the other plants, a spongy semi-iiuid ma-ss, which gradually iucreii.ses
till the magnitude becomes as large as the coudition of the surrounding
ground will admit. From twelve to twenty feet is no luicommon depth
for such material : and so great is the surface extent, that not less than one-
seventh part of the whole of Ireland is thus occupied. Anything which
could render tliis peat available as fuel at a price at all competing with that
of coal, would, unquestion.ably, be a great advantage to a country like
Ireland, and also to many parts of Germany ; and several such methods
have been adopted, which were illustrated in the genenxl collection iu
Class 1. We may refer here more particularly to the preparations by
Mr. Jasper Rogers, and those by Mr. Evans (Stone's p.atent), and Mr. Cobbold
— the latter effected, we believe, by centrifugal force without pressure aud
while the material is in a pulpy state, and certainly yielding some very
curious material resembling jet, .and capable of being turned iu the lathe.
Mr. Evans exhibited chielly tlie numerous products obtained by the des-
tructive ' distillation cf peat, the economic value of which does not at
present seem very distinctly proved, but which are well worthy of expe-
riment; while the interest excited by the products exhibited by Mi\
Kogera has a wider range, as it is connected with large sanatory questions
and the employment of peat charcoal for manure.

The great objection to peat as a fuel has generally arisen from the large
quantity of water which it contains even when it has been exposed to the
ordinary process of drying. This air-dried peat, even under favourable
circumstances, contains no less than one-fourth pai't of its weight of water,
aud in any use of the substance as fuel, the first thing that has to be done
during combustion is to turn into .steam and drive oU' by evaporation this
extraneous moisture. In charring peat the result of the water is seen in
another w.ay ; for as it is present chiefly in the little cells of the plants of
whicli the mass is made up, the charcoal produced is very light and easily
reduced to fine powder, just as would be the case if leaves, twigs and mosses
were burnt. The very light and porous state thus obtained is unfavourable
for the use of the fuel iu cases where great heat is needed, aud where a
blast of air is employed. All these objections to peat and charred peat
arc, liowever, much diminished, and even removed, when the peat is
rodviced to a more compact substance, and the w.ater got rid of. By some
contrivance the weight of such prepared fuel is greater than that of a similar
block of coal, and the charcoal is more dense than that from wood. When
wo consider that in Ireland, as we have already said, not less than one-
seventh of the whole surface of the country is covered by bog, while coal,
though it exists, is dear and not very good, the vast importance of the
utilisation of peat will be at once appreciated. With regard to the rehative
vabie of peat and coal, it may be sutfirient to say, that lib. of ordinary peat
will evaporate i\ lb. of water; lib. of perfectly dry peat will evaporate 01b.
of water; lib. of Newcastle coal will evaporate 71b. of water, and lib. of
pm-e Welsh anthracite as much as lCi.J,lb. Compressed pe.at varies in this
respect accordiug to the method adopted to bring it into a convenient aud
valuable form.

There is a form of mineral fuel of which we have but few and unimpor-
tant examples in this country, but which is incredibly abundant in several
parts of tlie Continent where coal is comparatively rare. This material is
called litjnitc, and consists, generally, of large accumulations of trunks of
trees, heaped together in particular places to a thickness of 40, 50, 100, or
even 200 feet, and occupying sometimes a considerable space. Even in
Ireland, on the shores of Lough Neagh, this substance exi.sts in three beds,
having a total thickness of GO feet, and extending over lOU square miles,
so that its economic value is really very considerable. At Bovey Traoey,
in Devonshire, similar beds exist, but of smaller size, and these are actually

worked, the hgnite being used in some potteries in the neighbourhood,
value of lignite as fuel has not yet been ajipreciated, as there are some
portaut practical diSiculties iu the way of its use, connected with
presence of water and earthy impurities. There can, however, be no doi
that before long these vast stores will be rendered available, especially wh.
as is the case with Austria, they exist iu the immediate vicinity of supp
of u'ou ore, practically inexhaustilJe. Those interested in examin
material of this kiud might have found amongst the foreign goods sc
samples of lignite as obtained from Moravia aud Syria, aud used iu Viei

Coal differs essentially from peat aud lignite in having its minute c
either occupied with a gas instead of water, or so completely obliterti
that nothing remains but carbon and a very small percentage of ash. Tt
are several different kinds of coal dependent on this condition. IS
amongst lignite, it is not unusual to find black brittle bauds like jet, :
jet itself is but another name for the same thing. The vegetable ma'
iu this state contains much gas, takes fire readily, aud burns like w
steeped in resiu, with a bright flame and smoke. It is clean, not sol
the fingers, and is vei-y brittle. It is the step intcrmechato between lig:
aud coal, and when in sufficient quantity, and not too brittle, is o)
worked into ornaments uuder the name of jet. Some good examples, b
of the raw aud manufactm'ed material, were exhibited by Messrs. Sa
and Wright in Class 1, and were worthy of notice. Jet, however, has b
too long known as an ornament, to require any especial notice, except
connect it with coal as the substance with which it has the nearest relati(

The next step iu the progress of vegetation towards the mineral kiugc
is seen iu cannel or parrot coal, which contains about 50 per cent, of vola
matter; .and, like jet, can be worked up into various ornaments, as
exemplified by the beautiful specimen exhibited by H.R.H. the Pri
Albert in Class 27. This was a garden chair, which well showed the nai
and capabilities of the material, and a block of the rav,' material was pla

MODEL or THE MONCMENT TO THE EARL OF DURHAJl, IN CANNEL CuAL.

near for compai'ison. In Class 1, was a model of the Durham monuiii
and a number of smaller objects constructed of the same material.

But cannel coal is not only useful for ornamental purposes. It has c
more important value in the very large quantity of common street gas
can be obtained from it, and the excellent quality aud great purity of
gas. There are large deposits of this m.aterial iu .Scotland, where it
been used for some time by the gas companies, but it has not long I
employed to any great extent in London. Now, however, there is fo
to be a supply ohtaiu;ible from the Newcastle coal district, and this is i
exclusively by the Western Gaslight Company. There is also a h
quantity iised'iu London obtained from tlie Wigan coal field, where a tl
bed is ijcing worked to very great advantage. Specimens of tliese
kiuds, (Russell's Newcastle aud the Ince Hall Wigan cannel) were exhib
amongst the general scries of coal iu Class 1.

Next to cannel coal, the common bituminous coal of Newcastle and oi
districts is the most remarkable for the cpiantity of gas it contains,
the common household coal in most parts of England ; and, as it takes
readily, burns freely with considerable heat, has a cheerful .aiipcarauee,
is of moderate price, it is likely to retain its reputation. Tliere are
kinds of bituminous coal, tlie one swelling and becoming conqiact w
burning, as the common caking coal obtained from the north ; but
other, although cont,aining as much volatile matter, aud therefore eiju
fit for pas-making, remaining unaltered in form while undergoing comi
tion. The non-caking kinds come chiefly from the inland coal-fields,
are easily distinguished from the otliers. Generally speaking, thedisad'
tage of the Newcastle coal is that it requires constant stirring to kei
draui_-ht of air through the fire; but, on the other baud, the heat give
considerable ; the ash is small and red, or at least, dark-coloured, and
coal readily takes fire. The midland coals do uot require stirring, but t
burn with much fine white ash, and ai'e not so profitable where strong 1
is needed.

AVithin the last year or two, very large quantities of coal have I
brought to Loudon by railroad, from various inland coal-fields, aud
estimation of the older and longer known kinds has uudergoue some char
but the general feeling still remains that the best Newcastle coal is i
best adapted for use amongst English families in Londouandits ncighbi
hood.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOP J':])IA OF THR GRKAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

101

i\i

W'hon coal contains so smnll a proportion of gns anil volatilo inj^-odii'nts,

: it cannot l)0 iHcd witli advantago in tlia manufaoturo of gii», it may

i.ivoavaliio for other purposes, which may render it vory usuful ami

I tant. Tliis is tho ciiso witli the kind called almm-coal, rarely Hocn in

I 111, but of which there wore aomo noble examples in tho Ijxhibltion,

I vinarkuhlo iis making hardly any smoke, lighting roa<lily, aiul burning;

intense heat. Tlie more important of tlieso coals cume from Wales.

Mitaiii upwards of SO prr cent, of carbon. They are cspeeiftlly useful

10 steam navy, and are now eniployod for Uiat purpo.w to an enormou.i

lit. Tlioy are also mo.st valuablo in tho mAiuifacturo of iron, a» they

I tho blast, and contain fow or no noxious ingredients.

ilhracito is the name given to a. peculiar kind of coal contftining hardly

■:is, and consisting almo.st entirely of pure coi'bon. It ia very diiticult

rn, but, when once fired, glros i>lf intense heat, and stands n M:wt

tly, being tim.s well adapted for stoves and for the maiinfaetnrc of

.,. It is lieavior tliau common coal, often luird, and bright, an<l with a

iiing irregular 3\irfaco. It exists abundantly iu South Wales and NorlU

ii'iica, but occurs also in Ireland and on'the contiuont of Europe. JJenlde*

melting, it is especially adapted for malt -drying, hop-drying, linio-

ng, and other purpo.sc» where smoka i« injurious.

uf all those iliScrent kinds of mineral fuel, the Kxhibition contained

dmirablo examples, not only from our oivu country, so rich in this source

f a nation's ^vcaUh, but ftltio from distant coimtries, wlio liave eared to show

a what way they can enter into tho Held of rivalry with us. Tliere cannot

10 3 question that the foundation of our national importance is bascil upon

he natural resources of this kind that we eo abundanth' possess, and it is

)oth interesting and useful to sec this recognised in tlie efforts that liavo

loen mailo to illustrate sufficiently the dlOfereut districts most remarkable

r their coal in our own island.

Of all the.<ie, the gi-eat district in Northumberhmd and Durham, which
br a very long ])eriod has had the entire monopoly of the supply of coal to
lie oast .and south coast and many of the large towns of the interior of
England, must be considered tlie fii-st in the extent and scientific character
f its workings, if not iu magnitude. This tract occupies half a million of
cres, and bus been estimateii to contain not less than ton thousand millions
f tons of coal, of which, probably, an eighth jjart has been already removed.
t was illustrated in tho Eiliibitiou by a considerable and interestmg series
f the diflierout qualities of coal, the c^ike obtained from tho coal, the clay
n which the coal reposes, and which is valuable for various purposes in
le arts ; and also by the various maps, plans, and diagrams illustrative of
lie district, ,ind mode of obtaining the coal. Several models were also
xliibited which will render still more clear the method of obtaining this
lincral from the bowels of the earth, and the contrivances necessary to
apply a sufficient quantity of fresh air to the men employed underground.
The Lancashire coal-field is remarkable for its iuiluenco on the great
aanufacturing towns of Manchester, Bury, Wigau, and others; and the
reat Yorkshire coal-fields, on which are Leeds, Sheffield, Halifax, Bradford,
luddersfield, and many other large and important towns, were also illus-
rated by the specimens of produce referred to in this department.
From the Wigau coal-field, whicli is actively worked, aud which supplies
c :io canuel coal, already referred to as exhibited by the luce Hall Company,
c had also two kiuds of household coal of excellent quality outside the
uildiug, and sume samples iu Class 1. On the Torloshire side, eoal was
j: 3ut from Barusley, illustrating very well the importance of the deposit
ad the nature of the suppply. Several ejcliibitors sent froiu this locality,
ad the gi'oup was botli interesting and useful for the purpose of comi»rison,
'wo columns of coal iu tl'.e Building, aud one outside, sufficiently showed
36 quality of this coal ; while one exhibitor erected a column of a peculiar
lUiety, sometimes called "peacock" coal, which presented a display of
irs more like the tarnish of eorae mstals than the ordinary dark aud
ly surfiico of coal. Whilst speaking of tlie coal of this district, we
not to omit mention of tho Starely block of coal, from a mine near
ierfield. The block was estimated to weigh not less than >li tons.
le South 8t«fl'ordshire coalfield, containing one seam or bed not less
30 feet thick, was also abundantly illustrated in the collection. Iu the
estern inclosure (outside) was a column siiowing this vastthiokne.ssinthe
ay in which it is presented iu nature; aud the magnitude of the mass
as also furtlier illustrated by two l.locks, one -weighing nearly 10 tons, and
itlier 15 tons— one exhibited by Mr. Bound, aud the other by Mr. Hayues ;
! liter being interesting iu reference to the vast mechauical power
rod constantly iu a large colliery, as this single block, weighing, as we
■ •: said, 15 tons, was actually removed from the bed of coal, cxjuveyed
the pit bottom, lifted to the surface, aud deposited on a truck by "the
"'iiuery iu daily use at the mine, and without any special contri\'ance
iia force.

■ South Welsh coal-field is that which oontains the gi-eater part of the
1 coal aud (luthnicite found in the British islands, and was well illus-
1 by several varieties of each exhibited on a large scale. It has beeu
ited that the district occupied by coal iu Glamorganshire aud neigh-
iiig couutips must contain nearly a hundred thousand millions of tons
lUantity so large that it is hardly possible to imagine any consumption
sluill seriously affect it within any time that man can look
id to.

■steam coals described as "Russell's," "Risca," " Xixon's Merthyr,"
' ell's Duffryn," '• Llangenmach," aud some others of which there were
mens, are all well known, aud greatly employed in our steam navy in
eut parts of the world. Maxiy beautiful and valuable anthracites were

,1,,

ii|uste
Ipie
'i nn 31

also to bo seen, some prenonling a peculiar polish, and othont romarkablo
for their want of Hmoothnosji and £ico; but all of good quality, and capable
of wide application.

Thuro wora sovoral ipoclmcnB of coal from North Walen. Tho most
romarkablo of tlicso were the gigantic block, exhibited by .Mr. Oakelcy, and
saiil to weigh 1<J tons; another largo bl.»ck of 12 tonii, from tho Brynibo
( 'onipany. Both wore fjuo specimens and ilbwtrato the Flintiihiru coal-field,
which, however, may Iw rc'uwde I :w a portion of tho Lanciuihire, though
obscured aud covered up by a vory ^ great thickncsg of the new red
sandstone.

There were somo specimens illustrating both the .Scotch and Iri«h co.il« ;
nmougst them the parrot coal alrea/ly alluded to. Wo may also refer to an
interesting scries illustrative of tho coal-field of Mid-Lothian, exhibited by
Mr. Cad'dl ; and somo Irish couU, tliougU in less variety than might liavo
been hoped. Lastly, we may mention the anthracite or culm obtained
from liidaforc, iu XorLh JJevon, which waa exhibited together with somo
of the products obtained from it.

Amongst the foreign coaU tho Belgian series afforded the principal points
of interest, not «« much for tho extent of tho coalfield ,xs the groat relative
importance of the production. The coal area doe* not include much more
than a quarter of a million of acres, but the annual production is at least
five millions of tons, exceeding, therefore, that of any other country iu the
world except (ircat Britain. The specimens of coal sent for exhibition
were interesting, and of fair size for compariRon witli our own. but did not,
of course, present the thickness of the bed, or sutBcient dimeq/iions to
observe the peculiarities of tlie difl'eiwit parts near the floor or roof of the
mine.

Next to Belgium, Austria sent the most interesting series of fossil fuel,
but the variety was not very considerable. The States of the Zollvercin and
the Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) contributfd a small but uninteresting
quota, while France and the Uuited States also added to the store. In
these countries, however, the coal itself not occupying the important
position that it does with us, as the source of all wealth, wa.s not forwarded
in largo quantities, or in great variety ; and the same must bo said with
regard to our Indian'possessions, which, however, possess several dejiosits.
From New Zealand and ^"an Dieman's Land were specimens, aud also from
Western Australia and .some of the islands of the Indian Archipelago ; but
it is remarkable that tho Newca-stle of the southern hemhsphere, though
rivalling our owu coal metropolis, not only by iussuming its name, but
supplying for New South Wales a considerable quantity of fuel, did not
send any sample to represent it in tlie great gathering of raw material we
are now studying.

Besides the natural fuel iu the shape of coal, wo observed, chiefly on the
British side, a number of samples of ortificial fuel, of which the best kinds
are made from coal-dust, and partly charred. These compositions are
valuable, as giving fuel of great density aud high power in a comparatively
small space, aud will be valued accordingly wherever space is an object.
They ai'e generally coustructed of the fine powder of coal aud the smaller
lumps, which are otherwise or little value.

In concludiug these remarks on the subject of Mineral Fuel, wo take
advantage of what has been said on the subject iu the bulletin of the Central
Commission of Statistics iu the kingdom of Belgium : —

This is essentially the age of commerce and steam, the foundations of
which are our coalmines, 'rhus coal produces steam; fteam fashions the
metals which serve to fabricate macl lines. The implements of various
tra<les, leaving the workshops, are distributed through every branch of
industry. .Steam becomes tlie universal agent; if she is the producer, she
is at the same time the vehicle of production.

The powers of man are centupltd: he is no longer the serf of creation:
he is rather the King. Tho Barons of feudality have made room by their
side for tlie nobility produced by industry. The sword t-omnmtuls no
more : it is capital wliich commands. To the state of strife, of warlike
antagonism, succeeds a reyinic of industrial competition, and of exchanges.
Men know themselves and each other better ; natiouol characterieties are
obliterated; it seems that humanity is invested with a new form; organi-
satiou is established between states and betv.ecn continents.

Mineral and metullurgio industry 1.-, with agriculture, the most vita!
element of a country's prosperity. Coal is the mi>£t efi.sential agent of all
industry : the foundry, t'ue iron, constitute merely the instruments, the
elements of riches.

American ExHrBiTiON of IsDUSTny,- Ourtransatlanticatighbourshave
publicly aunouuced their intention to get up an Exhibition of Industry next
year at New York. A company has, it appears, been formed in America
which is represented in this country by M. Charles Buschek, Austrian
commissioner for the Exhibition of 1861, and Mr. Edward Riddle, commis-
sioner' for the Uuited States, to whom the whole management of the design
has been confided. A large building is about to be erected, which, when
completed, will be considered as a bonded warehouse. The contributions
from England are to Ije conveyed in first-class vessels, free of expense, and
if they remain unsold -vvill be returned to the exhibitors without cost. This
arraugemeut cannot but be considered as extremely liberal. There can be
no doubt of the success of such an eutei^prise if carried out by a body of
trustworthy persons. We hear of several English firms as likely to accept
the friendly invitation thus held out to them.

192

fTHE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS.

SIUE-BOAHD.— JACKSON & GRAHAM.

TnERE'were few'article? of furniture in the Grcat'Exliibition, whether on
the British or Foreign side, which were entitled to higher honours than this
sideboard of British oali, produced by Messrs. Jackson and Graham, of
Oxford Street. It was not of those excessive dimensions which we had to
complain of in many others, nor so overloaded with 'structural decoration

as 'o fatijjue^the [eye, andjinvolve the'Mmagination inHaborious spoculatic
as to the intentions of the designer. The style was after that c»llt
Renaissance ; the devices on the panels represented fishing and shootinf
whilst the four little figiires wore respectively emblematic of hunting ai
fishioe. summer and autumn.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OE 1851.

MINING AND METALLURGY.

IRON MANUFACTURES.
(second notice.)
TIILS section was one of the most extensive, .as it wivs also one of the most
iiiisccUaueous, in tlie English department of the Exhibition. The
piisont has been c.illed the iron age, and really tliere are few things,
ivhi'lher for use or ornament, which, in this country, are not now manufac-
liu'.'J in iron or'some other metal.

A very cursory glance .at the catalogue, under the sections of cutlery and
;;L'iKa'al hardware, will show the almost mfinite v.ariety of form and purpose
hi wliieh. by the ingenuity of our manufacturers, the resources of the
iiineral kingdom have been made available. Commencing our observations
Ail li llie conversion of pig-iron into bars and other convcuieut forms, it may
}••! I'c uaintere-iting briefly to describe the processes to which it is submitted.

I'll'' machines adopted for forging and condensing wrought-irou vary in
■ 1 111 and in principle according to the ideas of the iron-m.aster. The tilt-
II. inner — of which examples were to be found among the machinery in
I itiiin — is most commonly employed. The steam-hammer of which Mr.
\asiuyth exiiibited his construction, is, however, increasing in use. The
' lilnoms," as they are called, are brought under the hammer, and while at
I It'll heat, beaten out into bars. The.se hammers strike on the "bloom"
'lured on the anvil, giving from 70 to 140 blows per minute, .and the force
il tlie blow is according to the square space of that described by the hara-
uir. If the hammer lifted ten inches gives a force of 1000 povinds, it will,
,vhea lifted twenty inches, strike mtli a force of 4000 pounds.

titlier means of forging iron are sometimes adopted, such as squeezers
mil rollers ; but the hammer is usually regarded as a test of good metal,
riio hammer breaks badly worked iron more readily than any other
iiachine — in the charcoal fiH'ge it smashes raw iron, and in the "puddling"
vorks it crumbles those balls which have been carelessly put together.

H'lihoad bars, which may be regarded as fair examples of the manufac-
:\nc of good' bar-iron, were numerously exhibited. The Butterley Com-
lany had many examples in the mineral department on the south side.

Messrs. Bii-d and Co. had amongst their extensive collection of iron manu-
factures, specimens of the Pentwyn rails. The Ebbw Vale Company,
both here and in the depai-tment devoted to machinei'y in motion, had

fcA-ST-IHON FOUKT.MN'. — AXDRE, OF r.UUS. — (SEE PAGE 199.)

many sectional specimens of railway bars ; and we found also similar
examples from the firm of Messrs. Beecroft, Butler, and Co. Mr. Morris
Sterling exhibited Ids hardened top for mils. In the locomotive engine

/■ H %-^-^

CAST-IRON BALUSTK.\DE.— B.^ILY AND SONS. - (See Page 193.)

Prick One Pe>st.

194

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS ;

department, and in the machinery rooms, some very remarkable illustra-
tions of this form of iron manufacture were found. Many railway bars
which were exhibited were of an imustial length. There is no advantage
gained by this ; on the contrary, the liability of failing is increased by the
accumulated difficulties of the manufacture. Almost every tUfferent rail-
way engineer adopts a different length and section for his bars, and a dif-
ferent weight of metal per yard.

Coarse porous u'on does not make good bars, as they are liable to split ;
it is, therefore, important to secm-e for rails a tough and fibrous material.
Among tlie examples named were many bars broken for tiie purpose of show-
ing their molecular structure, and the same occurred with some of the axles
for I'adway carriages, which were included in the iron series. It has been
stated that by continued vibration the chai'acter of the irou is changed, and
that, from being of a fibrous structure, it often becomes crystalline. Tliis
is. however. uot\^'ithstaodin^ the experiments which have been made on the
subject, exceedingly doubtful. Mr. Bniuel has shoivn that iron broken by
a dull, heavy blow, will present the fibrous .arrangement ; wherea^i the .same
irou broken by a .sharp hlnvv will give a crystalline fracture. Certain it is,
however, that, by the repeated hammering which is used in the process of
"cold swaging," the character of tho metal does imdergo a change. In the
report of the Commissioners appointed to inquii'e into tho application of
iron to railway structures, much valuable information on this subject has
been collected.

A subject demanding important consideration is tho action of mixtures
of other metals with iron — such as those we find adopted by Mr. Merries
Stirling — and the combination of wrought iron and cast iron, of which
variety this gentleman showed two or three pigs, together with many
examples of his alloys. Mr. Stirling considers the fluidity of Berlin ircui
to be due to arsenic — though it is as probably the result of phosphorus ; and
he has shown that the presence of manganese with cast irou closes the
gi'ain, and is an improvement both to it and to steel. Zinc and tin have
been by the same experiments mixed with iron, and these alloys are
amongst the other specimens of interest exhibited by this gentleman.

By the addition of calamine to common iron, without the addition of,
wrought U'on, a very superior malleable iron is gaid to be produced. In
the report of the Commissioners already referred to we find the average
breaking strain of iron alloyed with zinc and with tin, as compared with
pure iron, given as follows, tho experiments having been made in
Woolwich Dockyai-d : —

Tons.
Dundyvan be^ bar iron broke with a strain per square inch of . . . 21-.j3
Dundyvan iron, in the proportion of i cwt. 1 qr. and calamine 4 lbs. 25'S6

Dundyvan iron, 4 owt. 1 qr., tin 1 lb 23'39

On the character of these and some other alloys, Mr. Merries Stirling,
in a paper recently read before the Royal Society of Ediuburglj, remarks ; —
" The wrought iron made eitlier from the toughened cast, or by the
admixture of calamine, is particularly useful for tension rods, chain cables,
&c. The addition of antimony and some other metals to \vi'ought iron in
the puddling furnace, gives a hard and crystalline iron, nearly allied to
steel in some of ita properties, and is adapted, from its hardness and
crystalline charaoter, to form the upper part of railway rails and the outer
surface of wheels. When thus united to the iron containing zinc, the best
sort of luil results, combining strength, stiffness, and hardness with auti-
laminating properties, and being also cheaper than any other kind of
hai'dened rail or tire. Compounds of copper, irou, and zinc are found to
be much closer in texture, and stronger than similar compounds of copper
and zinc (the proportion of iron not usually exceeding li per cent), and
can be advantageously used as substitutes for gun-metal, under all cir-
cumstances, for great gtms, screws, propellers, mill brasses, and railway
bearings ; small additions of tin and other metals alter the character of
these compoimds, and render them extremely manageable as regards hard-
ness and stiffness. The advantages which these compoimds possess over
gun-metal are cheapness and increased strength, being about one-fourth
cheaper and one-half stronger, and wearing much longer under friction.
On many railways the alloy of zinc, irou, copper, tin, &c., have superseded
gun-metal for carriage bearings. An alloy equal in tone to bell-metal — ■
cheaper, and at the same time stronger — is made from the alloy of copper,
zinc, and iron, a certain proportion of tin being added. The addition of
iron seems, under most, if not all circumstances, to alter the toxtui-e of
metallic alloys, rendering it clo.ser, and the alloys, tlierefore, more sus-
ceptible of a high poliali, and loss liable to corrnsiou. Other alloys of
iron were exhibited, souio showing the extreme eloseuesa of texture, others
possessing very great hardness, and suitable for tools, cutting instru-
ments, &c., others possessing a high dogr-ee of sonorousness." *"
A bell upon the stand in class 1, and another connected with Mr. Dbut's
clock in the main avenue, were examples of these alloys ; tho tone of tliem
was very fine, and the cost was stated as being less than half that of bell-
metal. The fine musical tone of these bells certainly recommends them to
attention.

The British gold, ns. it is tei'med, in Mr. Stirling's case, is an alloy of
iron, copper, zino, manganese, and nickel ; and in other proportions, the
white metal is also produced ; tho advantages arc stated to bo — increased
brilliancy of colour, closeness of texture, and fretdom from tarnish. These
qualities are highly important, and it is to bo hoped, since attention has
been directed by this exhibitor to the advantages derivable from alloying
irou with small quantities of tho other metals, that experinients will be
I'epeated on these points for the puqioso of ensuring the best results

'U U}

thH

obtainable from these or other combinations. On the table devoted byi
Messis. Bird and Co., to the display of iron manufacture, was a remarkable'
example of bar-iron — the largest perhaps ever rolled — with numerous other-
specimens which illustrate more fully our iron manufacture, and the use-
of sheet-iron in tin-plate manufacture.

The making of Sheet Iron is full of difficulties, the principal one being
that of procuring iron of sufficiently good quality for rolling. Chai'CQs)
iron works better tlian most other kinds. Clear white fibrous iron i$
required ; and in the first instance this is converted into flat mill bai
which are gradually reduced by being passed through rollers, until
required degree of firmness is obtained. This was well illustrated in 1
examples referred to. An examination of the iron exhibited iu thi!
department in sheets, and of that in the Russian department, showed tlu
superiority of the latter. This depends, without doubt, upon the character
of tho ore in the first place, and on the mode of manufacture in the
second.

The Russian sheet-iron is of a bright light-blue colour. This appears to
arise from the presence of some phosphorus and silica iu the ore, and
from the admixture of a small quantity of carbon, which it derives from
the fuel — wood — used in the process of manufacture. Sulphur, when
present either in the ore or in the fuel employed, gives rise to a dark-
black iron, and the sheets have a cloudy and buckled appearance.
Although we may not employ ores containing phosphoi'us, we are now
enabled, since the discovery of an almost incombustible phosphonis, to
introduce it in any c|U.antity into the irou in the progi'ess of manufacture
and thus to obtain, in all probability, the same result. There is no doubt
that, with a due amount of attention to tiio combination of ores in the
production of the metal, together w ith careful manipulation iu the .subs^
quent stages of manufacture, sheet-iron equal to the Russian could be-
produced in this country.

Messrs. Morewood and Rogers exhibited some remarkable large sheets of'
irou tinned by their process, to which, however, as well as to the subject'
of tin-plate manufacture, we must return on a future occasion.

We may add that in this class M. Felix Abate showed a system Q<
planing, polishing, and burnishing, in a peculiar style, metals of every
description, as they come from the rollers, and also a new style of orna-
mentation on the metals after they have been submitted to this proces;
The effects are obtained almost simultaneously, and at a cost so low a.s to
exceed but by a mere trifle the original cost of the metal. The instrument i
empl 'yed in the planing process is a remai'kably simple one, ciuisistiug
merely of a cutting instrument, placed at a certain angle of inclination j
above a sliding table ; and the ornamentation is produced by the subsli-
tution, for the plain cutting tool, of one with teeth, of the required form ot'
design. The polishing and burnishing is produced iu a few minutes by
causing a cylinder to revolve rapidly over the metal, upon which oil and
emery powder have been previously placed. A second portion of the in-
vention of M. Abate consists of a new system of printing on metals, which
he terms " metallography," the principle of which is an application of the I
known laws of electricity, developed by the contact of certain metals with
the salino solutions of others, and producing, under certain conditions,
the precipitation of the metal forming the basis of the solution in a stati
of coloured oxide, which adheres to the surface of the metal. Specimens
of this art, which have been submitted to us, are remarkably good ; and
one of the beuefits likely to result from the invention is that of placing
within the reach of the poorer classes such improvements in objects pi
every-day use as may tend to elevate their tastes, and to create a love fon
the beautiful.

ORNAMENTAL IRON-WORK.

ly ornamental iron-casting — a branch of trade to which our French
neighbours have of late years devoted especial attention in connexion with
their bronze works — there was some fear that in certain points we should
not stand so well as it was desirable we should do. The result, however,
of the comparison is such as to set at rest any feai-s on this head ; for,
^^■hil»t we c^n well afford to acknowledge the excellence of the works
exhibited by our French and German competitors, there is ample field for
congratulation as to the continuance of our traditionary superiority in these
points. For this result, however, we have to thank the last two expositions
at Paris; for, at the period of that of 1^44, the ornamental iron-castings
pvpduced iu this country were generally of a most unsatisfactory character
and it was only from the startling fact forcing itself upon the attention oi
those engaged in this trade, that, whilst little or no improvement had been
going on in this country, especially as regarded design as applied to thia
department of our national industry, our neiglibours had not only been
omployiug tho bust artistic talent in tlie productiim of designs for tlii^
special purpose, but had progressed iu a \vondGiful manner in the production
of iron-castings of tho very best character, combiuiug the best mechauicsi
dexterity and, so to speak, choniical skill in the treatment of the matei'ial|
so as to msure a sharp, clear, and perfect reproduction of the model in the
finished metal.

Tho famous casting.? of Berlin had long been objects of interest to our
metal-workers, but only so far as they were wonderful examples of the use
to w hieh a m.iterial so uuprimiising as iron might be put. even as ornaments
for the decoration of the person. Tiic iron-castings of Franco, however, i
came more practically home to us ; and when wo found that the useful

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPvlilDIA OF THE GRKAT KXHIHITrON OF 1851.

195

wns MO cornpletuly coinliint'd witii th« orna-
mentiil, it bulioved ua^to UJic bteps to
iHGot HO uncx[)t)ct(:(l a result, Willi a-fieM
of opcratiim before us, of wliifli tlio I'Vonch
could not hoitst, in thoHo cenlro.s of attrac-
tion, tlio fii'CsidiM of our lOiijrlinh homos, it
was at onco seen to what au extent the
iiuprovcuient of our metal ousting eoulJ bo
;ied in this dii'ection ulouo ; and iu tlio
it li^xliibitiou there were remarfcible
[jioofa "f how distinctly onr uiauufiuturfru
Lave ilirccted their atteutiou to the deeo-
f:t:on of the UKuful rather tlum to tlio
duction of mere ornamental accessories,
U ai groups of figures, statuettes, or
. >"i vases.

J I is, tlien, to tho stoves, grates, balus-
trades, gai'deu scats, and other utilities, that
we are to look for the real manifestation
if tlio present position of the ait of orna-
111 atal iron-casting iu Britain, and not to
IV mere abstract productions, althougli
10 are, without doubt, ujany excellent
iiiplcs of this latter class of objects.
I,etauy one carefully examine thesirates
I chimney -pieooa exhibited by Messrs.
itoolo, Robsoii, and lioolo, of ShetUeld, iu
which are eomljined an amount of e.xcel-
loace in design, with beauty of workman-
ship, far beyond aaiything which a few
years ayo could have been expected. Tho
examples of deiv.! polish steel, combined
with bright steel and ormolu, exhibited by
this house, show, iu design, au aJaptation
of lastefid classic forms iu uew eombiiiatioii.s
and siugular appropriateues.5 of arrange-
ment.

JlesBi's, Stuart ajid Smith's examples
were equally excellent .and original, though
different in style, for which, indeed, we
ought to be grateful ; for in nothing do wo
need more improvement than in that ever-
lasting "follow my leader" habit which
seems so inherent in some of our manufac-
1 turers. For too frequently it is found that
tlie instant an enterprising tradesman brings
'out a novelty, all '" the trade" are after him
in full cry, until his improvement is ground
I' I pieces by continual repetition in all
piissiblo forms. Happily this is not the
ease oil this ooeasiou, for every man appeai-s
to have gone for a distinct indn-iduality,
and has consequently succeeded in a
yieater or less degree. Messrs. Yates, Hay-
|Wood, and Co., llotherham, also made a
Ibeautifnl display iu the avenue near the
ISeulpture-room ; and, on considering the
works of these three houses, we believe
the reputation of Sheffield may be safely
(left iu their keeping. At tlie same ti'.uc,
jtlere are points iu which improvement
biay be made, to the lessening of the cost
jof production and the coiisequeut diffusion
pf a better class of manufacturing art
unongst the people. For we hold that
'inything which tends to iucroase the price
uid not the excellence of* a production is
m evil ; whilst anything which tends to
luce the ))riee, and at the same time
serve excellence iu all its integrity, is a
lespouding good : therefore all super-
ms elaboi-itious, in whatever form they
line, whether iu the shape of '"sham"
iionzes, or the great integrity of ormolu,
ii'o to be deprecat*^d ; and that there are
ucli elaboratious about many of the most
■xcellent specimens, will not be denied.
\'ow, wo hold tliat iron, being iron, should
le left to look like itself. It gains nothing
ly paint and metal-dust. When seen in itd
iwn integrity of a rich brown black, or the
'Oautiful grey of the dead polish, with the
ii;htly polished portions by way of con-
■t. tiie effect is iuhuitely superior to any
tiic iuuunierable "shams" so constantly
orted to iu order to make honest metal
ouk like something else.

196

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITiS COiNTENTS;

SKINS, FURS, AND FEATHERS.

(Contlnncd from page 159.)
TN our fonner article on this subject, we gave some account

of the specimens of furs obtained by the Hudson's Bay
Company from the North American continent. AVe now
propose to notice the European furs.

Foremost in interest among those was a group of Russiau
sables {marlcs zibellinu). This is one of the most costly furs,
a single skin varying in price from three to ten guineas. It
is usually manufactured into linings, wliich are generally
used as presents by the Emperor of Russia, the Sultan, and
other gi-eat potentates, being of the value of 1000 guineas and
upwai'ds. They are also manufactured for ladies' and gentle-
men's wear, according totheprevailing fashion of thecountry.
The Lord Mayor, Aldermen, and Sheriffs of the city of Lon-
don, have their robes and gowns furred with the sable,
according to their respective ranks. The tail of the sable ia
also used in the manufacture of artists' pencils or brushes,
being superior to all others. The tail of the sable makes
very beautiful trimmings, which, together with muffs and
boas of the same, are much prized. Russia produces about
25,000 of these valuable and admired skins annually. Natu-
ralists have not yet decided whether this species is identical
with that from North America — the fur of the former being
much softer, finer, and longer than that of the latter.

The Stone Martin (murtes albogutaris), of which several
gi'oups were exhibited, is widely spread over Europe, and
derives its name from the fact of the animal selecting rocks;
ruined castles, &c., as its haunts. The fur in its natural state-
is soft and fine, and shades from a light to a dark-bluish
grey, taking the colour of the rocks amongst which it is found
The throat is invariably a pure white. The Frcncli excel in
dyeing this fur. and it is in consequence termed French sable
it is extensively used in this country and being a permanenl
colour, and much like the true sable, it is a great favourite

Several groups of Baum (or Tree) Martin (viartcs abictum
were also shown. This fur derives its name from the fact o:
the animal being invariably found in woods and pine forests
The fur in its natural state is similar to the North America!
sable, but ct-'arser. It is distinguished by the bright yellov
colour of the throat: when dyed, it is so like the rea
sable that it can scarcely be distinguished from it.

The groups of Ermine {miistda ermina), in their nat\n-a
state, next demand notice. The ermine is obtained in mos
countries ; but the best is from Russia, Sweden, and Norway
The animal is killed in the-^iuter. when the fur is pure whit
(except the tail, ^vith its jet black tip), it being in that scasoi
in its greatest perfection ; in summer and spring it is grev
and of little or no value. It is the weasel of more southeri
climes. The ermine is the royal fur of most countries. I
England, at the coronation of the sovereign, the minever, a
the ermine is styled in heraldic language, is used, being powi
dcred — that is, studded with black spots ; the spots, or pow
dered bars, on the minever capes of the peel's and peeresse^f
being in rows, and the number of rows or bars denotin{
their various degrees of rank. The .Sovereign and the mem
bers of the Royal family have the minever of the coronatioi!
robes powdered all over, a black spot being inserted in ahou <
every square inch of the fur. The crown is also adornec
with a band of minever, with a single i-ow of spots ; the core ,
nets of the peers and peeresses having a similar decoration
The black spots are made of the skin of the black Astracai
lamb. On State occasions, in the House of Lords, the peen
are arrayed in their robes of State, of scarlet cloth and golc
lace, with bars or rows of pure minever, more or less accord!
ing to their degree of rank ; the Sovereign alone wearing thi'
royal minever, powdered all over. The judges in their robo;
of office arc clad in scarlet and pure ei-mine. The ermine
with the tail of the animal inserted therein, is used as articlei
of dress for ladies, in every '\'nricty of form and shape, accord
ing to the dictates of fashion, and also as cloak linings. Th(
minever can only be worn on State occasions by those who
by their nank, are entitled to its use. In tlie reigu of Edwarc
the Third, furs of ermine were strictly forbidden to be won
by any but the Royal family ; and its general use is prohi
bited in Austria at the present time. In mercantile transac
tions the ermine is always sold by the timber, which consists
of forty skins. The minever fur of the olden time was taker
from the white belly of the grey squirrel. The Kolinsk
(tH«s(c/a >S'i6enVa), or Tartar sable, isprocured from Russia; il
belongs to the weasel tribe, and is in colour a bright yellow
It is much used in its n.atnral state, and is also dyed to imi
tate the cheaper sables. Tlie fur whicli is probably mor<
extensively used in this country than any other is that of th(
.squirrel {sciurv^). The squirrel abounds in Russia (where thi
fur attauis the greatest 2)crfoction) insucli immense numben

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOlVinilA OF TIIK GIIKAT FAHIBITrOX OF \H:,\.

107

m wouM n|'|irar Mlmoat iiu-nvlililc! tlio iniportiitiuM from tlii^noo to tliis
country aloiu'. lust your, cxi-codiiif; two millions. It in manufaetm-wl
entirc'ly I'or ladies' aii'.l c-hilclrcn'« wciii- : for clouU and mantlo lining's it is
partioiilaily Biiitalilc, its modenito cost ndiiiiting it to n<;ncnil uso. Tlio
ccl'-lmitfd'Wuieunl'ela linings dcsorvo a rcnuirU lioro, being made from llio
belly or wliito jiart of tlio dark blue siinin-cl. Tho cxquiHito vvorknniimliip
and liKlitncss of tliis nrtielo aro without jiarallci, a fnllmzod cloak-lining
weigliing only 25 ounces. 'I'liis f.ivourito commodity is known as tlio
pclll i/rin. For colder climates the linings are made from tlio back or I'luiii
grey part of tliosquirrel,
the best liaving part of
tlie tail left on each skin.
The liglitcrcolourshave
lately been ilyed, and
introdnced to iniitato
tho expen.'^ivo sablea.
Thc-iiuirreltail is made
into the round boa and
triuimings, purposely
for the foreign market ;
it is also used for artists'
pencils. Wo find the
squirrel named iu tho
■sumptuary laws, in the
reign of Henry III., and
at tho same period tho
minever fur was the
white part of the squir-
rel's belly. Kussia pro-
duces about 23,000,000
annually.

The Fitch or Polo-cat
(put07 lusfatidus) is also
so well known as to need
but little description.
About forty years since
it was one of the most
fashionable furs ; the
richness of its colour
(the top hair a jet black,
the ground a rich yel-
low), combined with its
durability, caused a
great consumption of
this skin ; but its pecu-
liar odour, from which
it was called the foul-
marte, has probably
been the cause of its
gradual disuse. It is
produced in the greatest
perfection in this coun-
try.

Of lambskins there
were various specimens,
including those from
Crimea, the Ukraine,
Astracan, with Persian,
Spanish, Hungarian, and
English. The grey and
black Russian lamb is
mostly used for gentle-
men's cloak and coat
linings, for facings, col-
lars, caps, &c., and also
for army purposes. The
Astracan lamb hasa rich
wavy, glossy, black skin,
extremely short in the
fur, having the appearance of beautiful watered silk ; in order to obtain
this choice skin, the pai'ent sheep is destroyed a certain time before the
birth of the lamb. The Persian grey and black lamb is covered with the
minutest curls possible; this is not a natural growth, but is caused by the
animal being, as soon as bnru, sewed up tightly in a leathern skin, which
pi'events the curl from expauding, and which is not removed till the desired
curl is produced ; from tho means adopted, both sorts are rather costly,
and they are used for gentlemen's w'car and military purposes. The Hun-
garian lamb is produced in that country in immense numbers ; the national
coat, called the Juhasz Lunda, is made of it. Iu the summer or in wet
weather the fur or woolly part is worn outside ; iu winter, when warmth is
required, it is reversed. The skin is tanned or dressed in a way peculiar to
the coimtry, and decorated and embroidered iu accordance with the means
and taste of tho wearer. In Spain, the lamb is used for the well-known
and characteristic short jacket of that country, which Ls adorned with
filagree silver buttons : the coarse kinds of both colours ai'e used for our
cavalry, and they are also employed for mounting and bordering skins, as
leopards, tigers, &c., for ornamental and domestic purposes. In the reign of

OllUUr OF STUI'FKD FROtiS, VHOJI WURTEMEEKU. — (SEE l'^^,l'. 20d.)

Richard 1 1, tho Horgcant at-law wore n robe furrc<l inifide witli white lamlwkin
and a cape of tho faiiic. Tho funt of the Pcrcwaitzki and of tlio IlampMter,
which aro obtained from RuHsia, are principally UBCd by ladicK ; the latt<T Ih
made into cloak linings, which are exceedingly light, durable, and cheap.

Passing from theno, wo next corno to the skin of that well-known ami
useful domestic animal, tho cat. The cat, when properly attctided to, and
bred imrposely for its skin, gives a mo>t useful and durable fur. In
Holland it is bred and ke|)t in a confined Htato till the fur attains its gn atcst
perfection, ami it is fed entirely on fish. In otliT conntricH, and cspccLally

our own, it li produced
in largo numbers. Tho
wild cat in much larger,
and longer in tho fur,
and it is met with in
extensive forests, parti-
cularly in Hungaiy ; tho
colour is grey, spotted
with black, and its soft-
ness and durability ren-
der it suitable for cloak
and coat linings, for
•ivhich purpose it is
much used. The black
species is also much in
request, and is similarly
used ; and, with tho
spotted and striped va-
rieties, it is made into
wrajjpcrs for open car-
riages, sleigh coverings,
and railway travelling.
The value of this skin,
and its extensive con-
sumption, have, no
doubt, been the cause
of the disappearance of
many a sleek and fa-
vourite " Tabby," and
wo would recommend
those of our readers
who are in possession of
a pet of this description
to keep careful watch
and ward over it. AVe
understand that the
market is rapidly in-
creasing, and the opera-
tion of the laws of sup-
ply and demand has led
to the formation of an
unprincipled class, who
ruthlessly poach upon
these domestic pre-
serves.

We next come to the
English rabbit, which
yields a most valuable
and extensively used fur
— both in its wild and
its domestic state ; and
the supply may be said
to be inexhaustible. It
was formerly employed
to make the felt bodies,
or foundation, of the
beaver hat ; but at pre-
sent, not being used for
that purpose, it i?
dressed, dyed, and ma-
nufactured in immense quantities into various useful cheap articles. The wool
has recently been used in makmg a pecviliai- cloth, adapted for ladies' wear.
Th e English silver grey rabbit was originally a breed peculiar to Lincolnshire,
where great attention "was paid to it. Warrens of this species have since been
formed in various parts of the country. It is in great demand in China and
Russia, to which countries it is largely exported, on account of the high
price there obtained. The white Polish rabbit is a breed peculiar to that
country, and the skin is there made into linings for ladies' cloaks, being
the cheapest and most useful article available for that purpose. It is uu-
ported in great numbers into this country. The finer sorts of white rabbit
are much used as substitutes for ermine ; and when the real ermine tails
are in.serted therein, the imitation is so perfect that it requires the prac-
tised eye of the furrier to detect the imposition. So late as the
reign of Henry the Eighth, great value was attached to the cony or
rabbit skin, and the charter of the Skinnei-s' Company shows that they
were worn by nobles and gentlemen. Acts of Parliament were passed,
regulating their sale and exportation, which are still unrepealed, though
in abeyance.

198

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITIONS.

VI. — The Exhibitions of Spain.
CONTRASTED witb tUe commercial coiuTition of every other European

state, Spain presents a doleful picture. A fecuud soil, a genial climate,
indigenoiis products of Uigh commercial value belong to this brilliant
counti-y; but to Spauiai-ds still cling the old barbarism.s of government
which every other civilised state has thrown aside. No well-ordered
government has yet systematised Spanish industiy — no man has yet risen
to comprehend and develop the vast resources of Spain. '• Spaniai-ds,"
M. Ramon de la Sagra tells us, " in foUowmg out any branch of industry,
ai-e incited by immediately local wants, without regard to great productive
capacity to be adapted to national and foreign markets. Surrounded by
many hopeful fields of action, and strengthened by a noble love of perse-
verance and independence, they have launched into divers branches of
trade — as a young man, stimulated bj' the vigour of his youth to use his
strength, capriciously and hotly embraces various fields for actioib — from
the mere necessity of action."

The traveller in Spain is struck with the apparent inactivity of the
population. Although in Valencia and Barcelona various celebrated manu-
facturers stUl flourish, the general aspect of the Peninsula bears the impress
of a disordered, ill-regulated social State. The vast monasteries, from
•which the lazy monks have retreated, may, in time, realise the hope that
of design ; already gi-eat factories are rising in various parts of the coimtry,
the whirr of the shuttle will replace the clatter of monastic feasts ; but
now, grass shoots in their courtyards, and the mildew thickens in their
cells. Even the great and celebrated Bilboa carpet manufactory of Madrid
is remarkable only for the history of its past ; its vast galleries are almost
deserted, and spidere have long been busy in the wrecks of its looms.
Here and there only are a few workmen, whose handicraft still attests the
excellence of their fallen indiistry, and serves as a sufficient reproach to a
neglectful government, Heavy duties on raw material, and the consequent
existence of a gigantic contraband trade, oppress Spanish manufacturers to
such an extent that they are unable to dispose of their goods at any
moderately- varying price — their value decreasing m a ratio with the increase
of the contraband trade. The badness of SpanLsli roads, and tlie expense
of conveying goods from the scat of manufacture to maxlcets at a diaimce,
are fetters which depress the industriid condition or Spaniards ; but,
inasmuch as all these depressing causes are removable, and as the rays of
knowledge must soon reach to Madrid, in spite of ministerial opposition,
it is not unreasonable to hope tliat the next twenty years will be years of
hopeful progress in the commercial annals of the Peninsula. Already,
in Barcelon.a, fifteen hundred pupils attend a public and gratuitous school.

The authorities of Spain have gathered together five national exhibitions
of native industry. Of these tlie first was held in IS'27, and had 297 exhi-
bitors ; the second in 1828, :xud ha<l 320 exhibitors; the tliird, in 1831, and
had 228 exhibitors ; the fuurth, ua 18-i], had 21i exhibitors ; .lud the fifth,
in ISio, and had 325 exhibitors. These numbers may be received as
indicative of the manufacturing disadvantages imder which the country
lias been and is labouring. The difficulty whicli the Madrid authorities
have experienced in pers\iading even the manufacturers of the gi"eat centres
of Spanish mauufactui'es to send specimcus of their skill to the capital is
ea.sily accounted for, when the expense of transit from distant provinces is
coupled with the resolution of tlie government to p.iy only jiart of tliis
expense. The relative proportions of spare occupied by the various manu-
facturing provinces was one-third by JIadriJ, one-third by Andalusia, and
one-thii'd by Castile. At the exhibition of 1845, Madi-id and Barcelona
almost monopolised the space given up in the old Convent of the Trinity
for exhibitors of Spauisli industry. Bad roads, inefficient organisation, and
a general conduct of public affixirs quite at variance witli that enlightened
spirit which can alone make such displays of national service, have debased
the industrial exhibitions of Madrid to an insignificance which the manu-
facturing advantages of the country make the more lamentable.

At thase exhibitions many important branches of national manufactui'o
have not found a place ; and it was justly remarked at the exhibition of
1S45, that a brilliant display might have been made of the products which
it did not comprehend. Tlio catalogue of this exhibition was sufficient
evidence of the burden of the commercial laws. This document gave
opposite each article its retail price, and the high figures, compared with
those of other countries, showed that the Spani.sh manufactiu'er, with all
the natur.il advantages of his country, could not hope to fight foreign
manufacturers in the distant and scattered markets of tlie world. These
high prices are the results of two distinct causes — the hea\'y duties on raw
material, and the competition of a gigantic contraband trade.

In taking a glance at the general characteristics of Spanish exhibitions
(but more particularly at that of 1845, as the most important of the five)
it is ea-y to separate the great industries of the country from the minor but
more showy bi-anches oF commercial activity. The conspicuous position
accorded to silken, linen, and woollen goods, to leather and hides, printed
papers, soaps, and iron, marked an appreciation on the part of the authori-
ties of the special manufactures which Spain, by reason of her soil, climate.

and geographical position, was justified in encouraging to the utmost.
Most people at all conversant with the history of manufactures, would
expect to find the woollen goods, manufactured from the fleece which
France so long coveted, would be of rare excellence. But we are reminded
by an eminent Frencli manufacturer, who reported to his government on
Spaniali exhibitions,* that the fleece of Spanish flocks is one of lier old
glories. After a long and almost liopeless depression, woollen manufactures
!U'e again iDeginning to revive. Tlie five exhibitions which arc on record,
however, iucludetl only a few fleeces sent from Seville. Specimens of
elotli, of but indifferent texture, were sent from Catalonia, Segovia, and
Alcoy, to the exhibition of 1845, and were marked at very high prices ; and
the commissioners from France, who visited the convent of the Trinity,
sought in vain for some samples of Spanish \m dressed wool. Not one exhi-
bitor of merino or monsseline-de-laine appeared, nor were the carpet manu-
factories of tlie eounti^y represented. Silken goods of excellent quality,
liowever, were sent from Valencia and Barcelona, and some coarse specimens
from Saragossa, the China crape sliawls and blonds being the finest speci-
mens of manufactured silk. The exhibition was destitute of gloves and
hosiery. A few dear and coarse pieces of plush, for hats, only served to
prove the depressed condition of tlie manufacturer.

The cotton manufactures of Spain, almost exclusively belonging to Cata
Ionia, were represented at the exhibition by threads of various numbers
(the highest of which was forty), calicoes, worked counterpanes, and printed
goods. Of those varieties of cotton manufacture, the jirinted goods only
claim any notice for excellence. These wore distingtiished by the bright-
ness of their dyes, and the neatness of printing and design. They were all
manufactured for immediate consumption.

Barcelona, at once the most advanced manufactm-ing locality in Spain,
and the most vehement" supporter of high protective duties in Spain, con-
tributed the most vahiable textile specimens seen in the exhibition, showing
excellent samples of silk, flax, and cotton mixtures. Tlie dearness of tliese
goods, when compared with the prices of English and French manufactures,
explained the anxiety of Catalonian miinufacturers to protect themselves
from foreign competition.

The exhibition included a few average samples of sound cordage ami
stout sail-cloth, but not one specimen of tliread lace, or one piece of lav.'ii.
Printed p.apcrs occupied a great portion of the principal room. The chijf
seat of this manufacture is in Madrid, where labour is dear, and where,
consequently, the product figures at a high price. The patterns shown were
characterised as vulgar, and printed with bad colours.

Dressed leathers were also conspicuous in the exhibition. Morocco
and kid, for gloves, were shown in abundance. This department of manu-
facturing industry showed a more marked vitality tlian any other. Tlie
leathers were strong, supple, and of excellent substance. The moroccos
only lacked the brilliant dyes of Choisez-le-Roi to make them equal to any
in the world ; and the kid, which is manufactured in v.ast qxrantities,
attestcil the superior excellence of Spain in this iiroduetron' to other
countries.

In the department of glass manufactures a falling off from past excellence
was clearly vi.siblc. The best specimens of ghiss came from the Royal
manufactory of Saint Ildefonse; .and these were coarse, ill-coloured, and,
according to M. do la Mornaix, only worthy of a barbarous age. In earthen-
ware awd porci-Iain, a falling off w:i3 also lamentably visible. Only a few
iudifferout specimens of chemical products, as mineral salts, &c., were
visible ; but the cxliibition was altogether destitute of alkalies and dyes.
aj3d minerals, and this in a country which possesses the richest lead, quick-
silver, iron, and even silver mines of the south of Europe. A few bars of
iron, a stray ingot or two of silver, cannot be accepted as representing th'-
groat works of M. Heredia in Malaga, the iron districts of Biscay, and the
imiiortaut wealth of Adra.

In goldsmiths' work and in gunsmiths' work, however, the exhibitinn
showed signs of industrial progress, and proved that the excellences of thr
past, in matters of taste, were not quite forgotten. Some excellent speci-
mens of clockwork were also exhibited.

Spanish manufacturers contributed nineteen pianos, all manufactured on
the English model, and marked at ridiculously high prices — the commonest
kind being valued at from fifty to eighty pounds sterling ; and square
instruments, dry and harsli in their tones, were expected to realise about
two hundred pounds sterling. A few guitars necessarily formed part of n
Spanish exhibition; and in the list of musical instruments exhibited 07i
this occasion figured a violin on the old Sti-adivarius model, which i
described as an instrument more curious to look at than agreeable to
listen to.

Although there was not one specimen of Spanish printing exhibited, not
a few excellent samples of bookbinding and lithography appeared. Cabinet
makers made but a poor appear.incc. Tlic fame whicli the cabinet-makers
of Spain have so long enjoyed, and proofs of the justice of which decorato
the houses of Madrid, sent but few articles to the national exhibition. It
would appear that in the resolution to establish periodical exhibitions of
n.ative industry, the Spanish authorities formed too high an estimate of their
manufacturing coimtrymen's enlightenment. It is not to be expected that
in a country where manufactures have been led to place their trust for
commercial success in the strong arm of the law against foreign riv.ils,
rather than in the excellence of their own productions, that thej' «oul 1
hail the establishment of an institution which would lay bare to foreigners

M. Sallaudrouze de Iiv Moniaix.

AN ILLUSTRATED GYCLOIVEUIA OF THE GKKAT EXHIBITION 01" 1851.

199

ni,l to tUlHvft fivrtls llio iiifoi'iority of tlioii- iiocompli^Iinients. II. w pi-ohiibly
III tliis lik'lit tliAt tlic ]>rc)vincial mamifactiiiTi-rt of iSpttiii ftcivmlly ITKUVdeil
lln'cxliiliitinii to wIiiiHi tli(!y woro invitc.l. At tills oxllibltlim, onloiislbly
imtioniil, neitlior tlio boin|is mid lliix of tlio AstiirilW ami tlio n;i«i|iio ju'o-
viiici'x, llio pilk of Mui'eiii. Katreniiuliini, fiuttilo, Ai'm^on, ami Aiuliiliiilln,
tho l1c'oc'C!< vvhicli nliomiil in every province of Spiiln, llio clotlin of Si'i^ovln,
Qiiiiiliiliixiirn, Hrilui,i;ii, Viilouciii, imd otlior iiuiiortivnt iiKiiiufnctuiiilg towu.i,
worn to bo flooii. At tliii exhibition thoro wvvo no Bpccinionfl of steol, no
' cutlory, no namplo fi'oni the looksmitb. Tlio wolcoiuo which Spaiiiai^lH
grivo to tho propo-iils of the Croat Kxliibition t'oniniissioners, and tlio zeal
with wliioli tlioy ciidoavonrcd to placo their tonntry in nn lionouralilc
llslit anionp; tlio nations roprcacntod in tlio HydcPark Palace, jualify, how-
ever, tho liopo that tlic now niannfaeturing enor^jy which has been given
to tlio imlustrie.s of .Spain, vvill at length vintlicatc this country in tho eycfl
of tlio worlil, as ono rich witli ]ironiiflo. and teeming with nn uni^.atliercd
hni'vcst of mineral and vegetable woallli. Everywhere maimfaeturinfr
companies havo been Airmed of late, in Tlaroclona, I^Iahi^, Valeiicici,
Grenada. Revillo. Iminonso faetorioa are riKiiiff in every part of Andnhi'la ;
and iinprovenientH arc now being rapidly inlnidueed into native agrienlture.
At the exhibition, as an instance of advance, sonio fine specimens of coelii-
neal were shown— both i>reparod and in the natnral state, crawling ujion
a leaf. Tho syst-'in of irrljjatiun carried out of old by tlio Arabs, in the
province of \'alelieia, and wliieli makes tliis territory even at the present
time one of tlie most fruitful parts of the country, .sliould have attracted
tho notice of Spanish agriculturists long ago. So iierfeetly did the Araljs
undai'Stand this great principle of Bgriculture, and so soundly did tliey
carry it out. tliat thoir administration remains intact to the nineteenth
century. Eight grand canals, froir^ which others stretcli, drain the vast
extent of land, and the gentle .slope of tho .surface towards the sea carries
the water oft' rapidly. Tliis system is governed by a nule tribunal, known
•'s tlie Tribunal of the Waters. This body consists of five judges, elected
1 ', tlie proprietors of the soil benefited by the irrigation, and vested with
i iiial powers. Those judges most hi the open air, at the door of the
I'll liodr.il of Valencia. Before thein a rude bench is jilacod, at which those
p . ■;>ns condeiuued to pay tines for the infraction of rules, or Avho have
' ;ii|ilaints to make, appear in person to plead in mitigation of the fine
iMijiiised, or to explain tbeir grievance. Tho judges decide on the spot, and
' ' exoeution of this sent>nce follows instantly, without right of appeal,
notes of tho jirocccdings of tliis rude tribunal are taken, and the pro-
, 'tary body submit to its dcerces without a murmur. Tho Captain-
l*enei'al of the province places police at tho dispo.sal of this Arab institu-
tion, by tho simple operation of which a valuable system has been preserved
for ages, and sets apart his province from the rest of Spain as the huerlri —
the garden of the country. Toe exchange of Valencia presents a vivid
picture of the wealth of the province, crowded with lightly-clad and barc-
Fouted peasantry, bearing their loads of silk, new from their fruitful patches
pf land. Here, where the egg ripens to the worm, is the old Arab proverb
iihisti'ated : on the spot where the cl.amray stream of silk oozes from the
ivorm, the brilliant thread is woven into garments — the mulbery leaf is
turned to satin.

Barcelona bids fair to bo the Manchester of Spaib. Here four gi-cat
Jepart.ments of industry are carried on, viz., the construcflon of machinery,
md silk, woollen, and cotton manufactures. All the latest improvements
n machiiiiTy and procos.scs exist here, under the superintendence of Euglish-
nen or Frenchmen. Spinning-jennies, looms, steam-engines, and other
nannfaetnring powers, are ciiistruetcd excellently on tlie spot. Tlic cotton,,
lilk, and woollen factories, chiefly of recent establishment, arc constructed
!enci*al!y on a gigantic scale, and give employinent to a large population.
Tho factory hands of Barcelona are, however, ill-paid; and may be seen
ounging about the factory yards at meal-times, eating tlie very coarsest
. lind of liread, and a few onions, oranges, oi' radishes, as their diunei-. They
abonr thirteen hours daily.

The result of an inquiry into the commercial condition of Spain at the
iresent would, most probably, result in the conelusinn that her nianu-
kcturers, with every wi.sh to profit by the ingenuity of foreigners, and to
brow themselves into the markets of the world on honourable conditions,
ire, as yet, enslaved by hostile duties miscalled protective (since raw
naterial — as coals, &c., are heavily taxed) ; that they will soon come in
ontact with their government and command more cnli^Tteuod commercial
9WS; and that this meeting has been retarded up to this time only by the
ffejiidice and narrow-mindedness which follow repeated national reverses,
'nd the tcrrifving calamities of ciTil strife.

Vir. — The ExHiEjTioKS ov Germany.
Tho commercial history of Pi-ussia since the Peace is too well known to
lie manufacturers of this coimtiy to need elaborate meiition in a history
f li^r industrial exhibitions. The gradual formation of that grcjit eom-
lercial league which now bin<ls Prussia, Bavaria. Wuvbembui'g, and otbci-
ates of Nortiicrn Germany together, and gives them, comiaerciany, one

■ Jmtnon interest, has so absorbed tho attention of Europe throughout its
rogi'css, that its minutest details arc fiimiliai' to'all who have mingled in
le world for the last thirty years. This great commercial confedemtiou

- low indisputably ranks as the third commercial power of Europe, including
1st agricultural and manufacturing resources. As a market for foreign
lanufacturcs, the states of the Zollverein are decreasing daily in value ;

I id England, that, in 1813, inundated these provinces with the products of

her looms, now finds the niarket wlilch she then commanded ii • ■• 1

by native skill and capital. Skill is developing; capital is 1-
tratcd. Factories of viust iin|Mjrlancc >vill Hoon concentrate ; 1

weavers of (Sa.xony suid Silesia; and steam will do its full mc.T uie ui work.
The clicapncM of m\v material and hibour given Prumia adiimtngnn wliicli
she yet need" tile sag.acity and cxiicricnce to tuni to full and profitable
ac<omit. The most importuit commercial iiilcriHt of the Zollvit-cin con-
nists ineontodlobly in its wvalth of wool and woollen manuOicturcs. Tho
ehitliH ofSaXonv. Silesi.a, and I'russia Proper com iimnd the niarkeli of tlio
Rust and the West, more, perhaps, from the excolleiico of tliclr r.lw malei-iiil
tlinij from any superiority in tho skill of German weavers. Tho linens of
Saxony ami Westphalia have also an enviable reputation in the markets of
ttie world; aucl in Berlin and Potsdam, silk manufacturerB art) making
i-,ipid progi'oss : these m.anufactures have figured at the Berlin exhibitions
in considerable quantities. Thcso exhibitions, comprehending ppccimenu
of nohemian glass nmnufactinTs, Berlin iron-work, the jiorcelains of Saxony,
and the iron ores of Silesia, have undoubtedly stimulated nianufacturen
to make those enlightened exertions which have chai-.icteriscd tho last ten
ycai^ within the circle of the great commercial confetloration.

Tlie commercial policy of Austria, strictly and inexorably protective,
presents a picture in direct contrast with those presented by tho otlicr
einuitries whose industrial exhibitions we have noticed. Here corpoi. "
of trades and workmen are maiiit«viucd with all the strictnef.s wliich <

terised those of France in the hist and during the early part of the pi ;;.v

century. All tho great foundi-ies and manufactories are goremmcnt specu-
lations ; class is protected against class, and an imp.assablo barrier of
restrictive duties warns the foi'eign merchant from the Austrian soil. Yet
even this country boasts its exhibitions of industry. Even here the principle
of gathering together tiie products of the country for the instruction of the
couunnnity has been i-ccognised and acted upon. Tlie great natural riches
of Austria arc remarkable. She has abundance of combustible fossils ; the
simple e\-aporation of the waters of the Hungarian lakes furnishes her with
vast quantities of soda ; her alums may compare with those of Rome ; no
country is richer in salts ; and these iramen.so natural resources are neg-
lected through tho ignorance of Austrian chemista The beet-root sugar
manufactories of Moravia and Silesia, and glass factories of Venice and
Bohetuia, claim notice in the most cursory review of Austrian industries.
The products of the Eohemiau workmen have made splendid shows at the
Vienna exliibitious, and have been contributed by the busy popiUation of
Wisentiil, and the great establishments of Gablonz and Liebenau. Venice,
however, has fallen, under Austrian domination, from hei' ancient splendoiu-,
and has sent little or nothing beyond a few mosaics to the capital of her
conquerors, on these occasions. At the last Vienna exhibition, Austria
showed signs of progress, in the specimens of machinery exhibited by tho
Great Southern Eailway C'ompanj-. That these exhibitions, including
examples from the shawl, porcelain, and great silk factories of Vienna, the
velvets of Milan, and the light silk goods of Como, should have attracted
paj'ticulor attention, and proved emhiently successful, is not to bo wondered
at, since they displayed at a glance the industrial powei^of a great couutry,
crippled by narrow national views, it is ti-ue, yet in its bondage giving
proof of its giant capacities. Already educational associations have been
founded ; already the manufacturers of Vienna have established a society
for the examination and encouragement of useful inventions ;~al!^ady a
Tyrolese society for the formation of an agricultural and industrial museum
has been cstablislicd ; .already Trieste possesses a gratuitoius school of arts
and a s.aviugs'-bauk.

In a brief record of the industrial exhibitions of Gennany, the efforts of
the King of Bavaria — of that King who has so greatly adonicd his capital — tii
cstabli.sh permanent exhibitions of Bavarian skill, camiot be passed over.
It was in ISl.'i that the first permanent building erected in any country for
Kuch a purpose was thrown open at Munich. The building is adorned with
sculpture l;>y Schwauthaler, and provides neai-ly two thousand square yards
of exhibition space.

Tlic eontiuciital states, of whose industrial exhibitions wo hare giren a
brief history, can by no means claim, exclusively, the honom' of having
recognised tlie utility of these institutions ; since industrial exhibitions have
been held at various times, and with varyin» success, also in Italy, Sweden,
and even Russia. Detailed accounts of these would,, however, prove of
little interest to the general reader, since they included, for the most pai-t,
oulj- specimens whicli, however excellent, when considered as native pro-
ducts, could not, of couree, enter into competition with the more advanced
manufactures of Germany, France, Belgium, and England.

WORKS IN ORNAMENTAL IRON.
The group for a fountain, by Andre, in our front i>age. Is very spirited ;
the design being both original and appropriate.

The ornavneutal balustrade, by Baily and Son, was one of the most
perfect specimens of iron workmansliip in the Exhibition; the design
highly graceful, and not deficient in richness and variety; and the exe-
cution admirable for sharpness and finish, appearing, as we understood,
exactly as it came from the mould.

The iron gates exhibited by Jlessrs. Cottam and Hallen, of Oxford-street,
arc fine specimens of ornamental gates for a jiark. in the style of those of
elegantly-viTought iron- work, made about a hundred and a huudi-ed and
fifty years since, and which adorn the entrances to many of the old man-
sions of England. One great merit of these gates is, that they can be
made at a reasonable rate as compai-ed with the wrought ii'on-work.

200

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

(second notice.)

PIANO-FORTES,

T^E resume our remarks on
the Pianofortes in the
Great Exhibition, and shall
direct our attention to some
of the beautiful and costlj
instruments exhibited, o.
which we now give a mon
detailed account. We shall
however, offer no opinion o
their comparative merite
either of tone or mechanics
construction (simplynoticin)
that which is new or curioua)
as each leading manufacturei
lias his peculiar variety of thi
former, and for the latter th)
widely spread reputation o
the chief makers is a sufEcii
guarantee that their insti
meats ai-e constructed on
best principles, though thi
may be some trifling diffi
ences of application partioi!
lar to each.

We notice, first, from th
prominent position they oc
cupied, the two magnificer
grand pianos in the Nave
the one in the English di
partmeut, by Messrs. Broai
wood, is a gorgeous-lookin
instrument ; the sides ai
shaped out and are of ebon;
covered with a running oi-n
ment of scroll-work on
figures, carved in relief ai
gilt ; the top and front is el
borately inlaid with sati
wood, and the legs are
ebony carved and gilt en sum
altogether presenting a ric
and imposing appearanc
The grand of Erard on tl
foreign side, is a very chasi
and beautiful specimen of tt
French style of ornament
cabinet-work. It is of tuli
wood banded with pauela i
elegant design, richly iulai
with gold, silver, and tortois
shell, with ormolu mouli
ing.-?, while the instrumei
is supported by well-ex
cuted figures in gilt meta
springiug from a staud oft!
same wood. As a piece
elegant musical furniture
is perfect in design and ex
cution.

Returning to the Britis
side in the gallery, we fin
ilr. Woruum sent a piece)
in walnut, and an Albio
grand. We may remark, (
j'cissanl, that it is to this gei
tlemau we are indebted fc
the first introduction of th
piccolo or small tiprigl
l)ianofortc, which, from ii
capability of being produce
cheaply, has had considerab)
influence in promoting oi;
manufacture of pianos,
indeed, cxtendiug a kno»
ledge and taste for musi<
Messrs. Broadwood's thri
grands are beautiful spec
mens of amboyna and wi
nut, and of that quiet aU
elegant style of cabinet-wo)

AN IliTiUSTRATEI) CYCLOPEDIA OP THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

201

lirh is;^'i'm'r;inyft'iiMori;iiittoourKiit;liHlitiiHt,o; ivn(IouriniLiiuf;ictiinTS8e«ni
I ■ (liJsirouM of iivailiii^ tluuiiselvu-i ul" tlio i)f:;uitii!S of iiiitvuM in tlio rich .iimI
Mil liKuro iif tliu (iifroroiit niro wouiIh, tluin uniployin^ tluMloHigiiH of urt.
I ; may porliiip^i uocoinit for t!io conipiirativc abHonoe of buhl ami mar-
■terio work in our pianoforte.**. Kmnl, a(<ain, oxliibitcil two veiy handsoiiio
i;j;ht pianos, one riclily carved in wahnit in tho Elizabethan Htyle, nii'l

MINIATUKE GUAND PIANOFORTE. — KIRKMAN.

pAmiU.V*,^^/r.V)y/j,im,.y'JA.^jA

•fiiUiat/m7rrf£ZJ7ST:iiniTrAj:airs^ijjTZj::rrr^T^^

other in rosewood inlaid with silver and supported by eight carved legs.
of tho most elegant instruments of tho Exhibition was the grand by '
sra. CoUard, in pollard oak, carved and gilt in tlie style of Louis XV.
I design is well carried out, and in admirable keeping. The square in
Wnut, with shaped sides, is very massive and handsome. There was alao a i
cr.ed cabinet piano by the same firm, which we do not. however, much
'C. The oblique pianoforte, in ebony and gold, in the Italian style, I
ivoU-designed carved frets, &c., by Jlessrs. Kirkman, is a graceful and
i-'iaiit instrument. These makers also exhibited a perfect hijoii. of an in- '
-Stiment, designed to illustrate the effect of the moderm improvements in \
11 H)f()ites — the smallest, to be played upon, ever made. It measures
'J feet wide by 4 long, yet it has the full compass of 6| octaves, from
li. and is'on the upbearing principle throughout. It possesses all the
iiu improvements;
lulue.ss and clear-
ii'^ of tone, the power
ai promptness of the
"' Mimism, tlieclasticity
ich, and the close
iiig with the move-
i It uf the pedals, arc
II villous whou consi-
i iu reference to its
loportions. A few
.. o back it would have
ba deemed totally im-
p iible to make so small
Wiustrument with the
tv compa.ss of keys, to
pluce any effect; but
tl modern additions of
ic al string-plate and
bnings, cb-illed metal
t>i KCs, and other im-
1 methods of con-
iun, has enabled it
done ; while the
amount of tone,
leriug the string is
twenty-fom' inches
' :. procured in the
loer notes, is produced
b;3 treble-spun string,
oi.posed of steel, soft

ffi, and copper wire, made by the aid of a machine recently invented.
ii; next come to Messi-s. Stodart, who exhibited a gi-and in rosewood
Ml a compact square : the peculiarity in the latter ; instniment is, that
"I string and soimding-board are sunk iu tho ease, and that the

END OP PIANOFORTE. — BROADWOOD.

PIANOFORTE. — COLLARD AND 0OLLAHD.

hammers are made to strike down upon the strings instead of up to
them, as usual : it has a very good tone, and is a convenient instrument,
having almost the appearance of a sofa table when shut. Jfr. Cadby sent a
grand and cottage, in zebra wood, with his patent suspended sounding-

202

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS j

board : there seems to be a great deal of machiucry employed to eifeot this,
and we cannot say that it is attended with any superior results, as a com-
parison with other iustrumeuts will attest : at the same time it has the
disiidvatitage of increasing the bvilk and expense of an instrument, both of
which are alrea^ly great enough. Tiici-e was ft curious-looking instrument
in the Onind Exhibition, by M. Grciuer, professing to be coustructed on
the priuciples of the speaking-trumpet, and with an application for tuning
the unison at oue operation. There is much ingouuity displayed in this
construction, but we do not perceive the advantage to be gained by the
tone issuing from the sides of the instrument ; and altliough it would be
Tery desirable to tune the unisons as a single string, as it would obviously
save one-half the labour, we are afraid it is not so effectual, but that it
requires regulating ; and as oue wire will always stretch more thtm another,
a tuning-piu to each striug seems preferable. This instrument being the
first of the kind made, the inventor will, no doubt, improve upon it.
Jenkins and Son exhibited a piano with a moveable front, especially adapted
for cabins of ships and yachts, where space is an object. We obser\'ed au
instrument in the French department, in which the same thing is effected
but in a much neater manner, the unsiglitly pieces of iron at the side being
dispensed with. Mr. Addison sont a transposing pianoforte, as also Messrs.
Hai-war and Towns, aud Packer. Mr. Addison's principle is the most
'original, the others being on plans that have been adopted by different
manufacturers for a long period. The carved cottage, in walnut, of Mr,
Brinsmead is a very creditable piece of work and attracted much attention.
Mr. AUason, and Messrs Oetzmau and Plumb, also exhibit elegant cottage
instruments in walnut : and Messrs. Ennever and Stedman, a w.alnut mar-
quetcrie cottage of excellent workmanship and design : the colours, however,
do not harmonise nicely, and consequently it has a rather gaudy effect.
The cottage pianoforte, the case work in papier mache, by Messrs. Jennens
and Bettridge, is a novel adaptation of this class of ornament, and is ex-
ceedingly showy. The instrument is by Mr. Dimoliue. of Bristol. Mr.
Hopkinson exhibited a grand pianoforte, to which is applied his repetition
action recently patented. Messrs. Rolfe, Mott, Luff, Metzler. Southwell,
and others also contributed samples of their respective manufacture ; and,
taken as a whole, the display of pianofortes from this country fully bears
out our superiority in this branch of manufacture.

We now pass over to the pianos exhibited in the Foreign Department.
Prom Vienna we had a beautiful cottage, with bnhl-work of excelleut
workmanship and desigu, with ormoulu figures on each side. (This instru-
ment was placed in the Austrian room, and a grand, in Aruericau maple,
with a border of wood mosaic, which was in the Gallery.) The other
instrumonti from Germany, of which there were a considerable nuinbor,
presented nothing remai'kable in appearance aud construction. Belgium
sent a number of pianos, principally of the upright kind; but as they wei-e
mostly on the French model, and displayed nothing very elegant in their
decoration, we need not enlarge upon them. On euterii:g the French
Department, the' admirers of buhl and ormolu work found some elaborate
specimens. We may mention those of M. Jlontal, who also sent an elegant
cottage, in tulip wood and marqueterie, with transposition mechanism ; aud
that of M. Van Ovenburg, which were exceedingly i-ich aud tasteful. This
instrument has a double sounding-board ; but it does not seem to possess
more tone than those constructed in the ordinary manner. Erard besides
his grand in the Nave, sent more harps, and five other pianos, ordinary
enough in their appearance. We cannot perceive the utility of thus
exhibiting duplicates of the same article, while in the warehouses of anv of
our principal manufacturers dozens of iustrument-i could be found very
superior in appearance ; but we are glad our great English makers have
taken a higher view of the matter, being content to be adequately repre-
sented without converting the Exhibition Building into a vast warehouse
for their every-day productions. M. Hertz exhibited an organ-piano, a
gi-and and semi-grand. M. Pape, who .scut specimens of his console pianos,
is known to be one of the most scientific makers in Pari.s, having laboured
for many ycai-s in the improvement of the instrument. He has introduced
several inventions, some of which have been ailopted in this country.
MM. RoUet and Blanchet exhibited oblique and vertical pianos, some being
trausposere.

The selfacting piano of M. Debfun is very ingenious, and is one of the
best things of this kind we have seen. It has the great advantage of
economy of space, and very perfect execution. We noticed two pianos
(No. 475) by an association of workmen ; one is in marqueterie, rather
pretty. The tone of the French pianofortes, with which many of our
readers are doubtless acquainted, is very distinct from the English. It is
shorter, more frappanl and piercing, requn-ing much greater force of finger
to bring out ; aud this character of tone, witli the stiffness of the touch,
may account for the inclination to force or "thr,xsh" tlie infstrument some-
timi-s observable in the foreign pianists, who, from being accustomed to
these instruments, are scarcely prepared for the self sustaining tones of our
English j>iano.5, with their light aud delicate touch. As a general rule,
foreign pianos are not admired in this country ; aud we must ourselves
give our own tlie ])reference, as possessing sweeter and more musical tones.

We now proceed to notice the American contributions. They .show a
higher state of excellence and finish in piiiuofoi-tes than in many other
paanufactures, wliich may be traced to the high price they obtain for tlieir
instruments, which enables them to employ first-rate workmen, and from
their having no foreign coujpetitoi-s ; for it is a singular fact, tliat wliile we
export pianos to India, South America, Australia, Spain, and other parts of
the world, our o>vn instruments will not resist the dry climate of the

United States, though we could supply them with a cheaper, and, in n
cases, a better instrument than they can manufacture. It appears tlie w
requires seasoning in their country ; but we cannot help thinking,
attention on the part of our manufacturers to the causes which produc
might enable them to conquer this difficulty. The American tn
faoturers excel in grand squares ; and their instruments of this class
advantageously compare with the best of our own make. Their graudi
by no means inferior, though not equal to ours. We have specimer
squares, from Numi and Clarke, and Meyer; and of gi-ands aud squi
from Chickering, Piersou, &o. The square by Nunn .and Clarke is a n^
instrument of its class. Wo have a novelty in this department in
" Piauo-Violino," invented by Mr. J. S. Wood, of Virginia, Tiiis is a i
ingenious and curious iustrument ; a kind of treadle at the bottom of
piano, near the pedals, sets in motion four bows, which pass ov6r
strings of a violin placed .at the back : wlieu in motion, the keys of
piano, when played on, depress those bows, which vrork in a groot
guide them, aud produce tlio corresponding note on the violin. On
struck with tlie novelty of the most dilBcult of musical iustrumeuts b
played mechanically : but there is a iiiontitony in tone, from the wan
expression, common to all contriv.ances of this sort (and in this
mechanical appliances it is well for art that it i.s so) ; aud were'
invention brought to tho greatest perfection, it would at best be
imitatiou of au indifferent performer ; at present it is imperfect.

It may be worthy of observatiou, in relation to pianofortes at
Exhibition, that Italy, the country iu which the pianoforte was firal
vented (it having been first made iu Florence, or, at any rate, the
piano brought to this country came from Rome), does not contribu
single instrument, while wo have pianos from St, Petersbuigh and Can
Thus the very invention Italy gave birtli to has beeu reared aud bro'
to perfection by tho more vigorous industry of other countries.

ORGANS.
The Orgau has been called, not inaptly, the King of Iustrumeuts.
other instruments are made ; the organ is buill ; and its gigantic bu'
attended with corrcspondmg power. In the grave and solemn rites of
Protestant worship, the orgau is the only iustrument deemed worth
accompany the prayers and thanksgivings of the faithful ; and tlie effec
its sublin.e harmonics, iu deepening our feelings of religious av.'e
veneration, has been felt by every one. Considered, however, in rels
to its general utility, and its importance as constituting a br.mcl
national manuuicture, the organ holds a place very tufefior to the pi '
forte. Tiiose power,? from which it derives its peduliar valtiiaro the ri
of large size : hence it cannot become a domestic instrument, unle^-s tti .
the lofty roofs of tho great .and wealthy; while its powers arc so limite i
variety, that, even in gre.it houses, the pianoforte is much more .avail I
for almost every musical purpose. Tho organ, therefore, is confined ah
exclusively to churches and other places of religious worship ; being, m ;
over, very costly, and almost as dur.able as the edifice in which it is crcc <
the demand for this jioblest of instramonts is supplied by a comparatl-
small number of manufacturers.

The orgau is a very ancient instrument. The principle of its construct '
notwithstanding the complexity of its modern mechanism, is exceedu |
simple. It is, in fact, neither more nor less than a gigantic Pan's pipe,,
sounds being produced by wind blowu into rows of tubes of diffei
lengths. When Polyphemus, wishing to serenade the nymph Gain
exclaims —

Bring me n hiindred rpcds of proper growtli.

To make a pipe for my capacious mouth —

we m.ay imagine the gi.aut',5 pipe, with its hundred reeds, and its sou
like the roarings of the bl.ast, to have been the most primitive form of
organ. It remained to substitute wood or metal for reeds, to blow into
pipes by means of bellows, and to open and shut them by keys ; and
iustrument became, in its general features, nea'-ly what it is at present.

This appears to have been doue a thousand years ago. There is rea
to believe that an organ was sent as a present from the Greek Empe
Constantine to Kiug Pepin of France, iu tlie eighth century ; and. in
tenth, the orgau was in general use in Qermauy, France, and England,
those days, of course, it was a rude instiuuieut. An orgau erected bjr
Elphegus, Bishop of Winchester, in the Cathedral of that city, roqai
seventy men to work its bellows. From Beddoes de Celles' curious W'
on the Organ, we learn that the organ-keys were at first five or six inc
broad, and must h.ave consequently been played upon, not by pressure
the finger, but by blows of the fist. We learn also, that, in the beginti
of the twelfth centiuy, the compass of the instrument did not exceed (
octaves, and that it was not till the end of the sixteenth century that
machinery for the multiplication o( stops was invented.

From that time, the cathedrals, churolies, and convents of the prino!
countries in Europe came to be supplied with organs. The orgau-build
of Germany aud Flanders took the lead in the magnitude and powS*
their instruments, and m,aintnined tlieir pre-eminence till they #
gradually rivalled and surpassed by our countrymen. Tlie great Haerl'
org,an, wliicli, within our meinoiy. used to bo talked of as oue of the woudi
of the world, has lost its solitary supremacy, and is acknowledged to
equalled, if not excelled, by the organs of York and Birmingham. ~
rich ecclesiastical establishments of Italy and Spain are, of course, suppli
sufficiently with org.ans ; but it does not appear that the manufacture of t

AN ILLUSTRATKI) CYCLOPyEDIA OP THE GRKAT EXFIIIHTION OF 18,-.!.

203

inTit li;i^ risoii to imy ^ro;it holifht in tlmso eoimtrics. The li^M'^lish

iiiHUiOitioimbly now tiiko inuce'luiicu uf nil dUioi'S ; iiml it in iloubtlcns

to tills, that floarcoly iiny I'urci^ii oi^rtHi were Hunt to the i'<^tiihitioii.

pnuci[ml oi-pans in thi> I'.xliibitioii wero of Lonilon lu-iimriicturo.

was oiiu, by Mr. Willi.s, of ononnoua— wo holiovo, unprccoi-loiitoil —

J lulo. It li;uj 77 slops, und 4 17-1 pipo.s ; tlio Ki'"ii.tcMt pipo bciu;; of 32

ud givin;» tho lowest nots known in mn?iic — tlio C whicli is two

lower than tlio note (,'ivon by tho fonitli sti'ing of tho violoucollo.

jthres fows of koy:* —the si""?*' "iw"' t''" olioir atgrca, and tho swell ;

podaU ex'toii'iinir to two octaves and a half.

iill, one of tho nio;t o ninc-iit of our organ buiMors, o.'shibiteil a great
ble chnroh organ, containing 1,') stops, with a correiponding number
3, two TOW.S of keys, .and podal.s. It displ.iya .several important
ement« in lueelianiani, which have boon made by Mr. Hill. One of
a contrivauoy for the important purpose of lightening the toucli of
trunient, so as to m.ako the pipes in.^tantly " speak" by a uioderato
0 of tho finger. M'o could not easily make the mechanic.il means
implishing this object intelligible in a notieo of thi.s kind ; but tho
3 that tliis great in.<tnini<^nt is alnio.-it ;i.s easily played upon :is a
piauofortu, and the most nipid piuisages are rendered clear and
ite. Thers is also ao ingenious contriv.iuce to enable tho pei-formcr

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.

FOVVOEIW niPROVED DIlAINiXd M.OUaH.
Tins rn an improved Jrainiug plough, fpatcnted for the Unitod Kingdom,
I''ra ico anil Belgium) cauable of offectu.illy (executing any drainage that may
bo re.piirod above the dopth of four feet, ut loss than half tho cost of the
present system, add without disturbing the surface soil,

'I'ho following cngT.iving dhow.^ tho m lehine jus*. u=! it it flnifiliing tho
dram. VVJien commencing work, tho jjlough U taken to one end of tlio
field, and the capstan is moored at the other ; tlip wire rope being run off
the drum of the ciipsUin and attached to th.; plough (either singly in shallow
draining or soft .soils, or returned round a single sheave wlien greater power
is required), as shown in tlio cut. Tlie plug and coulter are thou dropped
into a hole prepared for them, and the pipes threailedou a rope arc att.T;IicJ
to the back of tho plug, tho hole being sloped off backwards to alh/w them
to enter easily. The horses are attached to tho horse loTtrs of the capstan,
and by walking in a circular course, wind the wire rojie on to thedrnm,
and pull the plough forward with the pipes attached. When tie ref|nirei
length of drain is completed (which may bo any length tinder 225 yards),
the plough is rnn into another hole, and the rope on wliich tlra pipos ai'O

Ji*V/?^i>

x^SLS iM?ao\i:i> ns

;iio stops without the noise and interruption to his playing, that
; iLteud this operation. In organ-music many of the finc.st effects
duced by constantly changing the stops, aud'throwing them into
' varied combinations ; and, therefore, the means of making these
easily and promptly is of the utmost value to the organist

Gray and D,vvi,son, also organ-builders of much eminence,
id a church organ of great magnitude, consisting of 39 stops, with
iws of keys, and two octaves and a half of pedals. Its external
rand and beautiful, the case beiug of carved oak, and tlio front
ornamented.

inder of the English organs were chamber instruments ;
.at is to say. for private dwelling-houses, but requiring large and
-, These were manutactured chiefly by Messrs. Walker, Bishop,
.'iilIi. There was also what is called an '■ cnhai-monic organ,"
n 1 to illustrate Colonel Thompson's system of "perfect intonation,"
ucing those minute divisions of the scale which are necessary in
■0 play perfectly in tune in all the different keys. This same
|t intonation" is a thing which has often engaged t;he attention of
^Te men ; volumes have been WTitten upon it, bristling with
Ml formulas, geometrical diagi-ams, and .arithmetical calculations ;
onel Thompson has only attemffted what h-ts been attempted by
ifore him. Put every practical musician knows that it is a chimtcr,%
pcticablo as the qupdratm-e of the cu-cle, and, supposing it prac-
ihout value,
was only one German organ, built by M. Sehulze, of Rudolstadt.
JexceUent church organ, of moderate size, with 16 stops, two rows
and pedals. France, too, only sent one organ, the work of M.
3ti of Paris. It has 20 stops, two rows of keys, and two octaves of
Jand must be pronounced a very admirable .specimen of French

stnmg,' being unhooked, is pulled out backwards, and tho drain is complete.
As it would be inoonveuiout to have the pipe-rope in one length, it is made
in- pieces of 50 feet each .and by a simple contrivance, as one rope enters,
the other is atfciehed to the end. It does not occujjy more than one quarter
of an hour from the time of finishing one drain to commencing another.
The accuracy with which the clay pipes arc laid cannot, it is said, be equalled
by any hand work : and from the bottom being undisturbed, they arc not
liable to sink, as is sometimes the case even in the best-executed hand-
draining.

By this process, not only is the cost of burying the tiles retluced in manv
eases 50 per cent., but, from the quickne.=s and neatness of the operation, it
can be done at any season of the year, without injury to any short crop or
intei-fering with the common farm operations, tlie surface soil being un-
touched, except at the headland., ; and where the hedges are low, the
capstan can often be fixed in the next field. lu undulating or flat lands.
the levels are kept, or a fall insured, by working the coulter up and dowii
in the body of the plough, by means of the worm and worm-wheel, shown
in the cut, the ploughman's eye being guided by a try-sight balanced on the
plough, and a cross sta8r erected at the cud of the field.

Several of these ploughs are now in constant work, and though great
lengths of the drains have been opened in the presence of large numbei-s
of agi-iculturists, in no instance have tiles been iouud incorrectly laid.

The quantity of drainuig that can be done per day will vary with each
particular field, but in common clay laud when the depth does not exceed
throe feet, between (i.OOO and 7,00u feet will be completed with foiu- horses
in the common working day; but when the depth exceeds three feet, from
two to three horses will not do more than half that quantity. 'Where it is
possible, tliis diaming would be much more cheaply done in summer; as
twice the quantity of work may be done by having two teams of horses out,
and the other expenses would not be increased in proportion.

204

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

FOREIGN AND COLONIAL DEPARTMENTS.

THE ZOLLVEREIN AND GERJIAN STATES.
(second notice.)
"REFORE desSribing the centre hall of the ZoUverein, let us
direct the attention of our readers to a somewhat elegant
pillar which stood on the western side. It represented a group
of Amazons — they being appai-eutly great favoiu-ites with the
Berlin artists, the great Amazon in the nave being only one of
many in the Exhibition — made of cast-iron, at the foundry of
Berlin, but curiously inlaid with silver. It was remarkable for
the simplicity of its form and the beauty of its workmanship.
The striking chai'acteristic, indeed, of most of the productions
in the centre hall, where were collected the gems of the Verein,
was, we think, beauty of form. The principal contents of the
hall were statues, statuettes, painted glass ornaments, pictures,
one or two cabinets or ladies' desks, porcelain, c&c, all belonging
to the fine arts, and all in general distinguished by this
characteristic. Even the Berlin porcelain, which occupied a

THE MCSE JIJ LFOMENE. — GROPiU:^.

large space in the
room, and part of
which was copied
from renowned
works of antiquity,
such as the War-
wick vase, was as
beautiful in form
as it waa for its
ornament, though
the design on it,
after Mieris, Tis-
cher, and others,
were as fine as art
can produce. Less
meretricious in or-
nament than the
productions of

Paris, and less en-
cumbered with it
than those of Lon-
don, the artistic
productions of Ber-
lin, and, indeed, of
all Germauy, were
chiefly agreeable
from the beauty of
their forms. Even
the elaborate carv-
ings in ivory from
Darmstadt, parti-
cularly the large
goblet, on which
the great victory of
Hermann or Armi-
nius, from a pic-
ture in the posses-
sion of the Grand
Duke of Baden, was
carved in alto re-
lievo, was almost
as remarkable for a
graceful shape as
for admirable carv-
ing. By crowding
their finest room
with almost innu-
merable ai-ticle.^ of
rertu, puzzling us

.\NC.EL IK CENTRE-PIECE. — GPj

;u k

'■( r'-

-m:^M f SI'J

\sf\'ff:u,ai

ORMOLU CUANDEJ.IER.— BERNSTORFP.

to distingu
tween thei
losing adi
for individi
cimens in r
city, the C
inform us tl
set a high i
these corapa
trivial thing
production ■
is what tb '
ential govt
have chieflj '
raged ; the i
impelled tl I
of the pe'
this directic
we may
therefore — (
shall we s
the utility i
and noble,
nage ? — ths
arts which'
from them i
up under t]
couragemen
be marked 1
rior taste, i
the ancient
and among
inhabitauts(
a keen pel
of beauty
seems to
been inhere
is found
equally in i
their earlie
ductions,
have descec
us as in thei
But. amoni

AN IliLUSTUATED CYCLOl'il'lDIA OF THE GRKAT EXMIHITION OF 1851.

205

ontl Sfantliniiviiin tribes, jiulf^Int;
the ru<lo fif;ureH of tlioir old idola
torliost Iiorr)oa yot extant, ii porcep-
of fine forms was not innate. It
•ed cultivation, and lias been culti-
by Btiulyin^ tlio exiunplcH of tiio
9 who wert^ endowed witli tiioso per-
ins. Tlio liijililiorn and well educated,
pulent and the ruling elassea, liavo
the moanR of extending tliat culti-
1, They are eomhiits through which
d Greek pereoptiona have been con-
to their imendowed and nnculti-
oountryinon. Tims we find their
nee and the intiiienco of courts more
cial in these arts than in any others.
m artists cannot boast of much
;y of conception. 'J'heir fnicst works,
er of sculpture, painting, or archi-
■e, are generally imitations of the
its. Nature is as pure and as free
the times of the Greeks ; but man's
at percc]>tif>ns arc so mixed with
t and derived knowledge, that they
onfused ; and artists are often the
gracefid when they return to tlie
al forms. For many y'>ars, even for
ries, Ein-oi>ean artists and their pa-
have aimed at little more than at
ing amongst the nule people of the
a knowledge of tlie forma that.
; up intuitively in the minds of the
;8, and that they have only acquired
laborious process. By the Exhibi-
.hia species of cultivation is rapidly
led ; and it seems likely to do
iu a few weeks or months, to diffuse
^t our people a knowdedge of grace-
d artistic forms, than has before been
in ages. For the first time almost
history the common people of
nd are brouglit familiarly into oon-
vith, and derive instructions from,
e|lear, definite, and brilli.ant concep-
)r of the Greeks, embodied in forms
: h:i\-e been preserved and spread by
,1'unce of artists and courts through
I "I'e. Of our people, too, we are
say that the females share
1 the enjoyment and improve-
'.y a curious, and yet easily traced
n, establishing a moral relation
Ijen the most ancient and most mo-
.atious, the keen powers of percep-
f the beautiful in nature with which
d Greeks were endowed, and which
denied to the ancestors of our race,
ig a gi'eat moral difference between
are now made to subserve to the

CUriD !;il.\lll'KNING ins ARROWS, — LEEB, OF MUNICH.

vement of the EnglisI

ition the bulk of our

were made familiar with

derived from antiquity,

"which they could other-

never have attained a

ption.

"■ confess, however, to

l^jbeen puzzled, amidst the

Wof articles exhibited by

pllverein, most of which
lot above mediocrity, in
ng some for illustration,
ig the articles of rcrti,
"e particularly belonging

I ler departments of our
al — except to say that
ronzes were particulaly

' y of attention, not the

fo the statuette of Beet-
, one of the most re-
.ble men of the last age

jmust also mention, that,
centre hall, a desk and

(ling-table for ladies, ma-
ured bv the Jlcs.-r-i.
Brothers, of Wurtzburg,
alia, one in the rococo
le other m the lienain-

By the

' PAXTON FURNITURE. — FLEISCHMAKN.

iitnc htyle, were rcmarKable for th*.- good
tiifltfl timy ftvinccd. In this room, t^jo, a
large collection of iniriiaturc*H, painted on
ivory, by anew method, by a Wirt<;mburg
artist named Ilildcr, comm.inded notice by
their boldness, though tho artiKt did not
inform the public what )iiH now method
consisted in. We will not Bay more of tho
centre hall than to ad<l, that the ma«8 of
things, many of tliem trifling, and some of
them incongruous, wliicli were there
crowded together, was most unfavourable
to a due appreciation of the fieparate arti-
cles. Tho inhabitants of tho Zollverein have
oeen ill-served by their Commissioners.

Amongst the articles of utility, the
cloths, which were very abundant, took
the first place in tho Zollverein ; and
remembering that the manufacture of fine
cloth is rather modern in Germany, and
that homespun woollens, till very recently,
formed tho staple dressc? of the bulk of
tho pea-santry, the progress of the Germans
in making fine cloth does them great
credit. For some of that they may thank
our restrictive laws, which partly force
their industry into that channel, and
compel them to grow wool and weave it,
instead of growing corn and exchanging
it for woollens. The damasks of Saxony
and the linens of Silepia. the latter now
not so highly honoured as they were wont
to be, also occupied a Inrge space in the
halls and in the givlleries, and they arc
very old and very favourite productions
of Germany. In damask linens they excel ;
and the productions of Messrs. Proels,
senior, and Sous, of Leipsic, in the Saxon
department, may be mentioned as an
excellent example of the produce of the
German looms. Many of the woollens
that came from Pnissia were as remark-
able as the celebrated Berlin wool for the
richness of their dyes ; and there were
some common enough cloths at the end
of the gallery of the Zollverein, of the
south side, worth notice on account of
the boldness and distinctness, and the
meaning — for many of our patterns are
utterly destitute of any meaning — of the
designs which ornament them. We dis-
covered, on referring to the catalogue, that
the designs were copies of wood-cuts after
Albert Durer, and we do not see w by such
things should not generally be reproduced,
rather than immeaning scrolls. We need
say nothing of the patterns and the wool
which were profusely displayed through-
out the Prussian department, which has
acquired a world-wide reputation as Berlin
work, the delight of our
wives, daughters, and mo-
thers, and very often of no
little comfort to ourselves iu
its results, if we are occasion-
ally annoyed by it in its pro-
gress. Patterns, as well as
the materials for embodying
them in the canvas, abounded
in almost every part of the
Zollverein, together with car-
pets, rugs, table-covers, &c.
In fact, the two circum-
stances, of the spleudid dyes
end the excellent designs, for
which Prussian workmen and
artists are famous, have com-
bined to make Berlin work
so general a favourite. In
damask luiens, in fine cloths
of vai'ious kinds, and in wool,
lens of every description and
for eveiy use, the Zollvereiu
was particularly rich. Takeu
as a whole, woollens were not
only the most useful but the
most conspicuous production
of German industry, and those

206

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

iu which they hare attaiuctl the greatest excellence and are making the
most j-apid advances. Coiiuected, too, with them, we must add that there
were numerous specimens of very fine wool, the produce of the German
provinces and other flocts.

Berlin has been famous, at least since the time of Dieshach, 1710, when
Prussian blue was discovered, for its chemical products ; and all through
tlje eighteenth century, as well as before it commenced, some of the most
distmguislied names in the annals of chemi.stry were those of Germany.
Aftei- the woollens, tl:e chemical products of tlie ZoUverein in the Exhi-
bition ranked high. The .specimens ofbeetrroot sugar, which were perfect
and the product entirely of chemical ajt, the specimens of perfumery, of
varipus salts and pigments, the crystal* of several substances exhibited, all
testified to the fact that the Germans continue on this point to deserve
their well-acquu-ed reputation.

In the va-^t and very miscellaneous productions which they sent us, we
can only particularise a few more. AVe observed numerous specimens of
types and of boolcs, ornamented and plain, which did honour to German
typography and their skill in illustration. Contrasting some of the books
displayed there by Decker and otliers with the ordinary books aJid news-
papers of Germany, it U impossible not to wish that in the matter of paper
at Isiist some of the substantiality of the books exhibited plight be
Iniparted to the commnn productions of the booksellers. But it is probable,
after all that i.-5 said of the durability of books, that the most flimsy are the
best adapted for our transition age, as not likely long to staud in the way,
cither on our bookshelves or in our minds, of the improved works of which
they are to be the parents. Connected with books, wore many maps,
geological as well as geographical, with a large globe to show the compara-
tive elevation of the mountains of tlia earth, and (jther helps to diffuse
knowledge. The Germans are not behind in applying papier mdohe, wliicU
will take any form, and which, though made from refuse, is one of the
products of human skill best adapted, of all those yet acquired, to various
figured ornaments, as well as to many useful instruments and utensils. The
Germans exhibited many specimens of their success in papier machfi, the
name of which informs us that the art is neither of Kngli-ili nor of Gorman
invention. As we liad specimens of our coal, so the Germans, particularly
in the Hamburgh department, exhibited many specimens of their charcoals,
of which they make great use, and which they apply in various forms to
various purposes. They showed us, also, many of their mineral products,
particularly from Nassau, from which little else had been brought than ores
of lead, copper, zinc, manganese, iron, &e. Other things in which they
excelled, or at least made a good show, were philosophical <and musical
insti-uments — characteristic of their harmony and their devotion to .science.
In the Hamburgli department, we found not only some excellent furniture,
but veneers fifty-four plates to the inch : or the mahogany is cut into
planks, each of whicli is only the 54th part of an inch tliick. Till a recent
period, when Sir Robert Peel abolished the duties on furniture woods, the
inhabitants of Hamburgli had a considerable advantage over our furniture
mak'-rs. and they sent great quantities of furniture to various parts of America.
They still cany on this protitable and useful business ; but om' peopie are
now in a better condition to compete with them th.an theywere, and, by the
abolition of the duties, a valuable trade has been preserved to om' country.

Here we must stop. Though the productions of German industry were
by no means so numerous, bo rich, nor so varied as those of French
industry, with which, excluding Austria, they might be most appropriately
comparod^though the Germans were iu the Exhibition remarkably deficient
in madiiuery — rtheir products were numerous and miscellaneous, and we
can only, by treating of them under some of the various papers in which
we technologically examine the different products foimd in the Exhibition,
do them justice iu detail. In general, except as to cast iron, bronzes,
chemicals, dyes, and some woollens, German industry seemed a step below
that of eithfr France or England. It i.s, however, plain that the Germans
have a great aptitude to improvement : we regard them as only recently
aroused to a due sense of their relative position iu knowledge, skill, politics,
and morals, to the rest of Europe. They occupy a noble country ; and as
they become sensible of their wants, they cannot fail to achieve a com-
manding success. In them we have great reason to be interested, and
tiiem wo must -wish to see strong, prosperous, and united. They staud
between European civilisation and Cossack barbarity ; and the hojie we
have that the latter will not bo suffered to advance .and prevail westward,
rests on the Gorman^, and rests on the improving people as contradistin-
guished from theii' interfering, and, we are afi'aid, sometimes retrograde rulerii,

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAXTON I'UKXITCRE. — BY FLEISCHMANN, OF SOKNnNnERG.

Fleischmann, of Sonnenberg, in the Duchy of Saxe-Meiuiugen, exhibited
a variety of decorative subjects, in a style peculiar to many provincial parts
of Germany ; a style in which lightness of material is combined with great
fancifulne-ss of device, and much gaudincss of colouring, gilding, &c. These
things would hardly pass muster in busy, business-like London, witli its
cold smoky atmosphere, either as works of utility or ornament ; but in tlie
villa residences on the Rhenish provinces they serve to fill iij) a vacant
comer, and to gratify the eye of a simple inimled peoiilo with repre-
Bentations of natural objects, which, though of every ilay recurrence, are
esteemed as emblems of their nationality. Tiic vine, tho eliuHO, ihc guitar and
a lover, make up the sum of a German'n eartlily enjoyments. Iron and glass
are tU" chief materials of these articles, which, in consequence have been
named, in honour of the .irchitect of the Crystal Palace, " Paxtou Furniture."

CUPID SHAEPENING HIS ABKOWS. — BT LBEB.

This little marble figure, executed by Leeb, of Munich, stood n
ZoUverein Coiu't, where, attractive at a distance, it disappointed uj
careful inspection. The figure is not that of a Cupid, neither are the t
neither are the expression and the attitude ; the limbs, being all str
lines and angles, are inelegant.

BTUFl'ED AXIIIALS TROM WIRIEUBEnC.

Amid the wide range of foreign industrial products, stuffed and pi^a^
animals are to be found only in that portion of the ZoUverein cousec
to Wirtemberg, and thesie fumed a very conspicuous feature iu tlie Qe
exhibition : the deHli- — both sides of which they line — being one of
points in which policemen had to be stationed to marshal the crowd
way that they should go." The specimens were of two classe- — oriis
preserved birds and beasts, aiming only at being fac-similes of living na
and animals of various species, endowed with a caricatured exi)re3fli
human iutelligence, and represented in illustrations of legends and fafal
occvipied Avith human pursuits, and performing human actions. W'c eat
two comical specimens of the latter class, in another pai't of this sheet

BTATUETTES. BY GROPIUS.

The productions in Papitr M^iihi, paper, and stone, by Gropius, of B
exhibit great variety, and considerable a|)pUcability for building decon
The figure of an angel, which we engr.ave, is bronzed, and is appropr»
9, niche in a chui'ch. The otlier represents the muse Melpomene.

ORMOLU CHANDELIER. BY BERNSIORFF.

The chandelier by Bernstorff & Co., of Hanover, is of the old, heavy, ^
fashion which was in vogue iu Germany a century ago, and appears nw
have gone out. It contams every possible variety of style, and almost
variety of ornamental device. It is of bronze gilt, and will hold (iO li|

THE ARTS OF DESIGN AND DECORATION.

MOSAICS FROM ROME.
MOSAICS are a kind of picture, executed with small pieces of gl
wood, pebbles, enamel, &c., fixed upon any given surface by me;
mastic. Although this branch of art was well known and much pra'
by the ancients, Pliny has spoken of no express style, nor has he parti
ised any of the artists who wrought in it. We can only judge, thcrefo
the appearance of antique relics of this kind, and by comparing them
modern performances, the method of executing which is known t
MTien an artist commences a work in mosaic, he cuts in a stone p
certain space, which he encircles with bandsHjf iron. This space is co
with thick mastic, on which are laid, confoi'ma'ily to the particular d
the various substances meant to be used. During tlie whole of his
the artist must have his eye constantly fixed on tlie piccnre which it
object to copy. The mastic, in time, acquires the consistency of stoi
is susceptible of a polish like crystal. However, as the brilliancy
acquired is injurious to the effect of the design itself, which is not c
perceived through it, those mosaics which ai-e apjilied to the adornm'
cupolas, ceilings, &c., are generally less elaborately polished, the dis
from which t'ley are viewed preventing the spectator from detectiv
incciualitios of surface, or the interstices between the pieces of whii
work is composed. The means have been discovered of giving t
colour of glass so many cUfferent shades, that it has been found to sen
purposes of all the various descriptions of painting. The artist in n
has all his various materials ranged before him in compartments, acco
to their several tints, in much the same way as the printer arivmgi
different lettei-s. To Pompeo Saviui, of Urbino, has been attribute
art of executing mosaics in relievo.

The origin of mosaic-work must, apparently, be sought in the Eas
rich carpets of which were imitated iu hard stone. It is probable thi
art was known to the Phcenicians, but to the Greeks its perfectioi
glory are to be attributed. From Greece it passed, -n-ith the other
mental points of knowledge, into Rome, towards the end of the rep
the Italian conquerors of Greece transporting from that country into
own the most beautiful specimens, in the shape of pavements, &c., \
they could discover. Sylla was the first Roman who caused a pie
mosaic-work of any magnitude to be executed for the temple of Fortu
Prameste (now Palaestrina), which mosaic, at least a gi'eat portion of it,
exists. At first they ornamented in this manner the pavements of bull
merelj", but .after awhile the walls and arched ceilings also. The tents (
generals, in time of war, were .also paved thus, to keep off tho humidi
the ground, a;? Suetonius reports, of the tent of Julius Caesar. The inve:
of coloured glass was a great discovery for tlie purposes of mos.aic wor

When the dark ages had driven the elegant arts out of Italy, mi
work, as well as painting and sculpture, was preserved a considerable
amongst the Byzanthian Greeks, who used it to adorn tho altars of
churches. Towards the conclusion of the thirteenth century, au Italii
the name of Tafi learnt to work in mosaic of a Greek called Apollo
who decorated tlie cathedral of St. Mark at Venice, where is still prese
an adiiiirabhi pavement executed by him. But in general, these work
wanting iu doBign, are in bad taste, and equallj' bad in colouring. I
then, the art has hoen brought, in Italy, to a very high dcgi-ee of p£
tiun. I'opo Clement the Eighth, at the commencement of the seventc
ci'utury, contributed much to this end by adorning in mosaic all
inli'iior |iai t of the dome of St. Peter's. Among the eailiest artists
Ijloyed tlicreon were Paul Rossetti and Francis Zucchi.

One of the greatest achaiil;ij,LS of mosaic is its power of resistini

AN ILLUSTRATRD CYCLOIMiUlA OF THU GKHAT KXIII15ITI0N OF 1851.

. tliings wliieh ordinrvrily afiect tlie beauty of pniiiliiiK, unci anotlicr
hoility with wlikli (iiie can I'epolish it without at all hazanliii^ the
itness ami cllivjt of tho colouring. At the saino lime, as it can only l,o
ed slowly, nuil requires Ri-oat oxei-tioii, it can.ncvei- coino Into hucIi
•alu?o as painting: nor would it have attained tlie ilogrou of porftc-
nrhieh it did at Itouio ami Florcnco, had not tho roajiooUva govurn-
a of thoso two states made a ]>c)iut of cncoura^jiiip; it.
long tho most beautiful mosaies preserved in tlio pavoniontg or walls
icient buildinr;3, wo may particularise that found in a chamber in
ian's villa, near Tivoli; tho Pal.'cstrinu mosaic, before alludccl to. and
I ia reinnrkalile for the light which its delineations throw ou tho hi^-
looal and natural, of
b. In tho villa Al-
ia also a beautiful
0 discovered in tho
Dry of Urbino.
represents a school
losophers, ami ano-
depicting tho hi.;-
f Hcsiouo, daugUti :■
am. In 17(33, w:.s
a a villa ne;u'
eii (probably thrt
Emperor Clauilius),
)saic represcntinij
females v.-ith comio
and playing mi"
s instruments. TI:«!
of the artist (Dio-
03, of Saraos) was

B'en thereon iu
_ letters. Tlicro
■sides, a very great
T of others, whieu

been at sundry
dug up, and which
i a greater or less

of beauty and of
ueo in the art.
'Hg tho mast dis-
hed .artists in this
•ay be ehumeratcd
Uowiug: — Gadtlo
Idis, who died in

Angelo Koudone,
Giotto, died ISoli ;
Ghirland.ajo, died
Pictra Oda, died
Prane. and Valerio
in 1545 ; Alex.
anc. .Scalza. Ford.
Giov. FraUui,
licei. Thorn. Br.an-
iib. Merc.anti, to-
550; Louis Caje-
)59; Ang. Sabba-
jmasconi. Anibr.

Vitalde .Alassa. V. Lambert de Cortoua. Crueiano do Marcerata, Giov.
, Fr, Zuccha, P. Rosetti, and Cicsar Torelli, wdio departed this life

the end of the fifteenth century; Giov. U.alaudra, died 1(U4,
^vented a mastic for fixing the pieces in a manner more solid thiiu
Q hitherto practised ; Giov. Mcrlini, Giov. Ciaclietti. Bottini, t'oam.
r, Giov. Giorgi, Lor. Bottini. Giov. Biaiichi, Carlo Continelli, and
*om Bal.linueci cites as the first artists employed iu the fabri-
f the mosaics of the Gallery of Florence, and whi died about tho
X the seventeenth century. At the same epoch flourished also
'linn, Oraz. Manetta, and Matth. Piccioni: Marcel. Provouzale, who
' ":; La Valette, 1710; Nic. Brocchi, 1713: Phil. Cocehi', Nie.
.'■vn. Regolo, Funo, Guil. Palat, Franc. Fiano. The city of
lew years ago (and perhaps still), possessed a school of painters in
directed by M. Belloni.

gat the mosaics exhibited in the Crystal Palace was a table by the
>» Barbevi, on which the Bay of Naples, the Bay of Genoa, the

at Rome. St. Peter's and other celebrated views, are represented

truth of perspective, the rieli tone of colour, the accuracy of
on, and the perfect finish to be found only in the most exquisite
e oil pamtings; so much so that the spectator might almost require
y himself by mieroseopio examination that the work of art before

not the production of pencil and pigments, but of things widely

w^ another mo.saic to which we would also direct attention, if it
vidious to particularise where all were excellent of their kind ; but
on it, partly because it is a copy of a c/ief cVa-iivis of Italian art—
s " John the Baptist "—and partly because it has been produced
iat parent school of Roman mosaic art, the studio of the Vaticau
work of Signor ftiflaello Castellini.
gh the Sladio de Mosaici in the Vatican, which is maintained at

to?

yOS.MC

groiit c.xpenso by tho P.ipal Govornmcnt, chiefly for tho purpose of dcco-
rating churches with moH.iic copie, of the m«»torpicce« of Italian art, iih.bI
bo regarded as tho great paioiit school, which ha« developed to it« i,rr«cnt
Htato of porfnotion the art and uiyBt-ry of nioHuic working, there are never-
I .eloH«, lu-iyato cstabliHhments which pro.hico work« of great beauty for
tho decoration of maiiaiousand palatial residences, aii.l of thew tho mosaic*
n tho I'.xhibition are beautiful speciinenH. Besides those already lefciTod
to, there wero two handsome tables by Signer BoHchctti, and others by
liUigi and 1 omonico Moglia. presenting views of the Homati F..ruin, the
Colossoiim, tho temples of Pa;«tum, &c„ which stood the te t of close in-
spa.-tion, bclns very adiuir,ablo works. Although the table above referred

to. by tho Chevalier Bar-
beri — a name of Kuropcan
celebrity — is a most ex-
quisite specimen, anrl well
worthy of his fame, it is
very much to be regretted
that he h.-id not been
allowed to exhibit to the
admiring eyes of all
nations iu the Crystal Pa-
lace a cfief (fauvre which
ho has just completsd
for tho Emperor of Rus-
sia, and which lie is
obliged to transmit iiu-
inodiately to St. Peters-
burg ; viz. a large octa-
gonal pavement, contain-
in,g twenty-eight figures,
the central piece being a
colossal head of Jledasa,
and the whole being sur-
rounded by a border of
fruits and flowers. The
design is copied on a
reduced scale from an
ancient pavement in one
of tlio rooms of tho
Vatican museum : but it
vi-ould be impossible for
any one thing to surpass
;:nother to a greater de-
gree than that to which
Barberi's copy excels
tho original iu drawing,
colouring, and style of
execution generally. He
was aided in his work
by his Russian pupils,
who have been placed
in his studio by the
Czar for the purpose of
learning the art of mosaic
decoration, with a view
to founding a school of
mosaic at St. Petersburg.

I.;:.— E.\EI:EBi,

_, .. . uiuoiiiu iib oL. z^erersDurg.

1 he improvements in the mechanical parts of the operation of mosaic
painting which have been introduced by Barberi are so great, that a work
whicli would require upwards of fom- years for its completion in the
\ atieau studio, is executed by him in less than a yeiu- and a half. A re-
markable instance of this celerity of operation was recently manifested at
his studio, wliere a copy iu mosaic of the St. Nicholas in the church of St.
Peter, which liad been ordered by the Emperor of Russia, was made in
something less t/ian two years, although a similar work at the Vatican
occupied from four to five yeari

The pavement above referred to took three years .and a half iu its execu-
tion. But these are works on the grand scale, to which the mosaics in the
Lxhibition only bear the relation of miniatures to full-length paiutin-rg.
llie latter, however, were well calculated to impress on a mind hitlierto
unaequainted with mosaic works, a correct idea of this peculiar and beautiful
branch of art.

SILVER CENTRE-PIECE, BY HUNT AND ROSKELL.
This magnificeut centro ornament and plateau by Jlessi-s. Hunt and
Roskell, which stood in the West Nave, near the Canadian Depai-tment
has been executed with a view to exhibit the capabilities of silver in it^
application to sculiiture and decorative art. It is adapted ,as a stand for
flowers by day, and as a candelabrum by night; and mth these objects the"
various groups are selected to agree in subject. On each qmarter of the
phUcauare groups representing the Seasons : Flora, aitended by her nymphs
playing with flowers, and a lamb, personilVing Spring; zephyrs, bearing on
then- shoulders a female figure, crowned with wheat, and carrying the
sickle, reiu-eseuting Summer. Autumn is typified bv the figures of Sifenus
Bicchos, and Pomona: Winter, by aged Saturnus, w-;io, seated on a leafless
tree, spreads his mantle over shi\'ering nature. On his left is a figure repre-
senting storm and tempest, accompanied by wolves. Beneath the groups

208

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS.

SILVER CENTKE-riECE.— UUNT AND EOSKELL.

(ue the Bigns of the Zodiac. On the foot of the centre ornament are figures
representing the quarters of the world, each being accompanied by appro-
priate animals. The alto-relievo around the column represents Day and

Night, attcudeil by the Hours ; and aromid the stem whicli supporl
vase arc four figures, representing the Elements. The whole » 1
decorated with ornament of the Ciuquc Cento period.

THE FRENCH INSTITUTE AND THE GREAT EXHIBITION.
'^ T an oiirly etago of tlio (5i-eiit Kxhibition, the Institute of Franco dopnted

• < of its monibers, MM. Cliovalici- aud A. Klamini. to oxaininp and roport

that important European

I rtaking. Their report drawn

' \ M. lilaiKiui ha.s recently

'd, and a dige.st was given

in tlio Illustrated London
'. , s. for December 13.
lu the course of our perusal
ftliis paper, wo met frequently
LiitU observations with which wi!
luld not agree, in the extent at
ast to which they went, and we
It tempted to discuss many of
ese points with the writer hi
ftail. Upon reconsidering the
attor, however, wo thought it
ist to let this document speak
r itself to the judgment of our
iders, many of whom must
.ve more or less of practical
•.quaintimco with the matters
■ which it treats, and the) in-
rests which are involved in
cm.

One or two remarks, however, we must ni.iko, but very generally. It will
be seen that M. Blauqui is not chary as to the tenri.s with which he ministers
to the vanity of his countrymen, and particularly in matters of " taste," in

which he unhesitatingly awards
them the foremost rank, lonyo
intcrrallo ahead of all the rest of
the world. Now, spite of all
that has been dinned in our ears
upon this point, we might feel
disposed to que.stion the fact ;
and to assert that French taste,
in furniture for instance, is for
the most part mere copying,
and that, not with any settled
principle in the choice of models ;
whilst in high art it is deci-
dedly lower than oure. Tlie
only advant^e M. Blanqui allows
us, and by which he accounts
and as it were apologises for our
superiority in useful manufac-
tures is our abundant command
of raw materials ; ; and therefore
he argues for free trade, in order
to give his fellow-countrymen
similar advantages. But there is

soii'.ethiug more which he entirely overlooks, and
which is a more essential feature of our industrial
position than the mere command of raw staples,
and that is tlie command of capital, — the division
of labour, — the mutxial co-operation of communi-
ties of men in relative situations of employer and
employed ; all which are the result of om' habitual
respect for the rights of property, and our confi-
dence in the stal'ility of institutions. In justice
to that small, but sturdy and respectable republic,
Switzerland, also, whose two millions of inhabi-
t;mts set an example of frugality, industi-y, and
political integrity to the rest of continental
Europe, we must protest against her being placed
below the line of nations " organised for gi'eat
manufacturing production." Relatively to her size
and population, there is perhaps more strictly
manufacturing industry developed and employed
in Switzerland than in any other country — Eng-
land alone excepted ; whilst the silk products
take nearly an equal rank with tliose of France
herself, and her muslins are unsurpassed.

Allowing, however, for some prejudices, and for
some shades of opinion, this document is ex-
tremely interesting, and will repay perusal. It is
remarkable, moreover, as being the first authentic
report, coming from any source of national autho-
rity, upon the Great Industrial Exhibition of 1851.

REPORT OP M. BLANQUI.

The task has devolved upon us to report to the

Institute the peculiar features of each of the na-
tions summoned to the Great Exhibition, to point

Price Oira Penny.

210

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

out the industrial features which distinguish them, and to set forth the
practical consequences of this great event. Never was a finer opportunity
offered to political economists for tlie study of phenomena of production
and the distribution of wealth throughout the world. Having for its
avowed object the promotion of the free circulation of raw materials and
manufactured products throughout tlie world, the means employed for this
end, in a gen nine comparison of the as«*embled products of the whole human
race, were certainly the most efficacious that could bo de\ised.

The arrangement of the Exhibition and tlie distribution of the products
left little to be desired. The mcst cm-ious of all is decidedly the Buikhug
itself, composed, in reality, of three or four principal portions repeated
many thousands of times, in which the light penetrates in waves through
a glazed enclosure, whence it has obtained the name of the Crystal Palace.
The Euglisli nation has allotted to itself one-iialf of the space contained in
this magnificent two-decked vessel; the other half has been distributed
among all the other nations, in proportion to the probable extent of their
contributions, and the different nations are thus fraternally seated on"
beside another, in such a manner that they can all be visited without
fatigue and almost without interruption by the aid of polyglot catalogues
of moderate price.

One important matter alone was wanting in the Catalogues, viz. the prices
of the objects exhibited, which would have been of great assistance to us
in responding to the wishes of the Institute. But in this case, as in many
othei-s, the mercantile spirit has prevailed, and it was only after sharp
discussions that this last veil of commercial routine and selfishness was
maintained. Vv"e cannot refrain from noticing that the result of this lias
been to leave a gap in the instruction tliat ought to have been derived fi-om
the Universal Exhibition. Publicity of price is often an incitement to the
purchaser, but it is always the surest element of iiiform.ition even to those
unprovided with special knowledge. Thus, for example the low price of
an article is sufficient to prove that it has been manufactured by a different
process from the usual one, or from different materials from those commonly
employed.

The first fact which has struck us, and of which the evidence has appeared
to us to be every day more clearly demonstrated, is, that in the great contest
opened in the Crystal Palace, the only two principal champions are France
and England. All the other industrial nations, in spite of their special
merits, have seemed oidy to be pj-esent as witnesses in this memorable
tournay. China, British India, Persia, and Turkey only represent the past :
the United Stiites, Russia, Australia, and Van Diemen's Land represent the
futiu-e. Prussia, Belgium, Austria, Switzerland, Spain, Italy. gravit,;ite more
or l"ss in the orbits of France and England, borrowing from tlie>e great
producing nations the processes of the arts every day developed there with
amazing fruitfulness.

Such is the general aspect of the Universal Exhibition, when considering
only the distinctive characteristics of the difterent nationalities ; but, on
casting more profoimd glances into the immense panorjima, new horizons are
opened to the view, productions but little known are discovered, and raw
materials destineil, it may be, to exercise an influence equal to that of
cotton. Thus Australia displays wools of remarkable quality in unlimited
quantity, and at so low a price that they can be sold at loss than 75 centimes
per French pound, delivered in bond, after having made the voyage from
tlie antipodes. The number of the sheep increases upon this virgin soil
with a rapi'lity and an economy which are truly marvellous. It is a real
woul Mine, which England h.as added to her coal and iron mines.

Another mine of textde materials appears again to be opening for her in
the heart of her India(i possessions, and promises to bestow upon her,under
the as yet but little known name oijulc, a species of hemp, which unites the
properties of flax and cotton, and which, if we may trust the enthusiasm
and the pretensions of some Scottish manufacturers, would be destined to
supersede both these substances. At the same time the richest collect'on
of oleaginous seeds comes from the other side of tlie line, to compete with
the analogous seeds of Euroiio ; and we have counted more than a thousand
specimens of new cabinet woods, natives of Canada, Australia, and India,
which already show a tendency to supplant mahogany and ebony.

The productions of British India are highly interesting to the technological
student, as well a-i to the philosopher and the economist. Thei-e is truly an
Indian art, which bears a distinctive stamp, as does French art, and, more-
over, an originality which is often elegant and of good taste, such as that of
their shawl-<, which have become the models of ours, and that of the
umnerous tissues exhiliited by the East India Comp.any. The weapons,
the pottery, even the furniture, do not in any way re-ieuible those of the
Chinese, wliich are fantastical and frequently monstrous, and which it is
necessary we should guai-d ourselves from confounding with the Oriental
stylo. But Indian art is exclusively of the past. The Indians of the present
day are but servile imitators of the r predecessors.

The Chinese even more bo. Tlieir collection, imperfect though it is,
bears witness to the wonderful instinct of this race for the most delicate
and difficult manual woi-k. But their porcelain, tlieir works in lacquer and
ivory, known from time immemorial, ai-e made at the present day exactly
as they have been from the most remote ages. We have nothing to envy them,
unless it be the abundance of certain raw materials, and especially silk.

Persia and Turkey, Egvpt, Greece, the barbarous states, and that mi
region which might be called the Little East, have notbing in common witi
the great Ea-,t — not even immobility. There is to be found in thc-s
countries the same weakness for tinsel, the same richness of material ai,
poorness of workmanship, but the taste and the art are entirely differer'
and even in their greatest flights they bear tlie impress of the West. W(
have, however, been happy to discover two remarkable facts in this regioi
so long unfavoured — they are the revival of in<lustry, properly so calleil. i:
Turkey ; and that of the cultivation of tlie soil in Egypt. The Turii-
collection alone comprises more than 3300 articles belougmg to thrt
natural kingdoms, and arranged with much order and method.

All this curious cluster of the representatives of the past, merits only ;
purely iiistorical interest in the presence of the decisive instruction fuini*ei
by the contemplation of the actual state of production in the-gre^d manu
facturing countries of Europe. It is there in reality that the Exhibitioi
must be studied in an economic point of view, in order properly to apprc
ciate its general effect. The principal struggle between these countries i
carried on in certain great branches of industry, which are worked by th
aid of immense capital, and wdiich give employment to thousands of hand,-
such as the cotton, woollen, linen, and silk manufactures, the metal factories
the construction of machinery, the ceramic art, leather manufactures, ic.
but a careful examination of all the other branches of liumau labour ha
shown how much the smaller branches of industry prevaih d over th
greater, and how necessary it was to take account of these in order t
show exactly tlie productive power of each nation.

Thus the manufacturing greatness of England and Franco is strikingl
manifested in the great mechanical fcatm-es of the two countries ; tliei
private industrial character, if I may so term it, appears only in thei
smaller manufactures. Cotton, flax, and wool are woven by the .sam
machines and by the same process in both countries. The most skilfi
Judge would 6nd it difficult to distiugui-sh a linen or cotton cloth wove
by machinery on the other side of the Channel from a cloth of the sae
fineness made on this side with French yarn. It is the same with tl
woollen cloths from Leeds, which are often as beautiful as those of Elbai
or Louviers.

But, when we quit the domain of the mechanical arts to enter that c
taste, the diflerencRii and the genius peculiar to each nation immcdiatel
begin to h^. felt. The Universal Exhibition iias brought to light this fai
to the honour of France, and has furnished us with new arguments i
favour of commercial freedom. It has been demonstrated by tlio mo
conclusive evidence, by the comparison of the different products, that tl
total value created by the smaller branches of industry exceeds that creati
by the large ones ; and that the smaller branches of industry require le
capital, give employment to a greater number of hands, develope a great
amount of intelligence, and produce more comforts, with fewer social coi
plications, than the processes of the manufacturers org .nised under tl i
dominion of machinery and division of labour, pushed to its extreme poit

It is in the former branches of production, so faithful and so varied, th
France has shown with an unrivalled glory in the gener.al assenddy
civilised nations, and has established her supremacy in an incnutcstib
manner. The French exhibition has held pre-eminence by its taste, withoi
any exception in any part of the world, and has revealed an economic fa
well worthy of being dwelt upon by the statesmen of our country, that
knowing that design and form, with no other expenditure than that
the ima_,dnation, greatly enhance the values of the articles to whicli ths'
are applied.

This is, in our opinion, the chief fact of the Great Exhibition of tl
present year. Is it not. therefore, evident, that the most simjile means t
iusm-ing the success of the French workman, whose individual taste an
skill thus adds to the value of his production, wonhi be to emancipate hit
from all the artificial charges which weigh upon his labour, and especial)
from tlie duties on the raw material \ Is it not reasonable to think thi
henceforth he will acquire an unassailable superiority over all his rivali
But what is the case under our present system ? For one single branch i
metallio manufacture, that of iron, for example, which is carried on on
large scale, and is protected by duties of almost cent, per cent., we recko
thousands of trades paralysed in their development, and often in their mei
exercise, by the artificial dearncss of iron and steel. Whoever has seen tl
truly splendid collection of all the industrial works of Sheffield, compose
of nearly a thousand different articles, from the finest penknife to the mOi
gigantic circular saw, and that innumerable variety of tools as ingenious I
they are powerful, thoroughly understands the decisive influence of tl
cheapness of the raw materials upon industrial works. We have see
Prussia victorious on many points, and even Belgium in the way of b
coming so, on account of the low price of the metallic element in thes
two countries. And we cannot too often re|ieat it — and a thousand voicf
will repeat it after us — the great fact of the Exhibition is the demoiistrati*
of the immense power created by the low price of metals. It is suffioieB
to cast a glance at the collection of English machinery, which forms
veritable arsenal, to appreciate the importance of this power.

These machines are equivalent to a supplementary population of man
millions of men, in the service they render Great Britain. They are th
principal source of the public and jirivate wealth ; they constitute a fiin
from which, under the empire of Free Trade, our manufacturers niigh
draw the same elements of prosperity as England itself It was owing
the low price of cast iron, that the very palace in which all these work
were assembled wag enabled to be reared ; and it would suffice to calculal

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT KXIIIBITION OF 1851.

lit thirt palace would hivvo cnnt in Kninco, in onlor to ii|-)proi!iftto tha Ions

'liicli wo i-X|ierienc« fVoiii t!u> i-ipiiir of our i^ranHiMiir syhlrm in tliii iv^pect.

Tills infcrioritv is i-evenled hHII more .■viiloitly In ;'ill tlmt coiitoi-ih tlio

riniltuml iutoi'O.sta in tlio two countries. No ono eonlcl ljclii;vo, without

viii.,'8eon it, Imw ninoli power .lyi-ioulturo derives fi-oni niiinufiicturo by

n of iron. It is eni|iloycd iii nudi-ly evorv iiijricultunil work, aiul e.v

II' uts are now buiiig luiido for Its Btill furtliei- oxten-iou. In all the

i I) ranches

211

M;.,'lisli in-

I y the ob-
[■\ ii- i-teqiiftl-

-truulc with
iperiority
loohauicril
. with the
ous em-

iil.Ult of

:uid with

I'L'i-fectibu

lO tools.

ids supo-

i'ly dlBBp-

ii-i as soou

iri.istic ap-

it ions aud

;:i:it forms

brought
ijuestion.
tr Prance
■ iips the
intagcand
laws of
■ luturo are
ealed to
ry ^ eve.
3 English-
in exeel.s by
quality
d the cheap-
is of the
.terial ; the
enchman by
s ingenious
ite of the

Everywhere

!' the same

iking con-

sts found.

ok at A\i!i-

so ro-

vvned for

Bohemian.

'•: thtsc

sses excel

means of

I material,

the colour,

their cheap-

S; but they

ind by their

f taste. Our

lit glass-

of Bac-

at, or Saint

^viis, which,

ikvever, have

If appeared

I the Exlu-

I ion, Could

I I have been
I erwise than
JITS by ap-

ring tiiL-r'u.
I iirpro.luct--
f evidently
B erior iii
fe a, in the
C ibinatiou of

^>^ment3, and in all that depends upon design and variety. In the
«>|imic arts, Sasouv, so celebrated, has nothing to compare with the
"f-l.-i'us ol Sevrey; aud we have seen pieces from Sarrcgueminos more

II than such aud .such a masterpiece of Euglish pottery, the
il merit of which consists in lowness of price. Ai't, in fact' is not
lie matter of articles of consumption. It is necessary that those

should be within the rt-ach of the greatest number, and that
'■ 1 ':ost of production should always be reduced to the lov,-est possible

price, OHfioclally when thm coBt dB|)enda upon artiBclul chargeH unequally
upporlioncd in the univur«nl factory.

In thJH re pect Ur.'at liritnni ofl'crs to all othm- nati.nH good examples to
follow, in point of induDliial ecouoiuy and coijjui.;rcial policy. Hur maau-
factoriex of machinery are known. Her f.ictorics. fuiuijsLed with formidable
looms, have acquired proportions which alright the iinagin ition. Her
elotli, rich with the lubiglcJ wools from all i)art« of the globe, braves the

coifipetltioD of
Kraucc, of Bel-
giuui, and uf
fruf-siiu Her
glass, of beau-
tiful Inistre, is
at the proiWDt
day cut with re-
markable per-
fectiou ; wit-
ness that beau-
tiful fountain,
ten metres in
height, which
has unceasing-
ly shed around
it a r-fresbing
cooliieiisat the
point of iuter-
Btotion of the
two avenues.

The chemi-
cal products
which Eng-
land, but a
^hort time
back, obtained
from France,
<Termany, and
lioDand, are
u iw produced
upon her own
soil with un-
expected eco-
nomy of price
and richness of
quality. The
working in
leather, skins,
and fui-s is
there carried
on ia propor-
tions every
day m'>re con-
siderable. The
indigenous
earthen ware,
NO well known
by its lowness
of price, and
it» Common-
place vulgar
forms, has ex-
tended itself,
by means of it»
chaafiness, into
every part of
the world.

Lastly, the
impulse given
to all other
branches of
mauufac t u r e
his extended
even to cabi-
net making, to
paper - hang -
ings, and to
fancy articles.
Everything is
in a state of
progress in
this hmd of work and of intelligence, fructified by constantly reviving capital.
The distinctive characteristics of the Exhibition of Euglish products are
strength, solidity, and extent. All the elements of we.ilth are there
displayed in h methodical order, from coal to the most complicated machi-
nery. The English have withhfM nothing. It might be s.ud. that, far
from wishing to rob the nations invited to this great fedei-ation of labom-of
tlieu- secrets, they have been anxious to commmiicate all their own.
(To be coniimied.)

SHIELD OF THE ARMS OJ? ALL NATIOXS, IN ENAMEL.— BUSS.— (BEB P. 223.)

213

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

FURNITURE AND DECORATION.

PAPIER-MACHfi.
A MOXG the numerous articles displayed at the Exhibition, there are few
which, in their manufactured or finished state, are more attractive to
the sight, or which have higher claims to the admiration of the visitor, than
those formed of the material known as papiei'-mach^. Whether in the
shape of domestic fm-niture. to which it has recently been applied, or in
articles of general domestic utility, its beauty and agreeableness are equally
strikinf. Indeed, such is the nature of the material — so ductile, so light,
and so economical — that it appears adapted for almost universal appli-
cation. Admitting a polish almost equal to that of glass itself, and
receiving colours nearly as bright as those capable of being placed upon
canvas, it fm-uishes a most attractive surface alike to the industrial skill
of the humble artisan and to the genius of the artist.

The merit of inventing this beautiful and useful material is claimed by
our French neighbours, and the manufacture of the article is carried on to
a great extent in Paris : but in the application of this substance to articles
of general domestic utility and ornament, it cannot be disputed that we
are far ahead at present, not only of France, but of the entire Continent.
Indeed, to such an extent is it carried out, that it may almost be cou-
.sidered an industrial ai't peculiarly our own ; and for papier-mache work
Birmino'liam stands unrivalled. There is an active competition between
the English and French work in France itself; indeed, so keenly is the
competition felt by our neighboui's, that they impose an exceedingly heavy
duty upon its importation, amounting almost to a prohibition upon the
l^w-priced articles.

Tlie manufacture of papier-mach^ articles was, we believe, first intro-
iluced into Birmingham by Messrs. Jenuens and Bottridge, of Halkiu-
street, Knightsbridge— their principal manufactory being at Birmingham —
about half a century since. At this stage of the manufacture tea-trays only
were made. The inventor and patentee of the nnnuf.icture of tea-trays in

In addition to these purposes, the material has been applied for scrollB,!
foliages, cornices, mouldings, and other articles of internal decoration.
Saloons and halls are decorated with panels of papier-mach^, in a style

papier-m4che was Mr. Clay, of Birmingham. The firm has, from the com-
mencement, gradually proceeded to develope the capabilities of this material
by adapting it to new purposes, until the vaiiety of articles now produced
ia almost innumerable. Articles of furniture made from it, such as chairs,
tables, sofas, cabinets, secrotjiii-es, screens, vases, and even pianofortes, were
displayed at the Exhibition, vnth writing-desks, work-boxes, papeteries,
inkstands, &c., in almost endless variety of style and decoration.

PAHEB MACHli CANTEEBURT. — .JENNENS -VND BETTKIDGE.

which hivs all the be.iutiful effects of enamelling; and under ordmar
circumstances has been found to be remarkably durable. AdmiraU
specimens of panel-work, formed of this substance, are also to be seen i
the saloons of the Europa, Asia, Africa, Hindostan, and Oriental stean
packets ; but we question whether the material is adapted to bear th .
constant \vesr and tear caused by the jarring and shaking of steam-powf |

and weather combined. M I
C. Bielefield, of Wellingto: '
street. Strand, has, by h
skill and enterprise, dor
much for the extended us
of this material for all kinc
of ornamental purposes, wh
ther required for flat surface
or in the most elaborate pi'
ture and glass frames.

In the manufacture of {
pier-mache, the paper used
similar in texture to ordina
blotting-paper, but of a gn
colour. Prior to using it,
is well satm'ated with flo'
and glue, mixed with wat<
in about equal proportioi
and is then laid on the mou
of the article intended to 1
produced. These moulds a
of iron, brass,
copper. The mouli
coated with the fir'
layer of paper
then dried at a he
of 90 deg. or 1(
deg. Fahr. for
houi-s. A caref
smoothing by a fi
follows, after whii
another deposit
paper is made. Tl
processes of dryii
and of smoothii
are successively I
peated with esji
additional layer
paper, until tl
article assumes tl
requii'ed strengi
and thickness, son
commodities havii
been made of
inches in thicknee
An ordinary te
tray, of a quarter 'i
an inch in thicknes
takes about thirty sheets of paper, or ten layers. AVhen the newli|
formed article is taken ii'om the mould, the several parts are planei
filed, and trimmed, so as to be correct and level. A process i
"stoving" next follows, in which the varnish is laid on, and brougl
to a smooth, hai-d, and brilliant surface. This completed, the mo
delicate portion of the manufactm'e commences. The article is coatf
with several layers of shellac varnish, coloured, which, after beir

NNEXS AND BETTMDOE.

AN IliLUSTHATKI) CV(;LOIM;i)lA 01-" TIIK (;RHAT MXHiniTIDX Ol 1851.

213

Imnluned by a heat of 2Sll ileg., arc numpcd level with iniplomentH of
vftriouH (legi'ocH of KmoutliiieHs. The tlill'ei'cnt viu'uiHhingH, witli the mib-

soqiioiit oporatioiia,

earricil on ior a period

lying

from twelve to

w;iB more properly after the form of the
' ruclia'»" ti-ay, oi-namcntcd in gold and

appeamuco; but mying that, wo have Buid all. The figiireH, allegorical f.f
Hleep, (IreainH, goo.l ami biwl, were too fanciful and too large ; and the colour
generally wan eol»l and onconifortable.

A " Icgfro" eliair, inlaid with pearl, wag remarkable for its light elegance
combined with Ktrength.

A "I'rio-lJieu" chair.

,V chair, Htyled Elizabethan,
period of William III.

Several trays, including the
c<ilour-, .'is inehcH in diameter.

Tho contributions of Messrs. Spiers and Son, of Oxford, comiUted of
tabloi. cabinet", deska, work-boxes, albiimn, portfolio", waiters, tca-cnddies.
&v., onianientod with views of the colleges, public buildings, coUegf
gardens, and other olijects of interest in the University and its neighbour-
hood. We noticed in them endeavours after a truer and lesi meretricious
style of ornamentation than usually prevails. As the taste of the Oxford
jjcoplc seems to run in a contrary direction to that of the usual purchasers
of tills description of floods, this firm have taken up l!ic ornamentation of
papier m;\che in a new style. Instead of adopting tho usual subjects of
birds, flowers. Chinese landscapes, arabesques, or other less pleasing styles,
they conceived that pietiire.^que representations of architectural and land-
scape subjects, treated in an artist-like manner, to which other ornament
should bo subservient, would be equally interesting to many persons, equally
popular, and more conducive to tho diffusion of a sound taste. Messrs.
Spiers immortalise their native and most learned city in eveiy possible
point of view, and upon evcry'possible variety of article. Vi'c liave Oxford

' - . r.viM.i; MA'. Ill .-— jj lErx .iXD so

: eeu days, according to the purpose for which the article is required,
exquisite surface which characterises the finished goods is a distin-
.ing feature of this material. It is produced by manual polishing with

"[li u stone and oil ; but the finish of the articles — the .

iiiiliar brilliancy which lends such a freshnes.^ to the
I is produced independently of rot-
or other powder, liy the process of
u,,,n.jii- " alone.

-Vinong the largest exhibitors of this article
c ic Messrs. Jeunens and Bettridge, Messrs.
iieksou and Son, of R.ithboue-place, Messrs.
ri.'allam and Hodgson, IMr. Lane, and Messrs.
piers and Son, of Oxford. Among tiie spe-
iiiiens shown by Messi-s. Jennens and Bct-

i'lt,'e, is perhaps the most extraordinary
iticle yet produced in this material — a case

r a piano forte with music-stool and cauter-
ury, designed in the Italian style, and treated

:th great simplicity of decoration; the only
nwment employed being variously-tinted
•■arl, the effect of which on the jet black of

■ case is very rieli, and, at the same time,
i-edingl)' chaste.

I'he " Victoria Regia" cot, designed by Mr.

r,ell, sculptor, and highly wrought in gold and

ilijurs with emblematical devices, attracted

iisidcrable notice, but was not to our taste ;

• \:ti colours being gaudy and cold, .and tlio

:i|ieby no means graceful. There were also —

A "multum in uno" loo table on a new
iiciple, combining bagatelle bo.ard, chess,
M,'hts, &c., ornamented with inlaid pe.nl

.1 gold.

A lotus work-table, designed by Mr. B»l!,

ted on a new principle, and decorated in a

vie ap)n'opriate to the form :

-V lady's work-table of a shape suggested by the celebrated vase of

■ nvenuto Cellini, richly inlaid with pearl and gilt.

■The d.ay dreamer" chair, designed by Mr. H.FitzCook, and ornamented

ith fig\n-es, flowers, &c., allegorically arranged, had a curious and novel

THE DREAltEHS CHAIR IX PAPIER MiCHK. — JENNENS AND BETTRIDGE.

from the fields, and Oxford from the rivei-, Oxford in the streets, Oxford
colleges, Oxford halls, Oxford stairca-es, and Oxford seds. These paintings,
which are sc.'ittered over desks, tables, secretaires, and work-boxes, all are
beautifully executed.

214

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

POTTERY. PORCELAIN. TILES. Ac

BRITISH MANUFACTURES.

THE first English porcelain was manufactured at Bow and CheUea, near
London, the paste being composed of a mixture of the sand from Alum
Bay, in the Isle of Wight, with a pla*tic clay and powdered flint glass ; this
was covered with a leaden glaze. This manufactory had considerable
success.

In 1748 the manufacture was transferred to Derby, and iu ITJil Dr.
Wale established at Worcester a manufactory of tender porcelain, called
the "Worcester Porcelain Company," which still exists though in other
hands. To Dr. Wale is attributed, the invention of printing on porcelain,
by the transferring of printed patterns from paper to the biscuit. The
proposed design is first engraved on copper, and, the colouring matter

TaSE in SEVRES roitCE.'.MX.

being applied to the engraving in the same m.iimer as iu common copper-
plate printing, the design is transferred to paper. This paper is afterwards
applied to the biscuit to which the colouring matter forming the design
adheres. The paper is then dissolved and waslied off. the colouring matter
forming the design remaining upon the biscuit. The biscuit is then glazed
over the design with a glass glaze, so that after vitrification the design
appears under the glass.

The original Worcester Porcelain Company principally limited tbeir
business to the manufacture of bluf and white porcelain, in imitation of that
of Nankin, and making the Japanese pottery. Cookworthy, of Plymouth,
continued to carry on the porcelain business at Worcester until 1783, when
the manufactory fell into the hands of Mr. Thomas Fliglitf

About 1751 Messre, Littler, Yates, and Baddelw attempted the same
manufacture in Staffordshire, but without success, and it was not until
1765 that Messrs. Baddeley and Fletcher succeeded iu tie manufacture of
porcelain at Slielton.

In 17tiS kaolin and Cornish stone were discovered by Cookworthy, and
the introduction of this into the manufacture of porccl.iiu gave the manu-
facture a considerable impulse, the article acquiring tliat hardness and
. trauslucency 80 eminently characteristic of the German and Oi'ieutal poi--
celain.

In 1772 the manufacture of fine porcelain was completely established in
Staffordshire, 21 years after its establishment at Worcester, iind the manu-
factory Continued to be directed by Mr. Richard Champion, tlie successor of
Brown and Cookworthy, until 1782.

In 1800 Siiode fabriciited a porcelain very superior to all that Lad pre-
ceded it in England, and endeavoured to imitate, not without con.-.i lerable
success, the ancient tender porcelain of Sevi'es. He also introduced, or at
least improved, the application of calcined bones iu tliu paste, an improve-
ment whicli lias since been tarried much further. This establishmrnt of
Spode is now represented by Alderman Copelaiid, end constitutes one of
the must extensive of tlie British porcelain works.

If the British manufacturer liave not yet attained that high excellence in
the ornamental department of the mauufacture of porcelain, and cannot

produce paintings after the great masters, enamelled on larae slabs of por-
celain, to rival those of Sevres and Meissen, he has proved by the present
Exhibition that the day is not far distant w-ben even those productions
may be ex-^cuted in Staffordshire, and that, meanwhile, he has outstripped
altogetlier all rivals in the production of articl^-s fitted for the common use,
not only of the middle, but of the most affluent classes, at a price which
puts all foreign competition at complete defiauce.

In recording these advances in the manufacture of ornamental porcelain
for common use, justice requires that the name of Josiah Wcdgewood siioiild
be put prominently and lionourably forward. Tliat enlightened and public-
spirited man found the Staffoi'dsliire Potteries fabricating only iuHlrior
Wiires, flimsy iu their materials, and utterly deficient in taste and elct^ance
in their forms. He surrounded himself witli artists of taleut, both Eritish
and foreigu. and called to his aid all the improvements of science which
had relation to the manuf.icture. The effect of his exertions has been, that
the w.ares of that district are now not only brought into general use in
England, to the exclusion of all foreign manufactures of tlie same kind,
but Englisli earthenware is sought for and celebrated all over the world,
and nowhere more than in those places where foreign porcelain has bean
previously manufactured.

The followiug testimony of eminent foreigners, fully competent to judge
of this matter, will corroborate tiiis. M. Faujas de St, Fond (quoted in the
article on porcelain in Dr. Lardner's Cyclopwdia) says: — "Tne excillent
workmanship of English porcelain, its solidity, the advantage which it
possesses of sustaiuicg the action of fire, its fine glaze, impenetrable to
acids, the beatity and- convenience of its form, and the cheapness of its
price, liave given rise to a commv^rce so active and universal, that in travelling
fioin Paris to St. Peter,=buig. from Amsterdam to the iurthest pai't of 1
Sv.'cden, or from Dunkirk to the extremity of the south of France, one i
served at every ion upon English ware. Spain, Portugal, and Italy niv
supplied with i;, and vessels arc loaded with it for both the Indies and the
continent of America."

MM. St, Cricq and Leboeuf, in an official rejiort, published in Paris in
1S35, aifirm that for the fabrication of useful ware the English have
enormous adv.ontage over the French — an advantage which in the cost ol
labour amounts to 100 per cent.

M, St Ainans. an extensive French manufacturer, says that the Engli<li
sur}iaS3 all other nations in the fabrication of stoneware remarkable for it
lightness, strength, and elegance, and also in printing blue figures unoni
of every tint, equal to that of the Chinese, by processes of singular faoiiitv
and promptitude.

Porcelain in general may be characterised as distiDgtii"hed from tht
coarser earthenware as a pottery whose paste is fine-grained, compact, verv
hard, and faintly translucid. When submitted to the action of heat i
undergoes a partial vitrifaction. from which it derives its tran=lucencT
It is not correct to say that whiteness constittites a definite character o
porcelain, inasmuch as there are fine porcelain pastes variously coloitrod.

It is very important to attend to and comprehend the distinetioi
between the sorts of porcelain called hard and tender. Hard porcekir
which is, as already explained, the species unlvci'sally fabricated r
Germany and tlie Ea.st. is composed of the clay called kaolin, consisting c
silica and alumina, which is eombini-d with a flux consisting of silica am
lime -with a feldspar, which in China is called " petungse," The glaze o
this porcelain is earthy, imd admits of no metallic or alk.aline ingredient.

Tender porcelain, on the other hand, consists of a vitreous frit, "vvhicl
is rendered opaque and less fusible by being mix^^d with a calcareous r,
marly clay. Its gla^e is an artificial glass, composed of lead, silica, an
soda potash, or other alkali. This porcelain is more vitreous and trails
parent, and more fusible, than the hard porcelain. It may, indeed, bt
fused if exposed merely to the temperature which is necessary to bake
the hard porcelain. Its ^d;!ze also is more glossy and transparent hut
less hard, than that of the hard porcelaiu, since it can be scratched wiilm
steel point.

'i'he English porcelain, with a few exceptions, belongs to the cl i s ol
tender porcelain, and is not thei-efore composed merely of kaolin and
petungse. It is baked at a much lower temperature than the German oi
Oriental porcelain. Being manufactured on a very extensive scale, and
with great economy and certainty, and comparatively -'^mall expenditure
of fuel, it is sold at a moderate price compared with the fine porcflain;
and how little inferior it is in external appearance might have been seen
by comparing the selections txhil<;ted iu the gallery of the northern
transept wita those which were found in the foreign departments.

The English porcelain may be considered as holding a place interme-l
diate between the hard porcelain of China and Germany and fine .stone-
ware. It is distinguished from the first by the jiaste beiug more friable
and by its plumbiferous glaze, and from the second by its transparency »■"•
its stronger glaze.

Some English porcelain is called irou,stone china, and is usually com-
posed of 60 parts of Cornish stone. 40 of kaolin, and 2 of flint glass; or
of 42 of feldspar, the same of kaolin, 10 parts of grouud flints, and 8 ol
flint glass. The glaze for the first composition is made with 20 parts ot
feldspar, 15 of flints. 6 of red lead, and 5 of 80<la, which are fritteJ
together, and 22 parts of flint glass and 15 of white lead are added.
The glaze of the second composition is made of 8 parts of flint glass, 'i6 v
feldspar, 40 of whitelead, and 20 of ground flints. These constituents aii'l
their proportions are, ho .vever, subject to great variation, each manufactory
having receipts and proportions peculiar to it.

, 21ti

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS; AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

2ir

THE MKDI.EVAL COrRT.

218

THE CRYSTAL PALACK AND ITS CONTENTS;

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPJiDLV OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

richly crocketed canopv surmounts the recess, flaiiku'l by two buttresses
and pinnacles ; the back of the re.-ewi is diapered, and the centre, wi-hm a
qviatrefoil, is a b;.8-relief, representrnj; the Doctor, attired as a Bishop,
kopciiug. and offering tho church of whidi he was the founder.

The base of the tomb contains five quatref.-il-. tluriated and studded with
wallflowers, with enamelled shielda of roraily aii.l ecclesiiistical bearings;
and along the upper edge u the following inscription, engraved in bras* : —

Orate pro «niraft illiistri«*lml ReveroildU-ilint nom. Tlioniie WaUli, Ep. CambTSOpj in
dist. ceiitraHs per unnn* 25 Vic. Ap , et hiOiu occIcbIw Citln^dralli ftmdfttorlK. Obit. > ic.
np. ly^ailineii. xvUi. Feb. MliccexLix.

Bv/k AUar.^The centre of the east side is occupied by a stone altar,
intended for the chauoel of a parwb church ; tho front in support-d by four
marble pillars, with sculptui-ed caps. Tlioie stuud some distance lu
advance of the block part of the alUr. which contains threo deeply-mounted
quatrefoils, surrounded by wallHowers. with throe Mubjects iti bas-relief—
the "Agony in the Oardon," "Our Lord bearing the Cross," and the
" Crucifixion:" these groups arc sculptured with great seventy aud truth,
and possess a most duvotional cliaracter. The space between tlie marble
pillars and these sculptures will eventusUy contain roliquaries like small
shrines.

Clfimnty Piece.— On the west sido of the court is a richly-carved fire-
place, worked in C.ten stone ; it is intended f *r thw rnauaion of F. Barchard,
Esq. Tj.e whole of tho omnmeuts aro lier.ildic, and the crockets arc formed
by birds encircled with foliage. Tho centre panel contains tho Barchard
arma, and the initials of tho family fill tho lateral quatrefoils. The recess
for the grate is lined with tiloH, cliarged with tho crest and initials F. B.
alternately. The giato is solidly formed of wrought iron, utandiug on two
dogs of the same matoriul. surmounted by brnis birds, and enriched with
metal badges of beaten work ; a stone fender encloses the liearth, which is
roniposi-d of red aud yellow tiles.

The whole of thn htone-work in this court was executed by Mr. Myers,
of IJulvidere road. Lambeth, London, inventor of tho niachino for cutting
Gothic tracery and mouldings ; specimens of the work executed by it are
deposited in the court, close to tho bishop's tornl).

There is a smaller fireplac- at the north-east angle, also executed in Caen
stono : it is equarehoadod ; the hollows of the mouldinirs are filled with
running foliage; the upper paft is divided by beads into throe panels,
filled with Minton's tiles, chastely and elaborately painted with floral and
geometrical patterns. Tho sides of the fire-jilaco are lined by high tilen of
a rich and original pattern, aud tho hearth is encircled by a stone fender ;
tbo whole fire-place has a rich aud p'e.njing effect, pioducod by the oombina-
tion of carveJ stono and the cnamol painting of the tilo work. There is a
small but appropriate grate, supported on dogs, in the fire-ploce.

y/ip ^c«i(.— In the centro of tho court is a font and cover raised on
octagonal steps, the risers of which are onricliod with tracery. The bowl
is also octagonal, four sides being carved with the following subjects fiuiii
sacred history : — " The Kail of Alan " "St. John Preaching iu the Wilder-
noBH," " Tho Baptism of Our Lord." and the " CVucifixinn." From thf fovir
other sides are projecting images of angoN, whicli act jls corbels to support
the four principal KhaftJi-of the canopy. Hound the pedewtal are images of
the lilvangelists, the "Blessed Virgin," "St, Johu the Baptist," "St. Peter,"
and " St. Paul."

The canopy, which is entirely of oak, and supported by tho angle-shafts,
is raised up to a congideiable height by a sarco^tpinn of pinnacles and
tabernacle- work, and is suiiicieutly lofty to receive the cover of the font,
consisting of aa octagonal top, surniountcd liy open tray j'anels, tho whole
of which rises up into the canopy by the action ol' countorwoight when the
font is used ; and whon lifted to \\js jiropor elevation, forms a ceiling, with
tho Holy Dove j'n tho centre. Thi" principle of uncovering tho font is a
considerable improvement on the old method of opening a compartment
of the high covens, and is at once more elegant and convenient.

Painttd G/ujts. — 'I'ho north side of the court is tilled with painted gla^s.
Over tho entnniee-door is a portion of the south window <<[' the new dining
hall at Alton Towers. The centre light contains ati ilh^-y of the Grand
Talbot, faithfully delineated from hU tomb at Whitcliiucli. Ou either side
are shields with his various quarterings, supported by Tidbots. and inter-
sected with foliage aud branch-work on a quan-y guard, aurri^unded by a
neat border of T's and coronals.

There are two long lights of the Decorated period, with compound
niches and pinnacles, each containing an iraajro; one of St. Tlioma'; the
Apostle, the other St. Thomas tho Miirtyr, in rich costume, on diapered
grounds. These are intended fur the court wuidowu of the chantry chapel
of the late Dr. Gritfiths. in the CullcKiato Church of St. Kdmuuds, near
Ware. Over the lower doorway are placed three lights, r* present! iij^ two
groups, from the life of St. .Andrew, and an otfigy of tho saint, all under
very elabomte canopies. Thin glass is dt-signcd in tho stylo of the fift*;eiith
contury, a^ it is to be fixed iu a paroehiul church of that perio<l. Adjoinuig
the cer^tre pillar are two lights, forming the centre light for the great court
window of the same church : tho subjects represented are the Ti-ansfigu-
ration and Crucifixion nf our Lord. At the ciu.t end are four lights of
grisaille work, e ich containing two quatrefoils, filled with Pubjects from
tlic life of tlie BleKsed Virgin. Thu groups ai-o relieved on ricli blue glass,
diapered, and the eri-aillo is iiitcr^rctcd with nihy an<l yellow hands. &c,
upon floriated centi-cs of varied colours, aud each light is sunuunded by a
varit^d border. These windows are to be placed on the south side of tUe
Lady Chapel of St. Augustine's Church, at Ramsgate. At the opposite end

is another window of two lights, containing niches and Ginu|p;cs, ui'h
im:ige:i of St. Ethelbort of Kt;nt and his Quejn. the blessed Bertha. The
riehnofts of the habits of the two prmcipal figures is wdl relieved by a
white ground ; and this style of glass, treated on the old principles, has all
the advantages of producing a rich effect, without impeding the suflScieney
of light fioiu entering tlie edifice. This window is iilso f-r St. Augustine's,
Ramsgate. aud is presented to that church by J. Herbert, Esq., the
celebmted paiuter and Academician.

There is a very translucent im;ige of the Virgin, in A blue mantle, of a
rich, but subdued colour, precisely similar to that so freqjiently feeu in the
old windows, and wliich is most difficult to attain. A decorated canopy
surmounts the light, and the groundwork is a white diaper. The whole of
the glass has bc-n painted iu the old manner, and with.^iit any attempt at
antiquity, hut left i)reci8ely in the 8a?no state as that of the old glass, when
originally executed. In all the designs a due proportion "f white has been
introduced, without which it is impo.>*hiblo to attain a brilliant effect.

Famiiure. — The centre of the south side is occupied by a carved oak
sideboard, of m.Tssive construction : the back la raised in janel-work to tho
height of several feet, and siipporta an ovcrhaugine canojy, richly carved,
and divided into aiched panels by moulded ribs: these naaels are diapered
ill colour, on gold ground. The centre compartment of tie back i^ hung
with scarlet cloth, and serves as a background to several arge ornamental
dishes, parcel gilt, beat up and raided into heraldic devitea and bearings,
with rica aud varied bordei-fl, containing crests and mottoes, all referring to
the liouse of Talhot. as they are intended for tlie new dining-hall at Alton
Towers, now erecting by tho Earl of Shrewsbury. Ihe constructive
framing of this sideboard ia richly ornamented by carviugof vine and hop
foliage, boldlv executed. The two extreme staucheons ire carried up in
an octagopaf form, and terminated by two clu>!ter8 if foliatod brass
branches, supporting lights. The doors of the side recesseare elaborately
carved, and nttcd with pierced orTiamentnl hinfjes and kck plates, in tho
style of those so skilfully made in the tifteonth century. Phe sideboard is
the production of Mr Crac^, of Wigmorcstreet. The disha were executed
bv Mr. Hardman, of Birmingham.

' Immediately in front of tlic sideboard is a large octagona table, executed
in wiilnut-trec. The frame niul stand is designed on th- strongest con-
structional principles, and its enrichments are only idjuncts to tho
necessary framing. The top ia olib.initely inlaid with wods of varioun
coloura, and fully proves the a[iplicability of medireval deigns and deco-
rations to evory want of tho present age. The general e-'ect has all the
richness of uiarqueterio, with purer forms, and ft moi e pleatng combiofttion
of colours.

The uext most striking piece of furniture is a long bool-cato or cabinet.
ITjo centre doors are filled with open-wrought brass-wrk, of intricat'i
foliated design, and are intended to admit a view of C'istly rbjects pre-erved
ill this compartment ; the two •^Jde-doors are panelled witlrich flamboyant
tracerv. Tho 'paces aro divided by carved and mouldei muntons; nnd
tho whole is surmounted by on elaborate foliated bratishig in oak, inter-
spersed with whiolds, charged with vtirious devices. The icks. fastenings,
and hinges, are of brass, and perfectly can'ed out in character with
piercing and chasing.

Adjoining tho cabinet is ft praying desk, Bumiunded by a triptych,
intended for a bedchamber or private oratory. On eitherside of tho deslc
are curved corbels, sufiporting a psir of gilt candlesticks, fnamented with
fleurs-delis, and the monagram M.R. The panels of thitriptych, when
open, display two miniature paintings of St. Katherine ad St. Margaret,
and the coutro rcc^'ss is richly dispersed in gold and colfirs. This piece

i of furniture has been executed by Mr. Crace, for C. R. Satt Murray, Esq..

' of Uanesf^eld. 1

I Ou this side of the court are several pieces of fumitut such as tables.

! some inlaid nt top, chairs, with pit supporters and Ivet coverings;

' others, more simple in form, of oak, and covered witl leather, but as

I commodious in shape as th«ise of ordinary modern use.

In tho centre iH a choval screen, consisting of a ric y carved frame,
ilecomtod with tho rose, shamrock and thistle, supporte i ' ''

THE MEDI/EVAL COURT.

y the liim and
unicorn at either end. with the Royal armsj.* The wile is filled with
elaborate needlework, executerl by a number of ladies, hose names are
inscribed in scroll-work on tho reverse. j

At either end of this side ai-e a piano, the cases of jhich have been
designed in the same style na the rest of the furuituri A piano is so
modern an invention, that it has liitherto been con^sideroiiilmost hopeless
to combine its construction with old details suitable forthe rooms of an
ancient nninsion ; but the present examples fully shiltbat niediieval
detail and design ia perfectly !tpplicabl« to all the reqiiements and in-
ventions of the day. One of these instruments is exeouU in oak, a'ld in
of simple character; the otiier is most elaborately car^d and gilt, the
fidl painted with flowing borders, and the keys inlaid. The pianos were
made by Messi-P. Burns and Lambert, of Portman street.

Interspersed with this furniture wan a variety of btw candlesticks,
sconces, and branches for lights, either standing or prdcting from the
wail. They are light in design, aud well adai)ted for tbr purposes, y«t
most original in lurm and effect.

In stu^s for hangings theio are a great variety of e1a>rate and raost
effective old pattcrnB. executed by Mr. Crace, some in tiestry, uthers iu
f'ilk and woollen stuffs, which, by their design, peifcily recal those
goi-geous bandekius 6o ofteu meutioued in the pages of tt old historians,

' A combmfttiou, uuoiigst mtiay olhem, lavolviog a glaring unacbrosm. — [Co. C. P.l

ANE of the most remarkable features, and perhaps on the whole one of the
most attractive, as a departmiuL of tho Great Exhitibion, was tho Mj;- \
diajval Court. The contents were of gj-cat variety, including furniture, and
church decorations aft'-r the fashion of the Medifcval period. The fonns j
and colours wore alike singular and strikiuf:, and the general effect pic-
turesque,— perhaps a little stiitjfy — but still harmonious and suggestive. j

In makinjj these remarks, and iu proceeding to enter into a detailed i
account of tliis remarkable apartment, we by uomeans would wish to imply '
that we arc among the votaries of Meditcvid niodola : fiwfromit. AVe consider \
that they have served their time, aud in their time satisfied the general
purposes of feeling aud convenience then existing; tho attempt to revive
them now, however, ia a mistake ; the sentiments which dictated many a
pious but often mistaken act of laborious decorations exiftt no longer.
Truer principle.? of art and rules of taste have begun to influence society ;
and the decorative fancies which in real 5Icdiav.il works become curious
to us as matters of comparative history, are lifeless, tame — not to say absurd
— when copied in a more enlightened age*

We object to all backward movements when once we have arrived at a
safe ground to stand upon ; and -considering that the classic models, which
reached us at the period of the Revival, are to all intents and purposes pre-
ferable to the barbarism aud clumsy contrivances of the middle ages, we
object to abandon them until something better isoffered to us in their steiid.
At any rate, we must strenuously resist retncing our steps from the
Revival to the Mediaeval ; whicli, to spcftU plainly, wo look upon as the
culminating point of barbarism.

Nevertheless, as we said before, the Mediaeval Court, tricked out in gaudy
coloure<l draperies, in coloured glas-s. and glittertntr brass, and cold monu-
mental stone effigies, presented a striking coup fcell, and deserves analy-
tical descri|>tion. The credit of tho general arrangements, we understand,
is due to Mr. Pugiu, well knovsni as a devotee to this style of art aud con-
trivance.

The principal objects, many of which appear in our general view (see
next pa^'c), may be described as follows, — in tho language, aa will be
perceived, of a veritable enthusiast in Meditovaliim ; —

Stove. — On the north side ofthe court i^ a large squai'c stove of remarkablo
character ; it is composed of glazed tiles in relief, of various colours, of
which a considernblo numbar are pi*'rced to permit tho exit of the hot air.
These are fixed iu au iron frame, with angle shafts tornnnating in coronals,
and small vanes of gilt metiil painted with heraldic bearings. The whole i«
enclosed with a wrought-iron grille of ingenious construction, all the on-
richinents being produced by hautl, after th*- manner of the ancient Flemish
smiths, and uot cast. The crockets and finials are ftll l>ent up and twisted
out of thin metal, and tho general effect is most striking and picturesque,
reminding the spectator of the ancient stoves yet remaining in tho castle at
Nuremberg, and converting what is generally aa unsightly object into a
highly decorative adjunct to an entrance hall or gallery.

Oak iViW)?.— Imtnediatoly over tho south-east door is a wooden niche,
containing a finely cai-ved imago of St. John tlio Baptist : the great pecu-
liarity of this niche con8i.?ts in its being designed afier the old principle, to
suit the material in which it has been executed. All the onriehmonts ai-e
sunk out of the thickness of the stuff; there is neither mitering nor lateral
priijpction : the cross pieces are terminated and keyed with wedges, which
eff»-ctually hold the work together without glue : tlic canopy is also carved
nut of three pieces, with sunk enrichments, and crocketed with continuous
foliage.

Great Rood. — In the south-east angle stands the Great Rood, intended for
the loft of St. Edmund's College, near Ware. The whole is richly crocketed
and foliated. At the four extremities are emblems of the Evangelists, sur-
rounded by rich foliage- work, and On the reverse the Four Doctore, At-
tached to the lower portion of tho framing are two pedestals for the images
of the Blessed Virgin and St. John, The intermediate panels are filled
tvith rich perforated tracing ; and when the wholo is arranged in its posi-
tion, metal branches for lights witl bo affixed to the stancheons.

Stme-Cai-vhiff. — Alfar and Reredoa. — East SifU. — This altar is intended
for the Lady Chapel of a couuti-y church. The subject is that of the
Annunciation. The whole reredoa is divided into five compartments. The
two otiter ones cnntain images of the Virgin aud the angel Gabriei ; and in
the centre the pot of lilies, mo.st delicately relieved in the carving, and
interwoven with a label inscribed with angelic salutation. Tho whole is
surmounted by a very rich brattishing of quatrefeils aud crocketed work.

l^ie Niche. — Adjoining the reredoa is a niche, surmounted by a rich and
lofty stone canopy, for the same chapel. This niche contains an image of
the Virgin holding our Lord iu her lu-ms. The dignity of tho Divinity is
expressed in the couuteuauce of the infant, aud in his hand he bears the
orb and cross. The Vii-gin is attired in a long tunic, and a mantle, with an
enriched border, gathered gracefully into long folds : a silver parcel gilt
crown, enriched with stones, is placed on the head. The image rests on a
high pedestal, with highly relieved foliage, and thfl angle pinnacles of the
cannpv rest on two angle corbels issuing from the sides.

Ta'iernack. — Immediately opposite the high altar is a stono tabernacle
iutended for the reservation of the holy sacrament. It is quadrangular

at bottom, with four crocketed gablets, three of which are fillp,i ^
tracery, and the fourth is the door, which will, when coinplet!,/5 ^
of perforated brass. Fi-om the four angles rise buttresses -n A ■ "
terminated by angels with musical instruments. From tliU ' '""
c.^fiopy becomes octagonal, and is connected to the square ha.e bv^c^'"^
dying buttres.se«. It is raised some feet, to leave space for the nio '

MEDLfiVAL OAKPrC.

at Esposiliou, and terminates by a cluster of pinnacles, and i
with angels, of nio^t elaborate design and exquisite workmanship,
entire height is upwards of '20 feet.

Stom-Carvinij. - West Side.— Tomb of the late Rev. Dr. Wahk— This niooi
ment, intended to be erected iu St. Chad's Cathedi-vd, Birniinghm i
memory of the late Dr. Walsh, is designed in tho Third Printed or Deconit«
style, and ese.uted in a very perfect manner. The effigy i'^ recuinben
the head supported by two angels; it is attired in full episcopal vestmen^
of the ancient graceful form, and the paitoral staff is borne in the n,
hand. The minutest details of the embroidery are most carefully car^
iu the atone, and the whole is a fac si milt: of tne actual vestments use .
the deceiised prelate. The effigy has a striking resemblance to tn ^
venerable and dignified effigies still remaining in our ancient churelifs-

AN TLT/HSTIIATJil) GYCJLOP.'EUIA OF TlIK (iKEAT EXIIIHITIOX OF im].

219

lopicted in tlio works of tlio iiiicioiit paiiiU'ra. Tlioro are alao Hovoriil
etH of tlio 811II10 olMinictei', I'liU of ricli colour iinil tlesii;ii, hikI williout
attumpt at f.ilKii nA'uil' ami tliailow. Ovur tlio Htoiio lireplauf.' a huve
it 18 8ii«|«.'iiclcil, all tho ilotailrt of wliioli. witlioul a slm,lo arcliiteotiiral
ire. or aiiytliliii,' tliat would be commonly ilenomiiiatoil Uotliio, by tite
igeaiuutH of its foliati'il I'liricliiiioiit;! aii'l the combination of colours,
)e«e8 a most (liHtiiiut and inodlaival ciiar.ii;ter.

iwch Oniamctits, Mvtal-n'ork, A'c— Avery laryo portion of tlie coulentM
le Modiicval (Joiu'tconui under tliis head, liiiiiiediaudy in front of t'le
I sidtiboard liaii^^K a cimiidolier of utrikin^ ap])eanui(;o and considorable
naioiiH. It is construct.oil on the outa4i:onid priiioiple. and Im oompoHed
number of sliaftn teriiiinatinf,' in i<iniiacleH papsiiij; thi'ou;<li fianies of
«d-work, fixed to a contr.d shaft of tuitw] biass. Fmm each
icla springs a suceossion of lij^lit foliage in tho form of branchea. the

I 8 of which terminate in coronals and sockets Bupportiiip; the candloH.
],ds chai'ged with the Talbot lion are interspersed among the branches,

by the colour heighten the general rieliuess of effect. The first idea
lis chandelier is taken from the celwbrated one at Nuremberg ; but it
rger in dimension'^, and iiiucli lighter and stronger in construction,
to be suspended in the I'l'ntre of the new diiiinghall at .\lton Towers,
uiiediately opposite is a large brass cornice of an early stylo, intcmled
church of Byzantine character. It is composed of segments of circles
in by rich intersecting open-work, and supporting a deep rim and
ishing. To these are attached the standards which carry the tapers,
U'O composed of chased stems, with crystal nobs and small coronals,
weight of tho lower crown is partly carried by chains of a very orna-
ftl character fjstciicd to an upper crown ; and the efl'ect of the whole
tremely rich and striking.

luud the high altar on the cast side, a set of six brass pillars, about
et in height are erected. These pillars are highly omanieutod in
shafts, with moulded caps and ba^es, ami sustain six angels, also in
, with outspread wings, bearing standards with tapers : between

■ pillar is a brass rod with opon-work bratishiiig. and rings from
1 silk curtains wovt* with sacred omblenis aro suspiuided. 'i'his kind
closure was formerly to be found in the majority of the foreign
drals, and occasionally in our own : but bad taste and revolutionary
ice have completely stripped the ancient churches of these beautiful
geineuts, and they Iiave been revived for the t^rst time for the chancel

Tliomass church at Erdingtun. for which the whole of this work
ijeen designed and executed,
front of the high altar hangs a carved beam, similar to those de-
id OS having been suspended in Canterbury Cathedral and other
ihea. It is intended for chapels dedicated to the reservation of the
sacrament. At the centre and extremities are quatrefoils filled with
;e, and to these the iron-work, by which tiie whole is suspended, is
hed. Along the upper edge is an open cresting of brass-work, sup-
: ng bowls and prickets for tapers. To the lower side of the beam arn
i inded seven silver lamps of the ancient form, several of which are
ihedwith ennmela. The wick burns in a ruby glass dropped into a

■ collar hung from the small chains attached to the larger ones,

II sustain the chased basons luuiging beneath to receive any drippings
Tlie.se are designed on the real principles of church lamps, and

idingtothe most ancient customs, and they are perfectly consistent
'm, and convenient for their purposes ; while modern church lamps

isually made like huge bowls full of emptiness, with a glass stuck in
)p of them. The beam and its appurtenances are a most satisfactory

;il of one of the most beautiful ornaments that formerly decorated

: .ncient churches.

land the high altar are placed several high standing candlesticks, ter-
ing in branches and coronals fir lights, intended for the elevation or

ijliction. There are also six silver candlesticks on the altar, of twisted
hased-work rising from octiigonal bases, ornamented with crystals and
Tiie flowing of this design is particularly well adapted to the metal,
sy produce an infinite variety of bright and reflected lights.
s candles themselves are remarkable amongst the revivals of the pre-

iiRe. We give a sketch of some of them, togetiier with some notes of

(itesof the Romish Church, to which they have reference. The large
e. which is called a '■ Paschal Candle." is intended as symbolical of
flory of Christ's resurrection. It is lighted during the offices of the
ch from Easter to the Ascension. It is elaborately painte'l round the
with various inscriptions and devices. The triple candle, which is

I osed of three equal parts twisted together, is used on Holy Saturday

■le "Lumen Christi," in the proces.siou from the church porch. The

1 id torch is a revival of those borne on various occasions in the middle

5 especially at funeral processions and entertainments. 'I'he custom of
ling candles for sacred purposes, by painting and gilding, is very

Jpt; and the same principle was formerly carried out with regard to
' iS for domestic use in great feasts, these' being painted with heraldic
On the eastern .side of the court are two glass cases filled with silver
MJd jewellery : that on t' e north side is devoted to ecclesiastical
.ents. and the opp.jsite one is filled with secular plate, jewels, &c. In
Tmer there are several richly enamelled chalices of the ancient form,
ihased perforated knops of intricate design and hexagonal feet most
chased and decoratoil with enamel and precious stones. There are
ojaoastrances of elegant design, but of very riifiereiit character. Ttje

6 M a circlet of ricli tracery, like a crown sujiported by a high stem, and
1' ludcd with enamelled quatrefoils representing cherubim in adoration.

Is:

Tho nocoud is llko an npnn Bpire or canopy of octigonal form ipringing
from four piniiacleil shafts, 8upporting iina.'ea of aiigeU with ►croUs The
execution of this, even to the miimto-it det.iils of Lh- crockets and pinnacles,
will Ifi-ar comparison witli some fif tlio b/»st worka of the old BilverHTiiithfl,
and may bo conMl'lnrol a groit advaneo in the revival of tliin ort. On ono
side of the Hamu c>iHe it a fi'i"toral ntaff fur n binhop, eniimoll'*'!, crocketed,
and containing aeveral images in tho 'Took under uanopiud-work. Thin
case also coiitaiiis some richly eiiamelloil pyxeH. caudlcstickH, ctomtsn, bind-
ings of missals, and a variety of church oriianientK moHt elaborato in detail.

Tlic o|ip(Hite case, ilcvoted to secular plate, c>int:iin.4 a variety of «p<-ci-
mens of candlesticks, salt-cellars, demert services, flagonfl. Ac, of Hiiiiple
form, but desi;,;iied in tho metallic feeling which m ly be discame'i in the
jiroductions of tho ancient silversmiths. The effect is produced by beating-
up and engraving. There are no cast omainentfl of heavy foliage, but the
nature of the material is well-considered in the designs, and has a great
effect in production at a comparatively small cost.

There are several trays of jewels, the setting of which is according to tho
old Venetian manner, the atones being almost dctachc*!. and held by
points, by which a transp.arent effect is obtained. The specimens consist
of cro.sses, bracelets, necklaces, brooches, rings, and a girdle. The casket
made to contain them is oxeecdingly elaborate, and of elegant design, with
enamelled lock and heraldic devices.

On the opposite side of the court are two other eases containing church
vestments, made after tlie ancient firm, which h;is been recently revived,
and presenting a ])leasing contrast to the modern stiff and buckram cha-
siible of France. The laces which form tho orphreys are adapted from ancient
examples, and a. great variety of these are exhibited on the sides of t'lO
cases. Tlicre is also an albe with the ancient apparel as seen in the habits
of ecclesiastics on tombs and sepulchral brasses, and two cope.s, one of
which is of wdiite cloth of gold. There are also a variety of stoles, mani-
ples, and chalice-veils, in the same case.

Adjoining arc throe lecterns. Tho first is designed with two branches,
separating from a solid stem (the base), and supporting two kneeling
angels. WHO carry a perforated tracery panel to receive the book. The
second is a large eagle, with outspieafl wings, resting on an orb supported
by an hexagonal pedestal of open tracery-work, from whence spring three
flying buttresses, resting on pinnacled shafts, surmounted by half images
of angels bearing scrolls. Tlio base is very mas.sivo, and rests on three
lions couchant. Two large foliated branches are attached to the sbafi-s.
and carry tapers, to .iffor*! light to the lector; these branches are moveable,
and may be adjusted at pleasure. Tiiis noble lectern was presented to
St. George's Churcli, Soutliwark, by tho Rev. D. Haigh, of Erdiiigton.

The third lectern has been designed from an ancient example at the
Cathedral at Courtrais The desk is perforated with a device of the holy
name spread out into flamboyant tracery ; the shaft is terminated by an
image of St. Joiiu the Evangelist.

Opposite these, and in front of the niche, is placed an iron candlestick,
of wrought-work, which turns on a centre, and is intended to receive
offerings of tapers for the Lady Chapel of St. Augustin's Church. This is
a most elaborate piece of iron-work, worthy of the ancient smith.s, and is a
striking proof that our operations, when under proper directions, are quite
capable of representing tlie most beautiful Works of mediaeval skill. Near
this is a a credence-table of wrought brass, with a marble inlaid top, and
many other objects connected with church decoration, all irom the work-
shops of Mr. J. Hardman, of Birmingham.

IHsTBUCTioN FOB THE BLIND.— Among the many interesting object';
which attracted the notice of the visitor to the Great Exhibition, not the least
was the display of raised and embossed works deposited in the building by
the Society for Teaching the Blind to Read, togetiier with specimens of the
different kinds of apparatus used in the school, and of articles of work made
by the pupils. Although these articles do not compete in outward appeai--
auce with many of the more beautiful and showy objects with which they
were surroumied, still, for their practical utility, and the illustration they
afi'ord of the successful adjiptatiou of educational means to the wants of a
peculiarly interesting class, tliey must not be lightly passed over by the
philanthropist. A blind pupil was in attendance almost every afternoon,
aud gave a practical proof of the value of the system adopted, by reading
any portions of Scripture, or pointing out any place or country upon the
map. which he might be required to do. The articles exhibited included
a number of embossed books upon Lucas's system of short-hand, cyphering
boards, and raised maps ; apparatus for enabling the blind to write in
Lucas's characters, so that their writing can be read by each other; and
specimens of embossed music — Lucas's charactei's being adapted to musical
notation, the advantage of which is that no new type is required for the
object. The music can also be written by m^aiis of the writing apparatus
already mentioned. There were likewise a chess-board and geometrical
boards adapted for the use of the blind, and specimens of basket work and
knitting — the work of the pupils at the institution. We are happy to hear
that this admirable institution has beeu the means of affording instruction
during the p.ast year to S3 fem:de and 29 male pupils, 14 of whom are
adults. As an instance of the practicability of the plan adopted for tlie
notation of music, and of the facility with which it may be acquired by the -
blind, we were informed of a case in which, when iiaisic embossed on thij
plan was placed for the first time in the hands of the pupils, several ot the
girls detected aud pointed out a false note in the printing, which had
previously escaped notice.

220

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITIONS.

vn. — The ExHiBiTioKS of Ikeland.
TJRITISH manufacturers were almost the last in Europe to recognise the
utility of industrial exhibitions. Even Spain had organised a national
exhibition of industry, before even the societies established in Ireland and
London for the encouragement of arts and manufactures could gather
together a decent collection of the products of native looms, potteries, and
foundries. To the Royal Dublin Society, established so far back as 1732>
is indisputably due the honour of having
first gathered together specimens worthily
representing, under one roof, the excel-
lences of Irish industry. Before the Lon-
don Society of Arts could make a decent
show from the vast hives of Lancashire,
C irnwall, and
Yorkshire, a
collection of
manufactures
was brought
t'-»ffether in
Dublin of the
most interest-
ing and useful
cUaracter.
From that pe-
I'iod up to
tUe present,
similar exhi-
bitions have
been held tri-
ennially, and
always ^-ith
increased suc-
cess. In the
fice of those
disastrous
events which
would have
paralysed a
less hopeful
people, the
Irish have
steadily sup-
ported their
triennial exhi-
bitions. The
vigour with
which the
Eoyal Dublin
Society has
pui'sued the
enlightened
object for
which it was
founded is im-
equalled, save
by that of
our London
Society of
Arts. These
two societies
have now, for
more than a
century, in
con j u nc t i 0 n

witu tiie Scotch Board of Tnistces for the Encouragement of JVIanufaetureSj
been actively engaged stimulating manxifacturei'S to high achievements, and
endeavouring to gather from abroad, for the benefit of the gi'cat native
community, those results of experience which are accumulating for the
future benefit of mankind in every country where industry is systematised.
With their various successes the country is familiarly acquainted. The
industrial exhibitions of Ireland, however, deserve particular attention at
the present time, as they date further back than any held either in England
or Scotland. Up to ISjO, the contributors to the periodical exhibitions of
the Royal Dublin Society were exclusively Irish; but in this year the
authorities extended their plan, and called upon foreigners to compete
with their counti-ymen. This exhibition was the finest and most promising
of the series. The committee, or jui-y, refer in their rei^ort with particular
satisfaction to the vast extent and splendour of this exhibition ; and they
claim for their society the distinction of having bee;i the first to "open theu'
honours and piizes for competition to the manufacturers of all countries,
and to invite them to meet in honotu'able rivali-y" within the walls of their
institution.

The hopeful tone of this document suits well with the present aspect of
commercial affairs. The committee tendered their acknowledgments to the
English exhibitor.'! of machinery, who, " regardless of cost and personal

TDE STOWELL AND ELDOK OI'.UUl'. — BY THE LATE M. L. V.ATSON.-

inconvenience, and undeterred by distance, .succeeded in maintaiui
action so many beautiful examples of manufacturing engine.', by whic
importance of the exhibition was so much enhanced." They also conj
lated the committee of manufactures in having thus not only show
great advantage of employing steam-power as the jirime mover of
machinery, but in having demonstrated to the working-classes the in
ance of employing "this most important agent" as a substitute for
apparently more simple motive powers ; and they trusted that the e:
ment made by the committee of impelling a number of different mac
through the medium of a shaft and pulleys, by one small steam-ei
might suggest to some spirited individuals the practical importance of h
houses est.iblished in different parts of Dublin, in each room of which s
power of small amount might be hired to artisans requiring it, to enable
by its means to economise much time and labour.

The catalogue of this exhibition, a stout octavo, is(
prehensive list of Irish and English manufactures, nu
ingtwo thousand eight hundred and fifty distinct ar
The catalogue includes silks, damasks, muslins, linen
pets, woollen drapery, hosiery, hats, leather, oil-
cabinetwork, cai-ving and turning, lamps, glass, por
and pottery, clock ami watchwork, niiichinery, ]

hansings
printing,
absence I
r,iw mat
was the '
od defo
the coUe
ofthedai
we give
eimen, -
Portlauc
Pattern,
was exh
by Mr.
ning. of
iugstowi
some veJ
specimei
printed
brics for
dresses,;
ward for <
the a
awarded
medal t I
inanufaci
Irish p 1
and Iri
ncns wi
markabl
fur wor
ship an
sign. In'
the wovi
textile f
exhibitei
so gen I
good. thi(
jury fou!
difficult
ter to li
between
petitors.
der the h
silks, tab
velvets,
some ac
ble specimens were exhibited bj' the principal firms of Dublin ; and
gold medals were distributed among them. The manufacturers of I
exhibited damasks and cambrics which will enable them successfully to
pete with the mauufacturers of France, Germany, and the Xetherl
" even in the home markets of these latter."

The articles offered for competition were divided into fmr sections,
first comprehended all r.iw materials and produce. Under this head no
beyond a few samples of prepared peat, peat cliarcoal, iodine, flax yari
leather, was contributed : this department was, as has already been obse
the weakest of the exiiibition.

Tiic second section comprised manufiictured articles. This section wi
doubtedly the most important and interesting of tlie four; and the jury
redwitji pride to the numberof articles of Irish production, excellent in di
and manufacture, which it included. Under this section we find the nan
many emtueuj English firms ; among others, Messrs. Elkington and Masi
Newhall-street, Birmingham, gained a gold medal, "for tlie design and e
tion of electro- 1 'lated articles," while in the department of "porcelain, c *
glass, delf, &c.," the winners of certificates were nearly without an exce
Manchester and London firms. Furniture, matting, -iaddlery, perukes, ci
soap, candles, ricks, blacking, umbrellas, lozenges, confectionary, and pei
cry, were represented chiefly by Dublin firms, under the head " Miscellant

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPihJDIA OF TIIK GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

221

, — ■ ■ -

0 third HCutionwiiH devoted to"iiincluiii'ry,Uii-'c,-liani('iil iiintiivnnuf«, and
ptls." Depai-tinont A of thin Hcctuin comprchcndud Kcpiirato piutH of
inos. Although littlo was exhibited in this sub nectioii which coidd bo
(ly considered now, still it included several improvemcuts iu machinery
1 deserve notice. In tlio list of these inii)rovenients, a new railway
n\ bufler, invented by Mr. WiH'rcd Hau^'litnn, of tlie Dublin and
jtowu Itailway, merited pin-ticul.u- attention. This machine, according
jury, is intended to be used at r;iilway termini and sidings, as u
Jiard in tlio event of a train being l>rought in at too high a velocity,
simply a slodgo, in

;,,W'Ji!-.

brm of two inclined
'osting ujiou the
and of the saiue gauge,
inclined jiltmes,

united together by
rods, form one ma-
upon which the loco-
e engine, in the event
train overrunning its
ice, will ascentl, and
rout wheel or other
inicut part of the
0 coming in contact
a stop placed at the
of the sledge, this

is carried forward
with the engine, tho*

weight of which is
made effective in pro-
g friction between the

and tho rails, and
troying the motion of
ain. The chief ad-
;e which the friction

possesses over tlie

buHer in ordinary
that there is no

of recoil, and that
itft is inconsiderable.
vy tested the efficacy

Haughtou's iuven-
iind were so satisfied
,t, that they awai'ded
gold medal, value 51.
new furnace-bar was
J the inventions no-
ijy the jury. This bar,
ved by Jlr. Richard
son, of Belfast,applies
rinciplo of tho hot
.0 ordin.ary furnaces ;
e jury dcclai'od that
ciency iji promoting
istion was very re-
■bly shown at the
ition. Owing to a
Jiey of chimney dr^ift,

found impossible,

the first few days of

ixhibition, to raise
int steam to drive

dressing and other
uery in the tempo-
ihed : but, after Mr.

on had substituted

of his bars, this

w.as altogether re-
, and the supply of
increased at a rate too rapid rather than too slow. From the lightness

material used in these bars, it might be supposed they would be
ipeedily bui'nt out, but the constant current of the air through the
events this result. Tliis w'as clearly shown by observing the action
fire on the bar when the damper was closed or open. In the former
the whole bar became red-hot, but immediately on opening the
ir, and thus permitting the passage of the current of air, the bar was
ed immediately to cool down, and to continue cool.
ihe second subsection, that devoted to "machines for raising and
; bodies, steam-engines, cai'riages, sliips, boats, &c.," Messrs. Qrendon,
igheda (the first manufacturers who constructed locomotive engines
land, for sale) exhibited a light passenger locomotive steam-engine.
'linders of this engine had a diameter of uuie inches, with a twelvo-
troke, and the steam valves were wrought with the new patent
e expansive link motion. The diameter of the driving wheels was

that of the trailing wheels, 2 feet 10 inches ; and the engine was

itructed as to carry sufficient coke and water for a journey of tweuty-

les, at a speed of forty mUes per hour. The advantages which "it

ad over the engines in general use, as stated by the Messrs. Grendon,

THE AXCIENT BRITON LOOKING OUT AS A SCOUT. — AD.VllS. — (SEE PAGE 22-1.)

were, its not consuming more than one-third of tho ordinary quantity of
coko, and from its lightness cnuaing much lesB injury to th"^ pcrm.incnt
way. For thin, and other specimens of machinery, tho jury awarded to the
firm a gold medal, value 5/. -,

In the ilepartment of pleasure carriages tbero were many exhibitom, and
especially buihlers of all kinds of im])rovod jauntingcarD. Sub-Bcction i
included "models and drawings, exhibiting the appllvution of meclianic.il
contrivances, &c." Amongst these were a model of a stationary engine,
executed by Master Alfred Oldham, Itathgar, iJublin, aged fourteen ; and
a model of a patent brjck and tilekiln, in-
vented by Mr. jolm Uidgway, StafTordshirc,
and recomniendcd as an admirable auxiliar}'
to Irish drainage. From the list of pliilo-
Bophical instruments exhibited, the jury
selected for notice a machine constructed
by Mr. Thomas Grubb, for giinding and
polishing speculums. "This macliinc was
designed for tlio purpo.«e of uniting in one
the movements (or rather the resultants)
as well of Lord Kossa's as of Mr. Grubb's
machines, and also of a machine lately de-
signed by Mr. La-sscll, of Liverpool. On
inspection, it appeared to unite the powers
of all, combined with the advantages of sim-
plicity and great compactness ; the speci-
men maclduo exhibited, which measured
about three feet each way, being adequate
to grind and polish a speculum of two feet
diameter. If it be desired to obtain the
'Kosseian' movement in this machine, it
may be done by turning the endless screw,
and the shaft moving the vibrating ai-m. The
latter is analogous to Lord Eosse's 'first
excentric,' while the former produces both
the slow revolution of the speculum and
the effect of Lord Rosses second excentric;
while the fom-th movement required, viz.,
the slow revoivmg of the
polisher, can, in the pre-
sent machine, be readily
governed (if found desira-
ble) by giving a correspond-
ing motion to the spindle
of the vibrating arm. To
obtain Mr. Lassell's move-
ments (which are a series
of cycles or epicycles con-
centric mth the surface of
the speculum), the vibrat-
ing ai'm is fixed at an excen-
tricity equal to the radius
of the required circle of
epicycloids, while the crank-
pin of its revolving spindle
is set to the i-adius of the
epicycles themselves : this
spindle and the speculum
being thus kept simulta-
neously in motion, will
produce the desired com-
bination of movements.
The peculiar advantages of
this machine may be stated
asfoUows ; — First, iugiving,
with the simplicity <.'f Loi-d
Rosse's machine and greatt r
simplicity than Lasseli's,
the movements of both ;
and not only this, but also the passing without loss of time from one method
of working to another at pleasure. This is the more important, if. as we
conceive. Lord Rosse's movements are best suited for grinding, and perhaps
the early part of the polishing, while Mr. Lassell's appears good for the
latter stages of polishing, particularly of mirrors of large angular aperture,
and where the centre is removed, as in tlie Gregorian or Cassegnuu
mii'rors. Second, by an evident combination of the several movements of
which the machine is capable, those actions w hich produce the parabolic
curve can be made to act continually in excess over the same portion of the
circumference of the mirrors, from which there can be obtained at least an
approximation to that peculiar elliptical figure which is stiU a desideratum
for making a good front-view telescoijc.'

It will be seen, from the variety ot articles severally representing distinct
departments of human industry, that the Dublin exhibition could fairly
lay claim to the title of national. All the eminent manufacturers of the
island figured in it, and not a few of those English finns whose fame is
European were glad to place their products in juxta-position with those of
their Irish ueighbom-s. On all hands, the management of these triennial
bazaai-s received hearty co-operation from maaufacturere.

ffliiil!ffll^il!lW'iW'ffi'1"!^SIil'!!'ffl^^^^^^

222

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

MINING AND METALLURGY.

THE NATIVE METALS AND METALIFEROUS ORES.
TV.TANY remarkable and highly intereatiug specimens of native metals and
metalifei'ous ores were exhibited in various parts of the Crystal
Palace, which may be referred to with advantage, as giving valuable infor-
mation to those desii'ous of acquiring it on a very important subject. We
propose to detail a few of these, with such information as may render them
more useful.

One of the fii-st of such specimens worthy of notice was the noble
pebble of pure Gold, from California, exhibited in the South-west Gallery.
near the gems of Messrs. Hunt and Roskell, and amongst various articles
of jeivellery and plate. Tlds block, weighing above IS lb. and worth
nearly £800, excited surprise at first by its apparent smallness ; but it
must be remembered tiiat gold is one of the heaviest substances known,
weighing nearly twice as much as a piece of silver of the same dimensions,
iind more than six times as much as a common pebble exactly identical
in form. Gold, till within Uie last few years, was obtained almost entirely
from Siberia and Bi'azil, although Africa, the E.ist Indian islamls, and even
some parts of Europe, yielded certain supplies. No metal is, in fact, more
widely diffused throujli the earth than this, which is so highly prized and
often thought so scarce ; but the quantity of a material is not necessarily
coincident with its wide diffusion; and while there are, perhaps, very few
known districts throughout the earth in which gold might not be found
by seeking, yet. in most oases, the search would be so costly, that the
material, when obtained, would not at all repay the trouble of getting-
Still, large quantities have been introduced into Europe annually for a
lon-^ time past, and it is a great proof of the wide use of the metal, that
its price Jias" not yet been affected by all the additions that have been
made. The average annual supply for some years before the discovery of
the Californi.an mines and washings, w.as about 80,000 lb. avoirdupois, the
value being about five millions sterling. This is now, perhaps, doubled ;
but hitherto the demand has fully kept pace with the supply. Besides
the large block already noticed, which was discovered and brought home
by an Irishman, who was on tlie point of leaving the country in a state of
hopeless destitution, when he was lucky enough to turn out this single
but valuable pebble, there were several other samples of Californian gold,
chiefly exhibited amongst the goods of the United States. They are all
nearly pure and have hitherto been obtained, with very rare exceptions,
from amongst the sand and gravel washed down by torrents from tlie
adjacent mountain country, and accumulated in depressions or natural
receptacles, whore the progress of the water has been somewhat checked,
and the weight of the gold caused it to sink down sooner than the
.accompanying stones. The largest specimens of gold yet found are from
Siberia, whence several lumps exceeding 151b. weight have been ob
tained: and one lump in 18-13. weiglnng no less than 781b. avoirdupois,
and therefore worth about £.iOOO. In all gold districts, however, such
discoveries are rare, the general condition of the produce being rather that
of small grains, sparingly distributed through sand and rock, and requiring
considerable labour to extract and separate, [t is estimated that the
sands of a river will just pay for j/old-washing, if they contain at the rate
of 2i grains per owt. of sand. The uses of gold are too well knoAU to
require much account. An interesting series of manufactured and beaten
gold wa.s exhibited in Chiss I., near the Sculpture Court; and also a .series
of metallic buttons, snowing the different colour and appearance of gold
and other metals when pure and alloyed for various purposes.

Amongst its uses, the peculiar quality of gold to bear almo-t any
amount of hamui ;ring. and yet retam a perfect cohesion in almost any
conceivable st ite of thinness, is perhaps, the most remarkable and impor-
tant. 0 ving to this, gold leaf can be produced so thin as to be intrnduced
for the cheipest an{l commonest purposes, and the great beauty and inde-
structibility of the metal are t.ake i advantage of in innumerable cases where
otherwise its co.stlnicss woidd rtn ler it unattainable.

Silver, like gold, is found sometimes native ; but this is not tlie most
common form in which the metal ocoiu's. There were, however, some very
noble .specimens of native .silver in the Exhibition, the mo.st interesting
being a large block from Ciiili, weighing upwards of 1501b. avoirdu]>oi8.
This, though not quite tlie largest, i.s one of the finest lumps of native silver
yet brought to this country, and is valued at about 600/. Some other
extremely beautiful specimens, in a very diilercnt stati-. were exiiibitcd
fi'oin Nor.vay, and were well worthy of examination, from the crystalline
and semi-crystalline condition in which they appeared. '

Silver U nut eo widely distributed as gold ; but is far more abundant.
and its uses more numerous. Mixed with a small quantity of copper, to
give it hardness, it enters so largely into use as a coin and for plate, that
the consumption and w.i.ste from these sources alone must be enormous :
but it is also much used in the arts fur various purpn.^es, in chemistry iind
mo-di'iine, sufl lately for electrotyping. The value of tho silver annually

introduced is estimated at upwards of eight millions sterling; bui;'
relative v.due of silver to that of the necessaries of life does not greatly d

Near the specimens of gold leaf already alluded to in Class I. *
found a very interesting series of rare metals, exhibited by Mr. Pe:l
•Johnson, ond including some manufactured articles (No. 477.) Of b
metals Platinum is the one in most general use, and is of great impor
in various cases where a material is needed which will resist any k-
furnace-heat without being affected by acid vapours and without d<
posing the atmospheric air.

Platinum is found native in Brazil and Siberia, generally in small li
but sometimes in masses of considerable size. Its weight is greater ir
portion even than that of gold, and it is in fact, when hammerec
heaviest substance known. It bears welding like iron, and can tin
manufactured without difficulty, as it is also veiy malleable. St
chemical utensils made of it were exhibited by Mr. Johnson, and ther
a very remarkable platinum dish among the French goods.

In the same case with the platinum were specimens of Palla
Indium, Osmium, and Rhodiuni — metals for the most part extremeb
and but little used in the arts, but some of them at least worthy of n
P.dladium is more common than the rest, and has lately been emploj
electrotyping, for which it seems admirably adapted, as it resists cxp
as well as gold, and is far better fitted for various purposes than silv
platmum. In the manufacture of philosophical and surgical instrui
especially, this metal may be used with advantage; and it has
employed in dental operations. Iridium and rhodium are chiefly us
present in making nibs for pens, a pui'pose for which their harduest
indestructibility are useful qualities.

"Various interesting samples of Mercury and its ores (chiefly cinr
were exhibited, from Austr'.a, Spain, and America. The former came
the mines of Idria. long known and much worked, and yielding at one
large supplies. The specimens fi'om Spain were from the equallj'
known mines of Almaden ; while the American ones were chiefly
California, where considerable acctimnlations of this mineral seem to
though hitherto they have been little worked. Mercury is the sou
the Vermillion colour used in dying, and is a metal of considerable in'
on account of its fluidity at ordinary temperatm-es.

Very tine specimens of native Copper were exhibited, both from oui
country ami elsewhere, together with numerous ores of tliat useful :
Among the former, Mr. Berger sent some very rine pieces obtained fi
mine in the serpentine roc'-: of Cornwall. Other native coppers well w
of notice came from the shores of Lake Superior, wher*^ a mass of gi^
proportion (estimat.d to weigh SO tons) was discovereil some time
but, owing to the want of suflicient means of communication, it is bel
that it still remains, and is of comparatively little value. A large frag
of this was exhibited by Mr. Teimant. Besides these, many of the o
copper v^rere shown, especially the rich and valuable carbonates from i
Australia ; the poorer but still not unimportant sulphnrets from Cor
and other parts of the British islands ; and some less common but iiit
ing ores from Austria, France, Germany. .Spain, and South Am
Russia also sent some contributions of great value in reference tc
metal, esfiecially by providing several magnificent blocks of mal;
(green carbonate of copper), more adapted for ornamental work tha
reducing to metallic copper. A large and beautiful vase of haint
copper .should also be noticed, as illustr.iting both the purity of the .
au'i the excellence of the workmanship.

Lead U never found in the native state, or at least is so rare as to
no value in that respect in the arts. The common ore of lead is a
nation with sulphur calh d 'jalena, of which several very noble specimens
exhibited near the eastern extremity of Class I, by several persons, am
whom we may especially notice Mr. Sopwith and the Alston-Moor
Mr. Pattinson, and various exhibitors from Wales, Scotland, Ireland
the Isle of Man. In most of these cases, the ores in the rough state
the chief objects of interest; but two or three remarkable exce[
occurred, in which the complete history of the manufacture of the met
some part of the process, was more distinctly indicated. Thus. Mr. So]
showed samples of lead ore in every .-,tage of preparation, from the r
undressed material as it was brought up by the miner from the bow.
the eartli, through the modifications it undergoes by crushing, was
roasting, &c., until at length it is re-luced by smelting to metallic lead,
th.at state it is still alloyed with a certain percentage of silver which, i.
case of the poorer ores was till lately left with the lead, as the meal
separation were too costly to be repaid by the sdver extract--d and the h
price obtained for the purer motul. Now, however, by the method invt
and exhibited by Mr. Pattinson, advantage is taken of the tondent
metals to separate while one is undergoing crystallisation by slow coo
and. by meims of long ladles, resembling a perforated sugar-coop
gigantic scale, the lead, while granulating, is removed from the more
part of the molten mass, which is thus left with a gradually incre;
proportion of silver, till at length it is so rich that the lead may, wit
serioiu 4oss, be allowed to become oxidised in an absoi-bent crucible, i
the silver remains as a kind of button, of which one specimen v.-as sh
vveighing about 12,000 oz., and sevci-al others were also exhibite
somewhat smaller proportions, but still sufficiently remai'kable to
special notice. The beauty of this process renders it well wortl
attention, and the whole was fully illustrated by a series of lUagrama
specimens, and a printed account, which was to bo obtained by aiyr
visiting that part of tha Exhibition.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GKEAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

223

Ilno is II metiil of coiiHidcntlilo iiit<'?'<^Ht iit pi-itKMiit, fiml W(\s lulinirftWIy
Itr&tO'l. in various* wiivH. in tiio l'',xliil>itinn. Mont of tlie zinc of coininorce
!t«r) is otitainml fi'oin tlia ciro enlli'fl raliitnino (ciirhoimlo of zinc),
»dingly iibnniliuit in Hnl(,'inm nnd Silnsiii, but also foun<l extensively
le Mfndi[) HiIIh, in Soniorflot.siiifo, in Flintrtiiiro. and Di'rbyshiro. and
niing diKlricti of tin' B>'iti«li islands, and elsevvlici'o in Hnrope.
nnd alno contiiins lai'ge (juuntitiert of blende or black-jack (tlie Fulpburet),
iMpablc of yiidding a very lari,'0 su|i|ily, tbougii at present the
•rial i--< liarilly worlli working. Zinc i» now u«cd extensively in various
tniction«, and for domestic and farm purpo-es; but its applicability
!»8tiiigs on a large scale was also fully proved, by the numerous
Iralile works exliibitod in the Nave and elsewhere.. A block of zinc
pied a (>roniinent place nmong.^it the American goods, and was further
tratfd by a .scricR of slabs and pnncls. painted with a material in which
takes the pl.-ice (tf the lead generally used by n.s (as white lead or
i) as the l)asis of all oil pigments. Owing to the injui-ious cijccts
ag to painters anil others employed in the frequent, handling 'if white
it is most desirable that this luntcrial should be, if possible, replaced
less mischievous substance, and thus tlie subject as,^umes an importance
h would not otherwise belong to it. Zinc was vei-y extensively exhi-
l by tlio Vieille Montague Company of Brussels and Paris, who work
argest and nio,-t important mines of this metal ; and the eliorts made
ing forward tne metal and «pplv it to useful purposes of various kinds
/orthy of very special remark. We need scarcely do more than mention
[r»at value of zinc combined with copper in the manufacture of brass.
M* is a rare metal compared with many others, and is usually found
in tlio form of tiu-stone (an oxide). It is obtained prineipallv from
iwall aucl the islantis of the Indian Archipelag;©; and each of these
ictK si-nt samples of their produce in this rofpect. The specimens froin
own country consisted piU'tly of what are called "'stream ores," or
i [lebbles of tin-stone, worn bv the action of water, and mixed up with
and gravel, and )iartly of portions of tin veins, of which tiiero were
' interesting .^^pecimens, sliowiug the general form, character, and
it in which tho ore exists in the parent rock. In addition to these,
models of m\ich interest, illustrating the mechanical mode of separa-
the heavier or inetaliferous particles from their earthy associates ;
also mo.lels of tlie smolfcin-.} establishments where the tin is inr.st
;ed and then refined, so as to be in a condition lit for use by the
er in metals. Tin is but little employed as a metal directly ; but, as
ses freely with several other metals, forming valuable alloy.s. it is often
in the arts. The alloys with quicksiver for the backs of mirrors, with
'r to form bronze and bell-metal, with antimony in the manufacture
pewter, with antimony, bismuth, and copper for Britannia-metal,
the same metals combined with lead for type rnetal. are examples
. 1,-ej which will at once show the importance of the subject. In
li,'. tne u.se of tin is not less remarkable as t;ie common tin-plate, which
tsts of sheets of iron dipped in tin. and the method of lining copper
Is with tin for culinary purposes, will sufficiently illustrate. The salts
are extensively used in <lying and calico-printinj, and in many other
where tiie colours obtained from them are required.
:kel is a metal not tisi-d by itself, but very important in the mamifac-
)f several alloys, well known under various names as imitations of
(rermaii silvei-. ai'g-'utiiie and other white metals, are thus formed
admixture in certain proportions of several metals, of whicli copper.
1 and zinc are essential ingredients. Nickel is generally found iu
e associated with Oibnh. or white metal, not used except in its earthy
in which it affords a blue pigment of extreme value for its beauty
ermauence and greatly used in all encaustic work of wliatever kind
tlie colour has to be burnt into anv surface and requires therefore
od exposure tt> a very higli temperature. Nickel and cobalt are not
; so extensively in England as in Germany, Norway, and other mining
Ots on the Contin-^nt. from which the greater part of the supply is now
iied. Good speeimens of botli metals and of the oxides of cobalt
of commerce), and the blue glass called smalls used extensively as a
ring material, were exhibited from Saxony (Nos. 9 and 10) anrl some
ouuutries of the Zoltverein, highly illustrative of the nature of the
ial and the uses to which it is applied. Specimens from Cornwall
exhibited in i 'lass I. (British) 511 and 51'2.

niWA., of which a very beautiful specimen wa» exhibited on a table on
ath side of the Nave, near the Austrian departoieut, is a m-tal.
like nickel, is not used alone, but has considerable value in mixing
ithcr metals, the effect being to render the alloy more fusible. It is
chieliy iu Saxony and associated with cobalt, from which it is sepa-
by a peculiar process of distillation. Lead and tin. combined with
th in variou.s proportions, and with the occisional a.lmixture of
.', antimony, a-ul other metals, are used in the arts for various purposes
manufacture of type metal, plumber's solder, jiewter, and fusible
being the principal. The oxides and salts of bismuth, bemg chiefly
trate, are used in dying and calico-printing.

inoiiy, like bismuth and nickel, is not used alone as a metal, although
bundantly distrihuted and easily obtained in the metallic state. Very
specimens of the diUerent conditions of antimony ore (sulphuret)
diflurent localities, and metallic antimony, were exliibited by Mr.
t in Class I. No. 481), and some of thes" showed the crystalliiie form
oh the surface mav he obtained. The ore of antimony in a state of
mderis used in the East to stain the hair, and the salts are used iu
|ne nnd dyinsr. The metal itself is emnloved in various alloys, some

of which we have uljcady lefcrrcd to. Aii:on(r (>ther applicaMons not men
tioned Is that of antimony an^l lead to pr'tduce a iiar.lcr Hufrnt'ince than
lead, used in engraving music. The adniixturcH of antimony with other
metals are usually more brittle than tho nictaln alloyed.

Arsinic in found native, and in very abundantly Hiiitributfld with the orc»
of Beveral other metals; but, though exton«iveIy used in tho art* and in
medicine, it is not itself employed directly in the metallic ctAte. In com-
bination with other metals it \b frequently present in Hinall proportions,
and it is an important ingredient in common shot, the lead running into
round drops much belter witli a proportion of umenic than without it.
Specimens of the oxido of arsenic (white arsenic), as obtained from tin
furnaces, wre exhibited in Class I. by Mr. Garland (488) ; and an thin
form is the one most commonly employed in the arts and in medicino, it
deserves to be noticed. The sulphuret of arsenic, orjiiment, or King's
yellow; and rca(7«r, a line orange red pigment, are a good deal used in
giving colour in various ways.

Vranmm and C'romium. are two metals rarely or never seen in the metallic
state, but not without con-iderable importance in the arts (especially the
latter) as affording valuable pigments. Uranium, and its salts and oxides,
were shown by Mr. P. Johnson, in his case already alluded to (No. 477).
and clirome ores and cjxides were exhibited by one or two British exhibitors,
but chiefly from our North American colonies and India, The case exhi-
bited by the Indian Iron and Steel Company, near the Transept, contained
a very good series, showing the colours obtained from the metal.

Taiif/slen is another metal not used at all in the metallic state, of which
the salts are employed occasionally, chieHy in dying and cjilico printing.
The separation of wolfram (tungstato of iron) from tin, with which it is
often mixed iu Cornwall, is a troublesome and tedious process, and was
illustrated by a series of specimens eXMibited by Mr. Oxiand (No. 485).

Mantiancse is a metal only valuable in combination with oxygen gas (as
an oxidel. and in this state it is gener.iUy and very abundantiv presented in
n.ature. Samples of it were shown in various places in the Exhibition, but
they do not require any special notice. They are employed in bleaching
to a large extent, are used as a coai'se pigment for pottery and also in glazing
pottery, and come into use in the manufacture of glass.

/'OH, the most truly valuable of all our metallic produce, and the source
of all our wealth, formed the sunject of an article in our second number,
page 18.

SHIELD OF THE ARMS OF ALL NATlbNS.
The shield engraved in page 211— copied from an enamel which formed
one of the ornaments of the Fine Art Section— gives the arms of all those
nations which indulge iu the luxury of heraldry. This beautiful work was
designed and executed bj' Mr. Buss, of Great Newport-street. The colours
of the various nations exhibiting their productions in the Crystal Palace
were also arranged along the principal avenues ; it may be interesting,
therefore to give some account of these colours, which we extract from
Mr. Timbs's extra volume of the Year-Book of Facts for 1852,* a volume
which we may recommend as the most complete and carefully digested
compendium- historical and descriptive, of the Great Exhibition, which ha-s
yet come before us in a portable form : — Switzerland : A flag, white with a
red cross. — France : A tricolour fl.ag, blue, white, and red. This is the
celebrated standard which was established during the first terrible French
Revolution, the standard which waved over the victories of fie Republic
and the Empire, and which was displaced during the temporary restoration
of the Royal House of Bom'bon, the old white flag, "la bannifere sans
tache." being then restored. At the Revolution of 1830 the tricolour was
brought back again, and it has ever since continued the national standanl
of Fr.ance. — Belgium : A tricolour, black, yellow, and red, the u.itional
standar 1 adopted by the Belsrians at the formation of their new and happy
monarchy in September, 1830. — Austria: Black and yellow banner —
Zotlverein : Bannir. white and green : another, blue and red. — America: Tho
celebrated star-spangled banner and arms of the Republic of the United
Stiites, which may be blazoned thus : Paly, ar. and gu.. a chief az., seme of
stars, or. Cr(Sf — an eagle. Alolt: — " E pluribus ununi." — Spain: A flag,
per pale, rel, yellow, and red, bearing the arms of Spain upon it : quarterly
1st and 4th gu., a castle triple-towered, or, for Castille. 2nd and 3rd az.,
a lion rampant crowned, gn., for Leon, over all, on an escutcheon of pre-
tence, iiz. three fleurs-de-lis, or, for France. — Ttal;j. Rnme : A wiite flag beaiiug
the Tiara, and Keys crossed in saltier, emblematical of the Papal dominion.
— Italy. Sariliiiia : Banner, green, white, I'ed ; charged in the centre with
the arms, az., a cross, gu. — Greere : A flag bearing the arms of the Greek
monarchy, az., a cross, ar,, over which an escutcheon bendy-fusilly of twenty-
one pieces, ar, and az., for Bavaria. — Turhcy : Az., a crescent and star of
eight points, or. — Denmark: Banner, red, charged with a white cross, —
Russia : Banner, blue, charged with a yellow cross ; fii-st quarter a cross,
blue and yellow, quarterly saltirewise. blue, and red, — Poituya' : Banner,
blue and wliite, charged with tne arms, ar,. five shields, cross-wise, az.; uii
each live plates sultire-wise ; on a bordure, gu., seven castles, or.

® E\trri Volume. The Year-Tiook of Fftcts in the Great Exhibition. 1851 : its origin
ftmi pro:,rress. constructive details of the bniuling, the most remai-liable articles nnd
obj*-cts exhibited, <&c. By Joha Timbs, author of the " Arcana of Science and Art." Post
Svo. D. BooCE.

224

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS.

THE RUINS OF THE LATE " GREAT EXHIBITION."

(FROM THE OBSERVEK, DEC. 20.)

The process of clearing out the vast pile in Hydc-piu-k still goes on— to a
spectator apparently with gi-eat energy and
activity — but. if we may judge of the results
at the end of each week, witli incomprehen-
sible slowness. This arises from the difficulty
of measuring the effect of the continuous
labour of 200 or 300 workmen by a reference
to any ordinary standard. We see hourly
vans and waggons heavily laden, from morn-
ing till dusk, moving off from tlie eastern
end of the building; we see within whole
acres of packing-cases and bales deposited
continuously at the exit gates, which dis-
appear with great rapidity, to be succeeded
by othei's.

Our review of the present state of the
building commences at the western end, all
the doors of which are closed, and all traffic
at an end. The two mirrors placed at the
end of the nave — said to be the largest in the
■world — still remain, reflecting the vast empty
space before them. Over an expanse of some
acres -which was formerly filled with agri-
cultural implements — nothing is now to be
seen but an enormous bell, which was used
to clear out the workmen during the last two
months. The machinery department is the
verv picture of desolation. It is so com-
pletely shut out from the rest of the build-
ing that the soimds of active industry going
on so near at hand do not penetrate it — no
visitor enters it. The ruts and chasms in
the flooring still yawn like so many pitfalls,
the rain penetrates in many places from the
roof, rubbish is strewed about in all direc-
tions, and it is at present the most desolate-
looking portion of the Crystal Palace. Ad-
vancing towards what was facctio\i3ly termed
the Fine Arts Court, we find the walls of
Prince Albert's model cottage still standing ;
but the inhabitants have fled, and have
carried off their household goods, even to
the smallest throe-legged stool. The colonies
have not yet quite disappeared ; for Canada
remains representnl by her own timber in
the shape of a vast number of packing-cases
all re.ady for transport ; and India, with the
usual jealousy which characterizes oriental

rule, has her compartments barricaded, and

is busy packing up the last remnants of the

silks and muslins, and stufl's of gold and

embroidery that dazzled tho eyes of so many

thousands of European visitors. The whole

of the flooring in the western half of the

nave has been made good, and a number of

workmen are busy upon the roof, making it

secure. a.s far as pi-acticable, before the heavy

rains set in. /

Withm the foreign hoarding business is

proceeding with great energy and rapidity ;

the floor is cumbered with piles of full.

empty, and broken-up packing-cases and

fittings ; workmen are hurrying with tlieir

low trucks ladcu with goods to the eastern

end, and returning back by another tr.ack for

a fresh cargo ; Custom-house officers are

bu.sy attaching their official seals and marks ; I

the din of saws and hammers resounds, and

now and then a whole wall of wooden par- ;

tition comfs down with a cra.sh which re-
echoes to the very extremities of the build-
ing. Tho objects remaining in the foreign

nave are now reduced to a small number, j

The mountain of zinc on which her Majesty

13 seated, which we fiud the Custom House

authorities are so much in love with that

they will not vise its pa=s])ort. is the most

prominent in size, if not in beauty. With the [

exception of the furniture court, the whole j

of the French compartments on the south ;

side of the nave are now emptied of their

contents. On the north side matters arc not

so far advanced. The machinery is not yet

cleared a%vay. and there are a number of

bronze, plaster, and iron castings awaiting

their tuni. The Aubusson room is denuded

of its wondrous tapesti-ies, its exquisite porcelain, and its gi-aoeful ma
statues. That of Phryno, which stands at the entrance of the scdoii.
which, somehow, unaccountably received a council medal, has recci
from time a delicate veil of cobweb, and plays off a freak of nature ag;i t
the veiled vestal's " trick of art." I\ [
this .are thrown together, very im
gruously, statues of the Virgin, of Hi
and a satyi', a bust of Napoleon, ani
dead lion, and a number of other
tides, chiefly of raw materials and
mieals, which have not yet been mc
from their places. Advancing further
the foreign States we find I3elgium c
pletely cleared out. and the only t)
remaining is her flag, which still w
beside that of France in friendly rivi
Germany and the States of the Zollvereii
also " under hatches ;" nearly all their
tributions being packed up and r.angei
tiers in front of the compartments n
for removal. The States which lay
further to the east are all emptied of I
contents, although they have not all left
building, as an immense pace round the
door is thickly strewn with hundred
bales and packages of "all nations," and
centre of operation, if we may use
phrase, has now been evidently i-emove-
this end of the building. Among the arti
standing here are two German travei
carriages in full winter costume, so pan
and padded and muffled up that it is difii
to ascertain their identity. The only organ
remaining is Willis's, in the western galli
The contributions are still pouring h
the intended national museum, and, so i
present appearances enable us to judge,
collection will bo extremely interesting
valuable.

Government School op Mines an
Science applied to the Ai^ts. — This i
ble institution has now fairly commeuct
labours. On the 6th of November
Henry De la Beche delivered, in the th
of the institution, the inaugural ad(
in which he set forth the principles
which the system of industrial educatioi
to be carried out, and detailed the advam
to Art and "manufactm'e offered bj
study of applied science. Dr. Lyon Pla
tho professor of chemistry, followed 01
sameday withan introductory lecture, dir
principally to the advocacy of the advan
to be derived from tlie cultivation of al
science in connection with its applicai
Tlie purpose of this lecture was evident
lead the public mind to the considerati
the question of the application of the su
funds of the Exhibition in the direction
enlarged scheme of industrial education. U
the following Monday Professor Ed ^
Forbes, to whom the chair of natural In
is assigned, delivered his introductory li
on the Advantages of the ,Study of Nn in
History. In this lecture he partici 1)1
pointed out the advantages to be derived "t
the cultivation of this science in refcreu tfl
Art and Art-manufacture. On a future ■*!
sion we hope to return to a consider.ati «f
this most interesting subject. On Tuc )',
the 11th Professor Robert Hunt, gav
introductoiy lecture — devoted to tlie ti
pose of showing the value of observati<
connected with the pursuit of physical sc
and the discovery of new facts. These
tures were numerously attended, anc
peared to excite uuich interest. One pie
feature, in connection with this instituti<
the liberal one of having placed a uumt
tickets for admission to all the lectures h\
hands of Mr. Redgrave for distributioil
him amongst the male and female studerj
the School of Design, thus enabling t
free of expense, to cultivate an acquaim'
with applied science, at the same time a£i
pursue their studies in the art of design,
learn that many of tlie students are moB'
sirous of availing themselves of the opp ""j
i nity, and are already attending the lectu

STATOE Ob' TUE MAIJONN.V. — LoUB Jf:HOTTE. Blll'.r-Kr.S.

SCULPTURE.

THE MADONNA.— BY JEHOTTE, OF BRUSSELS.
Thls little marble work is treated in a manner somewhat
peculiar to the Belgian school, combining great study
and laboured effects, but very little of the true inspir.i-
tiun of trenius. In accordance with the doctrine of tlie
Roman Catholic Church, M.ary is treated as tlie principal
object in the group, the infant Christ holding a sub-
sidiary position. The mother, who is represented as
bruising the head of the serpent, being contrary to the
orthodox and obvious meaning of the words of the
prophecy : — " Her seed shall bruise thy head." ,
ANCIENT BRITON.— BY ADAMS.
This figure of an Ancient Briton looking out as a scout,
done in plaster by Mr. Adams, evinces considerable spirit,
and some originality of conception.

THE ELDON GROUP.— BY WATSON.
This portrait group of the late Lords Eldon and Stowell
is remarkable for tho accuracy of the likenesses, and the
calm dignity of the attitudes, though the effect is heavy.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

FOREIGN AND COLONIAL DEPARTMENTS

TUSCANY.
\ LTHOUGH Tuscany hivs long since ceased to enjoy the industrial
Huporiority wliicli she held during the Middle Ages, when she reckoned
among her tributaries some of what are now tlie most powerful nations in
Kiu-ope, — she still looks forward to brighter prospects ; and believes that
tlic sumo sort of pre-eminence which she once derived from her skill in the
iiKiiiufacture of woollen and silk fabrics, may again, iu some degree, bo
ii'alised from the valuable productions of her mines and her soils. It is
uiLjuestionable, indeed, that Tuscany, owing to her numerous mines, which
are daily being discovered, is the Saxony of Italy; while, for flourishing
ak'i'icidture, she may be properly compared to Belgium. The grounds for
tills assertiiin were to be found upon the tables of this collection, on which
>■. I ro laid out the numerous specimens of minerals, extracted from mines
lliat are now in full work, and from others which, though not w'orked. are
vi t well known to contain rich ores. The samples of hard stones, marbles,
nietallic ores— all so remai'kable for theii- abundance and the great quantity
of woods of all descriptions, suited for cabinet-making, and adapted for
naval constructions, supplies satisfactory evidence of her natural wealth.
The collection of ngricultural produce was not so complete as might have

IlArJAB AND ISHMiEL. — VILLA, OF rLORKNCK.

N'o. 13, Ja-.k-uart 10, 1S52.

i.j'jti-s'ifs'ra'tipww'ii

B/ CCHrs. — NEUKIXI, OF FLORENCE.

been expected; but, boi-acic
acid, of which we were
shown superior specimens,
is a produce very much
sought for, and of Tuscan
origin. Discovered in 1777
it was substituted for the
borax of India and Thibet
which had for a long timo
supplied the trade. It is
now extracted onanexten.sivo
scale under the intelligent
superintendance of Count da
Larderell, in the volcanic
localities of Jlouterotondo
and Montecerboli, in the
province of Volterr.i ; and
nearly all the manufactories
in Europe use it. The quali-
ties of the iron from the rich
mine of Elba, many samples of
which were sent to the
general Exhibition ai-e well
known. Interesting speci-
mens of iron from that is-
land were to be found in the
Tuscan division, as well as
Ppice One Penny.

226

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

some of the splendid marbles, granite, eipollino, copper, &c., from the
same place. The Tuscan timber is well known to many of the English
ship-builders, who are in the habit of using Tuscan in preference to British
oak in some departments of slip-building.

Of the specimens of madder-root from the Maremme, the fine samples
exhibited were quite equal to the best used in England, and which is
imported in large quantities from the Continent. The evidence supplied
by the Tuscan manufactories, as to its quality, is satisfactory, especially if
we look at the red cotton from the dye-works of an exhibitor of Pisa, who
carries on the various processes on a very extensive scale.

Specimens of cotton were exhibited from Ravacchio, near Pisa, where
there exists a large manufactory of cotton tis.i^ue, which has been the means
of improving the whole locality, and of benefiting Tuscany, by substituting
for the foreign tissues its own cotton cloth and cashmeres, which might
have been seen in the Exhibition, and would have borne comparison with
the best tissues of the same quality.

The samples of soaps from Leghorn had been brought to much per-
fection, and represented a very large manufacturing estabUshment, ex-
porting annually a considerable proportion of its products.

Among the chemical productions forwai-ded by Tuscany wns aantanina,
a powerful vermifuge.

We cannot pass over in silence another eminently Tuscan manufacture —
that of straw bonnets. The specimens sent from Prato and Florence were
extremely perfect. The Tuscan kinds of straw-^ilait were considered very
superioi".

Tuscany did not forward many statues to the Exhibition ; but those
which might have been seen — such as Bacchus reclining, Psyche, Hagar
and Ishmael, &c. — were sufficient to confirm her celebrity. Those fine
statues were selected by a special commission. The selection %vas uot
made without consulting several men of such qualifications as to warrant
the soundness of their opinion. But the ai-tistical taste of the Tuscans wa.s
likewise perceptible in their wood-carvings, in their hard-stone mosaic, aud
in their scagliola and marquetrie works.

The following interesting particulars of the mineral wealth of Tuscany
have been communicated by Professor Corridi, the Tuscan Commissioner : —

Those who noticed the numerous collection of minerals sent from
Tu'cany to the Great Exhibition, cannot fail to acknowledge how fully
that country deserves the reputation it has so long enjoyed for its marble.?,
and for every other kind of ornamental stones extracted from its quarries.
It is certainly richer than any other country in regard to that class of
minerals, possessing as it does a very large quantity of statuary and coloured
m;irble3, of granites, chalcedony, real alaba-stcr, and soft stone, or alabas-
trites. serpentine. &c. Its marble quarries for statuaiy are very numerous ;
and those situated in the vicinity of Seravezza aud Campiglia, in the Mar-
emme, are the most ancient and the richest of all.

The working of the qiKU-ries of Seravezza was completely interrupted
towards the end of 1600, solely on account of the decline of the fine arts,
although it had yielded a great amount of materials in the times of Michael
Angelo and Cosmo I. But the works having been resumed with considera-
ble energy in 1821, through the exertions of the present Grand Duke,
Leopold II., and under the excellent management of M. Borrini, they soon
rcMched tlie highly prosperous condition which they now enjoy. The pure
aud fine saccharvides, from the mountains of Seravezza, is prized by sculp-
tor.?, and is in great demand in England, France, Russia, and several other
countries. The unquestionable superiority of the produce of these quarries
induced the Emperor of Russia to send a considerable order, now in pro-
gress of execution, amounting to upwards of one million of roubles, for
the internal decoi-ation of the new cathedral of St. Isaac, in St. Petersburg.
Iq the Tuscan department was to be seen a very fine statue, executed in
that marble — the " Reclining Bacchus," by Neui-ini.

Before the year 1821. the period to which we have alluded, the marble
trade of Seravezza consisted in the manufacture of a few flooring-flags of
common white and blue marbles, from the Capella mountahi, and some
tables. The improved results during tlie last twenty five years are almost
incredible. There is not a single marble-quarry round Seravezza which is
not excavated aud furrowed everywhere. Children begin to work wiieu
nine years old, and easily earn their livelihood, and adults gain four times
as much as they require to keep tiiemselves comfortably. A small market-
town has sprung up near the sea shore, where the shipping of marbles t.akea
place, and it contains about .500 peopl<", while, before 1821, the solitary hut
of a fislicrmau was the only edifice cUscemible on the spot. The natives
have by degrees built and manned a small navj', to caiTy on a coa-sting trade
between Genoa, Leghorn, and Slai-seilles.

In addition to the white marbles for artistical purposes, the principal
centre of which is the mountain of tlie Altisslmo, other magnificent mar-
bles, coloured and veined, from mountains in the neighbourhood of
Stazzima, ai-c highly valued by the English ami the French. Other
important undertakings, of a new description for Tuscany, liave recently
been attempted — viz., the working of the argentiferous lead mine of Bottino,
and the procuring of quicksilver at Ripa, a mountain near Seravezza j the
products of which were to be seen at the Great Exhibition, with those of
the Alti.ssimo.

As to the marbles from the quarries of Campiglia, under the management
of Messrs. Perdiean-i and Girardot, of Leghorn, it is to be remarked that
the mountain where the works are carried on, and wliich is known under
the name of Moiite Rornbolo. form? part of a series of mountains consist-
ing of a mass of marble, which, accordmg to the opinion of geologists, is

perfectly analogous, as regards its age and origin, mth the seat of the
celebrated quarries of Carrara and Seravezza. The Monte Romboln
marbles possess various and distinct qualities : some are fit for architectural
works, and some are excellent for sculptural purposes. Amongst thr
latter, artists give the preference to the Pario, which, on account of it
white and bright grain, is considered as being equal to the Pares marble
of ancient Greece. The common marble, which can be used for sculptural
as well as architectm-al works, is found in large quantities in Monte Rorn-
bolo, and yields blocks of the largest dimensions.

There ai'e three other places, in the vicinity of that mountain, where thei
works are in full operation, namely, the Mortaio, Guire, and Medici
quarries. The declivity of the mountain and tlie proximity of the Cam-
pigliese road anrl the sea afibrd every facility for conveyance at a very low

ETliUSl'AN V.\Si:— .\LAB.\-ji'Ell, — CUEUICI.

price. There is also, near Monte Rombolo, another quai'ry of blue mai-bli
(bardiglio), which proves a very successful undertaking. Tuscany possessei
several other remarkable quarries; aud, although their works are not il
full or regular activity, their richness should induce capitalists to give then
a serious attention. Santa Maria del Giudico, in the Pisan moimtains, ii
one of these. The excavation was lately begun ; the marble is yellowish
sprinkled with largo spots, constituting a pudding-stone of exquisite beauty
Several apeeimens were sent to the Great Ijxliibition, and, amongst othei
articles, the frests of a column, the material of which might be used witl
great advantage for the decoration of buildings.

Other quarries well worthy of notice, are those of Pescaglia, in the Luccv:
territory. They are situate in the range of the mountains of Hazzema.
near Seravezza, and lie beliind them. They are four in number, .at i
distance of about half a mile from each other. Artists who have visited
them speak highly of their riclmoss. Tliey yield a marble the grain ol
whicli has been found excellent, although the superficial sti-ucture only
has been examined. Three frests of columns and several tables were senf
to the Exliibition as specimens of the various marbles of Pescaglia ; but, ir
order to form a cori-cct judgment of thoso quarries, and of the facilities
they afford to work tliem upon a large scale, it is necessary to see tlw

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCL01M5DIA OK TIIK GREAT KXIIIHITION OF 1851.

227

blockH nf re'il mill lil:ii'k iniirlilo (luit liavn liron lately I'xti'ftctcMl. 'I'lioy ai'o
fiir mii)i'iii>r ti) tlio s|iccimciia n"nt, rw to tlieir colour, tho finenoHa of tliuir
grain, tlio (liiuiiiuli»ii of siiocks, and tlio toUil nbKeiico of suiiill ciijiilhiry
VOins.

Tbo Tuscan division prosonts nlno Kpcclniens of a voiy valualjlo luaihlc,
which 1ms l)cen but sli^litly iiotiocil iKM'i-tofnrc, nn<l which is known niuler
tho name of TiUTnncholla. A sjiccinicn of this wa,-^ exhibited in tho shnpn
of ft lai'K" niunil talilo, cut o\it of a picco of in-wblo from tho supurBcial
gtrotum; it is probable, therefore, that finer blocks might bo extracted,
ehould the undertaking be conducted on ft larger scale.

Tho Marqiiis I'anciaticlii also sent to the Kxhibition two small tables of
a vciy hard stone which is met with in lar^o blocks in tho small stream of
Maniiii. which runs down the Vallombrosa mountain, one of tho Apennines.
Tbe.-:e blocks aro very scarce, and are harder than porphyi-y and eastorn
gmnite.s.

The specimens of the fine marbles of Siena on tho tables of tho Tu'seau
department confirm tlicir celebrity. They present a great variety. Those
known under the names of (liallo di Siona and Eastern Alabix.stor were
amongst tho finest in tho Kxldbition. Ca.stel Nuovo Dell'abato. near
Montalcino. in the province of Siena, is in pcsscssion of the finest qualities
of those marbles as re'.;anls their colour, transparency, and hardncs.s, which
make them susceptible of receiving tho most perfect burnish.

Amongst tlio jdutonic rocks so abundant in Tiise.Tny are tho serpentine
from Monte-Ferrato, near tho towni of I'rato, and known as Verde di Prate.
If. Iieonard Nanni presented some fine specimens of that marble from
quarries under liis management, which now yield blocks sufficiently large to
ein stutucs. vases, or columns, of nearly 1^ cubic metre in dimension. The
^luiility of the marble can be ascertained fi'om a round breakfast service, ?
metre in diameter. The quarries are in full operation, and any quantity
lof niai-ble can be obtained from them.

Ill addition to these there were ornamental stones from tho island of Elba,
i^vhicll supplies gi'auite, eipoUino, black marble with white veins. &c.
jriranite constitutes a portion of the Boil of that island, and very remarkable
ijilncks h,ave been procured thence at difl'erent pei'iods. A quantity of large
ptlumns, and chiefly those in the cathedral and baptistry of Florence, were
it out of blocks from the moimtaiiis of Elba — principally those of Santo

IPietio in Campo. The Grand nuke Cosmo I. caused a piece of granite
Vom that island to be shaped into a large bowl, about 20 metres in cir-
;umference, which was placed in the garden of the Pitti Palace in Florence,
Where it can still be seen. The gallery in the cathedr.al of Ravenna consists
of a single block of that gi'anite, and it was the largest in existence until
4he erection of the granite pedestal to support the statue of Peter the Great
ill St. Petersburg.

HAQAB AND ISHMAEL. — VILLA.
In hi.s small marble group of "Hagar and ]sbmael," Signor Villa, of
[•'lorcnce, seizes a ilitferent moment from that selected in the same story
'ly Max, of Prague, noticed in a previous article on Sculpture. In tlie
hittei- the mother beholds the suflferings of her child, and appeals to Heaven
' r relief; an incident, the proper expression of which was admirably
' ii;.-cd. In the work now before us Hagiu' is applying the bowl of water
" tho parched lips of her sou. There is not the same amount of poetic
iitei'Cit )i.atent in the one case as in the other ; but what the subject afforded,
■^i.-nor Villa has done justice to in this very pleasing and carefully executed
.omiiosition.

BACOHttS EECLININO. — NEURINI,

I'liis very spirited statue stood in one of the front bays of the Tuscan

lioartment. It is in white marble, by Professor Neuriui of Florence, and

'- -lie date upon it '* 1S50" implies, was probably executed expressly for

I Ireat Exhibition. The god of wine, who has none of the bloated

■ irance attributed to him by modern couvention.alism, is reclining in an

i-v gmceful attitude, whilst he squeezes the juice from a bunch of newly

iiR'ked grapes into his mouth. The treatment and execution are of a high

jrder of merit.

ALABASTER VASE.

This is remark.ablo as a very fine specimen of workmanship in alabaster.
i'lio vase is Etruscan in form, and is embcllislicd with reliefs — the subject,
I'lucbus and Aurora. Including the pedestal, it stood 7 feet high.

POTTERY, PORCELAIN, TILES, &c.

STATUARY PORCELAIN.
AT the period when the manufacture of porcelain at Chelsea was in all
its activity, the woi'ks at that place supplied chimney ornaments to the
iountry generally. Many of the old Chelsea porcelain figures were very
inely executed, but by far the larger number were grotesque imitations of
rimanity, some of which aro still to be discovered in the china closets of
lurgrandmothei'S. Dresden was also celebrated for producing figui'es, and
;hese were, not unfrequently, of a high character as works of ai't, but still
il.ey were all composed of the ordinai'v porcelain. Wedgwood, of Etruri.a.
ntroduced a stone- ware — a true vitrified body of a highly silicious character
—which he was en.abled to produce either black or coloured. In this
uaterial, th.at extraordinary man has perpetuated the works of Flasman
ind given permanence to many of the most choice relies which time has
ipared \is of the vases of antiquity. If wo examine the pottery of St-ifl'in-d-

«h ire before tho time of Wedgwood, wo find it— with the Hlight cxccptirm
of the rod carthonwaro of the Klern of Nnromlxirg, who iiottle<l at Uradwcll
— to bo of imperfect material and rude in form. Wedgwood saw that tho
work of the potti'r wai eapnblu of greot elevation m itM character; ho
directed his powerful mind to tho btiidy of tho chemi.'ftiy of claVH, and of
tlic physical cliaructor.4 of eaith.'!, and the i-e«ult wiw tho production of
nuineroui) kinds of ware, all of them excellent in their varictic/i. Ho ad-
vanced a steji beyond thi.s^io fought out the beautiful where it alnsidy
existed in examples of tho potter's art, and co[iied it with aurprising
accuracy, llis fao-Biniilo of tho Portland Yn«o ui.ay bo quoted a-s an
oxamplo.

Thu genius of Flnxmon was also onllstod In old of tho onliglitcncd potter.
Hii,di art was, for the first time in this country, njisociatcd with maiiiifacturc,
and tho rosult wiis^whut it must always prove to be — eminently successful.
Witli tlio death of Wedgwood, tho process nf improvement caaxed, and,
sinco there is no standing still, the pottery deteriorated rapidly in every
way, and continued at a low point until within the jiast few years, Tho
energies of a few houses in tho trade have awakened general attention to
the improvement of clay manufacturo, and wo may regard tho prcacnt as
tho commenoement of a new era in porcelain wares. Statuary porcelain
and Pariiui wore exhibited by several houses, and as this manufacture is a
recent introduction, and one which iiromi.ses to be of high utility iu luany
ways, a brief history of it may not bo out of place.

The first idea of imitating marble in ceramic manufacturo appears to have
originated, in Ls)2, with Mi-. Thonins Dattam, tho artist directing the Imxo
porcelain manufactory of Air. Alderman Copeland, and was prominently
brought under public notice by the Art-Union of London, which gave a.s
one of its prizes a copy of Gibson's Narcissus, formed of this material. The
principal ingredients in this composition aro kaolin, feldspar, and silica,
ground .and mixed together in tho ordinary method adopted iu the general
processes of this manufiicturo. It is prepared for the use of the figure-
makers in a state technically called "slip," about the consistency of thick
cream. In this state it is poured into the diflTcrent moulds forming the
subilivisious of the figure or group, which, being made of gypsum (plaster
of Paris), rajiidly absorb a portion of the moisture, and reduce the coating
immediately next the mould to a semi-clay state, of a suflicient thickness
for tho "cast," when the superfluous "slip" is then po>u-ed back from the
moulds. This cast remains in the mould for some time at a high tempera-
ture, which, by causing still furtlicr evaporati.in, gradually reduces tho
"slip" to a state of "clay" sufficiently firm to support its own weight
when relieved from the moulds, .and to bear the necessary pressure of the
handling without injury. The various parts (and in some groups there are
as many as fifty) are then delivered from the moulds. They have then to
be repaired, the seams caused by the junction of the moulds to be cleared
off. and the whole put together.

This process requires much nicetj' and judgment in the manipulator to
perfoi-m it successfully ; the clay in this state being so exceedingly fragile,
that considerable practicid knowdedge is necessary to efi'ect a perfect union
of the ditfereut members without injuiy to their form and surface, and to
di.spose them in strict accordance with their relative positions iu the
original model. Ca.sts from the .same figure, and made fi-om the sam^
moulds, will not necessarily possess the same merit. In this respect much
will depend upon tho skill and judgment of the "figure-maker." Xude
figures, in which the junction of the diificult parts gener.ally presents a
level circular surface, require peculiar eai'e in fitting together. Surfaces
that present a marked and broken outline, and which will but fit together
at one particular point, are of course relieved from this difficulty. It will
be immediately evident that, to execute this branch of manufacture with
the perfection of which it is capable, a very high degiee of artistic know-
ledge and feeling must be brought to bear upon it. Unfortun.ately, as yet,
this is not the case, the operatives employed not possessing these advan-
tages. The parts are attached together with some of the " shp " as
originally used for the casting, the surfaces to be joined together, bein"
either dipped in it, or a coating of it applied with a pencil ; this caases
perfect adhesion, with a very slight pre.ssure. Much depends upon the
skill with which these junctions are executed, and on the neatness with
which the sections of the moulds are made to fit, as. upon due attention to
these particulai-s, tho gi-eater or less degree of prominence in the "seams,"
which so often disfigure pottery castings, entirely rests. With great care
and tact, it is possible to I'ender theso " scams " so trifling, as, even upon a
close examination, to be scai'ccly perceptible.

The " slip," in this case, is merely required to soften the surface of the
clay on those parts which have to be united, just sufficiently to cause
adhesion ; and all that is useii beyond what answei-s that requirement is
not only superfluous, but detrimental, 'by moistening the edges of the parts
to which it is applied so much, that they become pliant, and, yielding to
the pressure while being attached, distort the outline; and also, "by causing
unequal shrinking during the process of " firing," the junctures become
evident and unsightly.

The figure, or group, thus made, remains two or three days, during
which time it becomes sufficiently dry fta' the oven. It is supported by
props, made of the same material, so ai-rauged as to bear a portion of the .
weight, and to prevent any midue pressure which might cause the figure to
sink in the firing.

It is then placed in the oven on a "sagger," the u^ual case to protect the
ware from the flames, and submitted to a heat of 00 deg. of Wedgwood's
]\yromctcr.

228

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

This operation, which occupies from sixty to seventy hours, is effected
very gradually. Small pieces of ware, termed " trials," expressly made for

rOTTERT. — AVISSEAU.

the purpose, are occasionally drawn from the even to ascertain the progress
jmd degree of heat.

The fires are then withdrawn, and the oven allowed to cool vei-y
gradually, as too sudden a change of temperature would cause the ware to

^Mf-

—■'.>':.

^-'^^-^^^^^^r

POTTERY. — AVISSEAU.

crack. WTien sufficiently cool, the figures are drawn out, and the seams,
which, although perfectly cleared off in the clay state, will again pai tially
rise during the process of firing, are then rubbed down, and the figures
agam submitted to a still higher degree of heat than in the first tiring.
The figures are placed on a bed of sand in tlie latter firing, instead of being
" propped," as in the fonner, as this bed more equally supports the figure ;
and the clay having been once fired, the surface is not injured by being in
contact with the sand. It could not be used when the figures are in the

clay state, as it would resist the contraction of the material, and cause the

figure to be shattered to pieces. It is often necessai-y to fire the casts three

times — a peculiar degree of heat being required to

produce the extreme beauty of surface which the

finest specimens present.

The total " contraction " of the figures from the
mould to the finished state is one-fourth. The
contraction of the " slip " mth which the mould
is charged to the clay state in which it leaves the
mould is one-sixteenth. Again, it contracts another
sixteenth in the process of drying for the oven, and
one-eighth in the process of vitrification ; so that ii
model of two feet high will but produce a fired cast
of eighteen inches.

Now, as, to ensure a perfect work, it is necessary
that this " contraction" should equally afl'ect the
whole of the subject through all its relative bear-
ings and proportions, it will be immediately ap-
parent that there is considerable hazard in its
execution, so as to realise such a result as shall
satisfy the requirements of a highly educated
taste.

Still, difficult a.s it unquestionably is, with a judi-
cious selection of subject, and practical knowledge
as to its treatment, a faithful realisation of the finest
beauties of the works of art may be effected. We
need only point, in proof of this, to the gi-ovips of
Ino and Bacchus, of Foley ; Prodigal's Keturn, of
Theed ; Rebekah, of Theed ; Gibson's Narcissus ;
Foley's Innocence ; Marshall's Dancing Girl ; Indian
and Negress, by Cumberworth, &c. The value of
this invention, it must be borne in mind, is not
limited to its immediate influence upou the branch of
manufactures to which it is directly applied ; it has
already been largely instrumental by its success iu
inducing a perception of the commercial value
attending the more intimate connexion between art
and manufacture. It is almost impossible to ele-
vate one branch of a manufacture in artistic
value ivithout, at the same time, in some degree, raising the general pro-
ductions of the whole classs. The connexion of such names as Gibfon
Foley, Marshall, Marochetti, Theed, &c., with this class of works, will
necessarily exercise a mai-ked influence upon all ceramic manufactures
The improvement in the figure models will be followed bj
a similar improvement in the ornamental models, and wil
also extend to a more elevated class of decorative labour |
Indeed, it is difficult to over-estimate the salutary influence '
which this branch of art will gradually extend over th( i
whole field of Art-labour.

The adaptation of articles of this class for ornamenta i
purposes iu connexion with metal, as evidenced in the workH
of Messrs. Potts and Winfield, of Birmingham, is also highlj '•
gratifying ; and although the specimens may not be alto
gether such as might be wished, they are sufficient to prov( ,
that the article may be usefully employed for this purpose-.
It was first applied to metal mountings, in various me i
thods and for various purposes, by Mr. W. Potts, of Easy
row, Birmingham, who received the prize at the Society o:
Arts for the adaptation.

According to the classification adopted in the Kxhibition i

this material is divided into statuary porcelain, Parian, anc

Carrara. This may be a refinement, but it is a perfectly

unnecessary one, the materials only differing in the proi

portions of the ingi-edients employed by the manufacturer

The composition, according to analysis of the materia

employed by Messrs. Copeland and Co., is silica, 6035

alumina, 32 ; soda, 4'16 ; potash, 2 55 ; with traces of lime

magnesia, and iron. The material is used in a liquid statei

technically called "slip," about the consistency of thick

cream. It is poured into moulds forming the figiire 01

^ group, which, being made of plaster, rapidly absorb a per

S_^ tion of the moisture, and tlio coating immediately next th('

^^ --. mould soon becomes of sufficient thickness for the cast-

when the superfluous " slip" is poured back. The cast re i

mains in the mould for sometime, at a high temperature^

"T:" bj' which means it is, through the evaporation which takes;

place, reduced to a rtate of clay, sufficiently firm to beai

its own weight when relieved from the moulds, which an

then opened, and the different portions of the subjecl

taken out. Each figure requires many moulds ; the head, arms and hands

legs, body, parts of the drapery (when introduced), and the other detail.'

of the suliject are generally moulded separately. The parts, beingi

removed from the moulds, have to be repaired ; the seams caused bji

the junction of the moulds must be cleaned off, and the whole pul

together. This is, of course, a delicate process, requiring much

artistic skill ; for, though all the parts may be from the same mouldi

it by no means follows that all the casts will be of equal merit, sc

AN ILl^lISTRATMI) CYCLOl'.KDlA OF TIIK GRKAT KXlll 15IT10N OF 1851.

22!)

mucli depending ujion tljo tasto and skill of tliu fiiiishor— the figure-
maker.

NumerouB exiiiniiluH of this uuiuufucture, of very ;,'i-uat beauty, wore to
be found in eliw.i '25. Messrs. Minton and Co. oxliibitod statuettes and
busts from di-'.signH liy Diuieker, CuUini, Tliorwaldsen, Wcatniucott, Towns-
ond. and Bull. In the Victoria Desert Service, wliicli lia.s been purchased
by Her Maje.^ty for ii thou.<and guineas, and is intended tin a i>rescnt
to the lOiuperor of Austria, wo have the cunibiuutiou of Parian and
tino porcelain, efl'eeted with very preat skill and considerable ta-stc. The
nvico is a full one, consisting of 72 dessert plates, 20 compotiers, and 24
"ther articles ; it is white, turquoise, and gold. In the wine-cooler, wo
ii:ne the iniic>n of high art with inaunfacturo very finely exemplified.
Kiiuiid the outside it has, in bas-relief, a bear hunt represented, and hunters
with their dog.s form a series of statuette groups round the pedestal. A
tn-ak of gold runs in and out through the design, and the whole has a
\riy pleiviing effect, the Parian contrasting admirably with tlio glazed por-
rclain. The whole is crowned with an infant Bacchus pressing grapes.
\\ (! are iuforniod by niombcr of the finii that the expense of designing,
modelling, auii decorating this service far exceeded that of any service ever
In-fore manufactured in this country; yet, with all its elaboration, it was
r.iinpleted within twelve months.

Another article W(U'tliy of notice is the Parnassus vase, which, like the
\ii'toria dessert service, is a combination of 'Parian and porcelain. It

an origin.il design of one of Messrs. Minton and Co.'s modellers, and
lias many points of interest. The china is in mazarine, richly gilt — the
I .uian basreliof represents Apollo and the Muses. The modellings of
I'.ie festoons on this vase are considered, by competent judges, equal to
Suvres.

In addition to these we may enumerate, as objects of especial interest,
the following ; —

The Cellini ewer and stand, in Parian gilt — an original design by another
of Messi-s. Minton and Co.'s modellers, and admirable in form and
> secution. .'

The equestrian statues — "Amazon" (after Feuchere) and "Theseus" —
the latter original.

" Temperance " and " Flora " — copies from tci'ra-cotta statues in the
roUectiou of the Duke of Sutherland.

'■ Dorothea." " Clorinda," '■ Miranda," " Una and the Lion." " The Babes
in the Wood," and some others — the works of Mr. John Bell, sculptor.

'• The Distressed Mother," after Sir R. Westmaoott's statue in Westmin-
• ter Abbey.

" Love restraining Wrath " — an original group by Mr. Beattie, a clever
artist, now resident in the Potteries.

" Atala and Chactas," also original, and suggested by a passage in Cha-
teaubriand's celebrated tale.

The two groups of " Boys with Goats " are beautifully modelled ; they
arc original productions, in the style of the last century. We have also
the " Greek Slave " of Mr. Powers, the original of which was at the eastern
-nd of the main avenue. Numerous other examples of Parian will be
foinid in this collection of Messrs. Minton and Co. On another occasion we
liuU return to a consideration of the other works from this house — par-
ticularly their imitations of the majolica ware, and their encaustic tiles and
t.s^erte.

Messrs. Wedgwood and Sons, of Etruria, the descendants of the great
improver of ceramic art in this country, iU'e exhibitors of the Carrara porce-
lain statuaiy, much of which is very beautiful.

Messrs. Mayei-s, of Dale Hall Pottery ; Meigh and Sons, of Hanley ; T.
and S. Boote, of Burslem ; Bell and Co., of Glasgow ; J. Rose and Co., of
I 'oalbrookdale ; and T. Hughes, jun., of Colbridge, are also exhibitors of this
l^arian ware.

In the foreign department were some statuettes and busts in a similar
"laterial. Some examples from the porcelain manufactories of Copenhagen,
1 L'ing copies of the most favom-ite works of Tliorwaldsen, were well worthy
I if attention. The introduction of this branch of manufacture has so far
improved the business of the porcelain manufactory at Copenhagen, that
the value of the articles sold has increased from a few hundi-ed dollars to
many thousand pounds annually.

Whenever the public are supplied with works of merit, they avail them-
selves most readily of the privilege of possessing them, if they are at all
within the limits of their means. Of the salutary results of the popular
'•ultivation of art, in a moral and a social point of view, there can be no
doubt; and on this ground, among others, we desire to see the fine ex-
amples in statuary porcelain which are exhibited, largely multiplied,
and, by the increa.sed demand which must be created, brought within
the limits of the humbler classes.

FURNITURE, DECORATION, &c.

♦

CAIilN'IOT WORK.

TIIK experience of the Great Exhibition hiw been to ailorJ many lei>-ions

for the willing ntiident, to inflict many wouiidu on the pedantic and

self satusfied genius, to remove many prejudices and conccitii, and to teach

many moral truths to all ; and though it worka silently, it yet works

efl'cctually, and will eventually accomplish these reaults. It Diunt be

rOTTERY.— BY M. AVISSEAU.

The cup and dish of coarse pottery exhibited by Mons. Avisseau, are
admirable imitations of the ware made by Bernard Palissy, in the sixteenth
century. The fish, dolphins, frogs, plants, &c., which ornament these and
other specimens displayed by M. Avisseau, are modelled with great spirit,
;i.ud coloured with much taste ; in fact, these examples are very close imita-
tions of Palissy's renowned ware.

EBONY TABLE, INLAID WITH SILVER. — HAXCOCK.

looked upon as being to the world what the metropolis is to the provinces
— the place where pretension is tested, where the self-inflated shrink to
their own natural littleness, and where the fancied giant not unfrequently

becomes a dwai'f. In the Exhibition the nations of the earth were on their
trial ; they boldly came up to the muster ; each, with the practical evidence
of its ability to administer to the necessities, comforts, or luxuries of
humanity, ha\-ing agreed to subject itself to the ordeal of comparison — the
severest of tests when a high standard of excellence is selected.

In oflering oui- observations on the articles exhibited in the important
class of Furniture and Decorations, we may first state that it wasjicre that

230

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

our British manufacturers e:spected, probably, more than in any other, to
be discomfited ; and we venture to say that there are few of the British
exhibitors who have contributed their portion to wliat is, after all, a most
excellent display, who had not some cousidcr.able misgiving as to the
general character of the works that would be produced on the occasion.
Without flattery, we think we may assert that their apprehensions have
proved groundless, and that England has come ot{ with flying colours,
even on this field of contest.

We are glad of it : for we think a little reflection will show that the
subject of fm'niture is more important in England than on the con-
tinent ; because much more money is spent here, by the middle cla.sses
of all incomes, on the various branches of trade required to fit up a
house, than is ever thought necessary in other realms. ^^Tiethor upon
marriage, upon taking another dwelling, or upon a plea of necessity,
ladies are always ready to receive furniture from the factory to
displace that which must certainly have one of two faults : either it is
not fit to be seen, or it is not old enough to be valuable for its
antiquity. The accumulation of tliis sort of property is surprising, for
apartments ai-e hardly considered to be well dressed until there is literally
little chance of human motion, and no possibility of adding to the tre.ism-es.
AVith the last century, too, expired the empire of fashions which, during
the hfetime of the sovereign whom they found upon the tlirone, reigned
steadily over the whole of the community, in solitary grandeur, without
disturbance from any interloping modes ; at present, the rapid succession
of tastes, and of late years their contemporaneous existence, h,aviug allowed
purchasers to render their saloons little more than museums for every
phase of ornamental art, it becomes easy, by small additions, to incline the
balance in accordance with a prevalent mania ; but these additions ai'e, for
the same reason, constantly demanded.

The order in which various leading styles of decoration have re-appeai'ed
is tolerably uniform. Since the time of Louis XVI. we have had lloman,
Louis XV.. and Greek ; then Gothic. Louis XIV., .and Egyptian have fol-
lowed as links of a chain terminating in Louis XV., EUzabethau, Louis
XVI., Itahan, Gothic, Louis XIV., and Renaissance. Thus, in the species
of Greek, or par excellence classic furuiture, but two specimens of high
merit have come under observation ; one is the ebony table inlaid with
^^ilver, by Hancock ; the other is the chair by Jeanselme ; both are care-
fully moulded upon anti(iue ideas, and deserve consideration for then-
inherent unobtrusive elegance. They recal the "Hope" fashion, as it was
set bv the predecessor of the present distinguished amateur; and are
interestmg to those who have not frequent opportunities of seeing the as
yet undisturbed interior of some of the large houses which were furnished
forty-five years ago.

We appear at this time to have just entered upon the last mode of the
cycle, and of its merits the reader will be remmded by the illustration of
one of the largest works of this cl.ass in the Exposition, the side of a library,
by Holland and Son. In spite of tlie unpleasant colour (which will dis-
appear) of the newly-worked wood, and of the perforated panels, there are
about this, as also about nearly all other English specimens of furniture
exhibited, three qualities which distinguish tliem in a very remarkable
manner from nearly all their foreign companions. These tliree virtues —
for such they fortunately happen to be. consist in fidelity of adherence to
the style employed, in a peculiar feeling of design, and iu undeniable
superiority of execution.

No cUiss enjoys so many opportunities of seeing the most recJterche work
as the Russian nobleman, when he is allowed to travel ; and such a
connoisseur, talking to an English acquaintance, was triumpljantly proving
what our countrymen could not see, that the Transept divided two, and
only two states of feeling for decoration — the western one considerably
mixed with elements foreign to it, but the eastern jjortion nearly free from
any alloy of Anglicism ; and he afterwards urged th.at there was no truly
national taste in Russia and Germany, as Parisian fashions for every sort
of ornament were always eagerly watched. Ten years of observation had
not led to a false conclusion, and the reader is recommended to seek
himself the outward marks of the difference. Ho will have noticed on one
side great elegance of proportion, vivacity of light and shade, and wondei'ful
fluency of design, mixing with a malicious, almost a wicked, carelessness aa
to whether a piece of fm-niture shall belong to any given style at all, of
belong equally to three or four, opposed to sterner dignity, extreme breadth
of light, and a remarkable air of usability, united, on the other hand, to a
sometimes pedantic adherence to the peculiar features of the fashion which is
followed. To sum up tlii"! train of thought, it will suffice to add, that abeauty
in tlic one case and grjindeur in its antagonist are attained ; it mu?t be left to
the idio.syncracics of tlie spectiitor to decide which is preferable for himself.

English furniture possesses a character of genuineness, a solidity, and an
admirable workmanship, which arc uiuivalled in any other p.art of the
world. One very important advantage we possess over our foreign rivals
ii in the variety, and superior quality of our woods.

" One important fact," says M. Flachat. speaking of the cabinet work of
France, "must be noticed — the great inferiority of our indigenous woods.
We see this in many olyects of furniture, while mahogany and other
tropical woods, which arc more largely used tliis year than we ever before
observed, clearly proves the fact. If we except the walnut-tree, with its
beautiful grains, our wood is deficient in that vivacity of colours, that
variety of texture, that richness of fibre, which the woods of a hot climate
present ; and time, instead of improving its condition, only gives it a dull,
cold, gi'ey, and leaden appearance. Moreover, exotic woods improve by

keeping ; ours, on the contrary, lose their beauty. Here, then, wo have a,
branch of industry in which the foreigner is decidedly superior to us — in

CH.\IR. — JEaKSELME.

the command of the raw material: and, being compelled by the inferiority^
of our own produce to import three millions of kilograms of exotic wood
to supply our industry _^he question naturally arises, can we do so upon
the sauis terms as the.rareigner ? A comparison, therefore, may be made

M.VRQUETniE TABLE — B.WTRY AND SO.NS.

between the relative extent and importance of the English and French
cabinet work, by estimating the respective imports of mahogany into the
two countries. In a .single commercial establishment — the V\>st India
Docks — w-e have seen fifteen thousand logs of mahogany at the same time,
wliich is about double the importation of France in a single year. These
logs generally are much larger in dimension than those which are trans-
ported to Paris by the navigation of the Seine, some of them measuring '
even 2m. 50c. in diameter. In England, moreover, they l.avc powerful

AN ILLUSTRATMI) C\ChO['M\)\\ OF fill] ORKAT KXIIIHlTION OV 1H51.

231

irliiuL'ry (or ilisumliurkiiif,' tlio iniiliogiviiy, ftii<l placing it under hIicUc
tliin nioiins thoy obtiiiii two iiilviintiigoB of which wo ui'O deficient
t, tiio wood is not

I MO Biiton would liuvo been bold cnou(;li to put forward had h<: thought of
I it) the BupportH of the head ore not like, though Boiuewhat rcuctiibbng.

PAPER PATTERNS. — MESSRS. TPRNBR AND CO.

^pi.sed to the atmo-

]ih.rii for a lonj,'

H lioil, wliicii ni:ttc-
■i^illy detorioratos its
turfaco, and produces
k loss ; and secondly,
^loro is a groat ceo-
iiomy in tlio convey-
imi', which is a eon-

hlouble per eontago

i|Hiu tho cuusump-

lon."
Aiiothordistinctivo
iiiM'o botwoon tho

iMi countries is this,
^lh;it in JCiigland tlie
(best workmen aro
'nimd in largo manu-

inlorios, at the head

<( which is a man of
r;i|iital, who pays
;uod wages accord-
!iug to ability ; whereas
in France tlio number
of workmen, each la-
bouring at homo for
himself, and after his
own fashion, is im-
mense : this, indeed,
is the rule in Paris ;
(Whereas, with us, it is
the exception. " Tho
larger portion of these

letty makers, " Mr.

^lacliat obsei-ves,
I' ai'o ill-provided with
tools, and purchaso
their materiaU iu

lerms', pay dearly for everything they use. They make a piece of furniture, I thoae of the foot. Tho head is occupied by a beautiful Angel of Teace in
ihen run with it to a cheap dealer, who generally beats down the price, and | an arched niche, placed between pauplled-work, and at the foot are reprt-

f^atio*,'' u^^o F.v.m%v.w^'^:j^mv^vav>,VhWrfrfrfs^^

common to see these

workmen trotting

.about tho Faubourg

St. Antoine, and else-
where, with their

WL'ckly work, first to

one shop, then to

another, in order to

dispose of it to the

best advantage ; and

if they fail iu meet-
.^ling with a purchaser,
Tphere is no altern.a-
Titive but the Mout-
'jde-Pii^te. Wh.at pro-

igress, therefore, can

"our working - men

make under such a

system?'' We now

proceed to notice a

few of the most

striking objects of

furniture, British and

Foreign, in the Great

Exhibition. Our pre-
sent glance, however,

does not comprise a
_;, tithe of the articles
;ljwe shall have to
,3|notice in detail
-t In the Eastern Nave,

the bed, by Leistler,

of Vienna, is not only

one of the most sump-
tuous productions,

but is also j grander

than any of its English

fellows ; it is, indeed, a state bed, being eleven feet long by nine feet widc^

PAPER PATTERNS. — SCOTT, CUTHBERTSON AND CO.

and thirteen feet high, made of zebra wood. It is an excellent example of
the gener.al criticism above enunciated : every portion is an isolated beauty ;
all are grouped with admirable skill to obtain relief by shadow, and (what

sentatious of our first parents. The piMi are really "little loves," and the
ornaments are very effective. Here praise emls. 'RTiile the foUage is
Gothic, and the figures, with the decoration, Italian, the mass of the work
is of modern Rincdssancs feeling ; neither do the wood and the work agi-ea

232

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS; AN 1

STATE J3KDirKAD.— L'j;KTL£U, OK VIESNA.

YCLOPyEDIA op the great KXnilJlTION OF I80I

a_,

stmM'itti^sn^^r^

mmmmmmmnmmTSmmmmM

EOUJi DKCOKATION.— HOLLAND AND SO N.

id the execution seems liun-ied. The canopy (in which horrible
are lurking) is a vast cavern's roof, a fault which this shares in
1 with some of the English bed^. One cabinet maker, after looking
nutely, said. "They have better tools than I thought."
ly opposed in spirit is the Amboyna inlaid table, by C'aldecott, in an
'.han taste, and not a little marked with the digiiity of simplicity
13 attributed to the best efl'orts of London houses ; the pretty

arabesque border and centre have been enlarged on the same Engi-aviug, and
will serve to direct attention to the reality, which professes, as manv other
inlays profess, to be of unstained, i. e. self-coloured woods. This must be
considered when siuiilar works hereafter come into these pages.

A very little consideration will show that the beautiful little walnut-wood
frames and other carved furniture from Tuscany (seepage llS)are not very
far removed from those produced in the East Indies, in so far as the fiishion

234

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS ;

(Roman) of the time of our Charleses is concerned. The JDalbergm latifolia,
or blaekwood, somewliat resembling veined ebony, and new to cabmet-
makers has been worked at Bombay and Madras, from de.signs by the
London carver, Rogers, into atable, flower-stands, tea-caddies, a candelabrum,
and cheffoniers. Though this has been the means of obtiuumg variety,
we cannot say that upon the whole they are improvements upon the strictly
native productions. The workmen have evidently copied the patterns with
..reat exactness, but there is wanting that freedom which is attained in
repetitious of familiar and in conventionalised devices. The devices them-
selves, also, are sometimes heavy.

PAPER-STAINING, HANGINGS, etc.
Thc following general account of the arts of paper-staining and hang-
ing, is abridged', with slight alteration, from Grant's interesting little
volume, " The World in its Workshops " :—

The art of paper-staining and paper-hanging has now become one of the
most interesting and useful branches of industry, whether viewed in
relation to the amount of skilled labour and capital employed, or the
elegance, refinement, and convenience which it supplies to our social wants.
Paper-hangings are of comparatively modern date, being origmally manu-
factured as a°cheap imitation of the rich stuffs and tapestries used by the
wealthy and great in the coverings of the walls and wainscotings of their
apartments. The French, we believe, were the first to bring them into
general use.

Paper-hangings may be divided, for convenience sake, into three
branches— the flock, the metal, and the coloured. Each of these appears
to have been invented at ditfereut times, in imitation of a material then
much in vogue, as, for instance, the flock to imitate the tapestries, the
coloured to imitate the gilt leather which the Spaniards brought into
general use, and, lastly, the metal, which was intended as an economical
substitute for painted decorations. Beckman, in his History of Inventions
states that flock paper was first manufactured in England by one Jerome
Lanyer, in the reign of Charles I. ; the "Dictionary of Commerce, of 1723,
under the hsad of dominoterie, or marble paper, such as is used by the old
bookbmders, gives a minute description of the mode of printing the latter,
and cites statutes to regulate the industry, dated 15S6, in which rules are
given as to what kind of presses are to be used by the dominotiers, and
prohibitmg them, under hc.ivy penalties, from printing with types. Here
we catch a glimpse of the keen-eyed vigilance of the Romish church, which
dreaded the progi-ess of the Reformation, then spreading fast and far into
every region of human thought. From the preceding relation, it is fair to
iijfer that block-printing was first practised in France.

It is evident that the art of paper-staining and paper-hanging was carried
oil in this country to a considerable extent, from the time of Charles I.
down to Queen Anne; and its subsequent hi^,tory may be traced, with
wmparative accuracv, by the decorations adopted by the nobility and
gentry, several of which are still preserved, either on the %valls of their
a-,artments, or in the works devoted to the illustration of their mansions.
In the year 1712, the tentli of Anne, a duty of lad. per square yard was
imposed on thc manufacture of stained-paper ; and some of the flock-paper,
one hundred years old, resembles, in every respect, thc modern material.
The art of flocking, m fact, was disused, and almost lost, during a period
of twenty vears, and revived only about sixty years ago.

There were formerly three modes iu which paper-hangings were manu-
factured—by printing the outline with blocks and then colouring by hand, by
stencilling, and by blocks alone. The first of these methods is that adopted
bv the dominotiers. The second, stencilling, is performed by cutting out
ui"ther on paper, leather, or other materials, the pattern to bo represented,
and then placing this on the proposed ground, and brushing it over with
the i>roper colour. This mode gives an imperfect outline, and is seldom used,
except by plasterers, to ornament coloured walls. The third is the mode now
ahiiost universally adopted, wliereby every colour is applied by a separate
block, according to the tints and shadows intended to be represented : but
within the la.st two years a great improvement has been effected in this
mode of paper-staining, by using several colours on one block, which is a
great saving both in labour and cost, besides producing a more effective
article at the same price. The Messrs. Potter, we believe, were the first to
introduce this improvement, which has since been successfully followed up
by Messrs. Hinchliff, who, on some occasions use as many as twenty-five
cidoui-s on a single block, the effect of which, upon thc labour cost of the
article, may easily be conceived.

The contributions to the Exhibition, in this branch of industry, are
peculiarly rich and diversified ; and, as was to be expected, France, if we
may be allowed fuch a metaphor, is the radiant star on the horizon. The
(sijucimens of M. Delicourt, Mador Frcre, and Genoux, leave our manu-
fiurturers at a considerable distance, as regards the highest ol;w3 of paper-
staining.

Tlie papers in the Ruaaian contribution were more curious than etiective
in style and execution ; in almost eveiy respect they were inferior to those
from" Austria, and much below those of Belgium, France, and England.
America, we think, is about upon a par with Russia in this respect.

In 175i, Jackson, of Battersea, a manufacturer, published a pamphlet
the invention of printing in chiar' oscuro, and its application to pap
hangings, which he executed in imitation of the most celebrated clasi
subject's ■ and various attempts have since been made iu the same path : t
last, and one of the boldest, is that of Jeffrey and Allen, who have ub
what they considered the best portion of the Elgin frieze, in twenty-fc
feet of length. , , , m ■

Scott Cuthbertson, and Co., showed a simple and handsome Tuo
panelling in the Eastern CTallery. The effect of the gold upon a wh
ground, as the paper was hung, was necessardy much softer than the drawi
would suggest ; the border, however complex, is by no means confused; iftii
of this may be owing to the quantities of colour, which, as iu tlieir oU
paper, is a bold attempt at reconciling apparently equally forcible coloi

Turner's cerise is particularly elegant and lady-like. These patte
demand unusual attention, on account of the precision claimed for ;
manual labour of printing the blocks. The test is very simple, and •
same part of the sheet of paper may receive ten or a dozen blows from
blocks without slipping, or causing a faulty impression. This pattern
desi"n by Marchand of Paris. Underneath it were two patterns, vrt
possess the property 6f altering their appearance as the eye of the specfa
moves, becoming alternately light on a dark ground, and dark on a b
ground patterns. This efl'ect of "glancing," as it is now termed, has
been introduced by this house so much as twelve months, and is at

novelty. ,. .. *

Townshend, Parker and Co. had an arabesque paper pattern, qmtej
enou.'h for hand painting. This certainly stands a chance of being consij
the most praiseworthy of this class of productions. Their plain flocW
each side of it gain by the contrast : for their purity and neatness of out
joined to the solidity of the flocking, are well set off by the general,
tones of the arabesque.

FURS, SKINS, FEATHERS, Etc.
(Conclusion).

CONTINUING our account of the furs shown in the Exhibition!
propose to notice first the seal-skin, several fine specimens of v,
were contributed by Messrs. Nicholay and Son. The seal is an inhab
of many countries ; it is found in the high northern Latitudes in imn
numbers, and ships are purposely fitted out for its capture ; and th
obtained from this animal, together with its skin, renders it (connect
it is with the whale fishery) extremely important to the trader, an
teresting to the naturalist. The skins are salted and packed in cas
which state they are sent to thi^ country ; they are then sorted and sel
for various purposes ; those suitable for leather pass into the tanners' h
and make a beautiful material which is used for ladies' shoes. The
back, the hair, and the silver seal are dressed and used in their natui-al
and are also dyed and exported in large quantities ; their low prici
durability cause them to be in great demand. The fur seal, the sup)
which is always small compared with other kinds, undergoes a proc
prepare it for general use. It is brought at the present time to a deg
high perfection in this country. When divested of the long coarse
(which protects the skin in its native element) there reinams the rich, ■,
silky, yellowish down, in which state it was formeriy used for trav
caps and other purposes. It is now seldom made use of in this stat
is dyed a beautiful Vandyke brown, giving it the appearance of the r
velvet ; and it is manufactured in every variety of shape and forn
articles of dress for ladies', gentlemen's, and children's wear.

Passing -from the seal skins we next observe several groups of
chilla. The chinchilla is exclusively a South American animal.
its introduction into this country and France, about forty years since,
continued to be a favourite and fashionable fur. Its extreme softne.
delicacy confine it to ladies' wear. It has lately been largely cxporte(
this country to Russia and Germany, where it is greatly admired.
bast.ard or Lima chinchilla is a short, poor fur— altogether very infei
the other, and often, to those who are not judges, substituted f(
superior kinds.

Leaving the northern latitudes and the New World, we direct our att
to the skins from the tropics, such as lions', tigers', leopards , panther
several fine specimens of which were shown in the IiicUan departm
well as by individual exhibitors.

In Cliina, tlie mandarins cover the seats of justice with the skm
tiger. In this country, the use of the leopard's skin under the o
saddles is a mark of military rank adopted in some of her Majesty s(
regiments. In Austria the small fine leopard's skin is worn as a mai
the Hungarian noblemen of the Imperial hussar body-guard.

Of buffalo robes, or skins, several specimens were exhibited. I ho
is kUled in immense numbers by the North American Indians, solt
the tongue, the skin, and the bosses. They have a peculiar met.
dressing the skin with the brains of the animal, in which state it is
imported. It has of late vears been much used m Europe aid tins o
as a warm travelUng wrapper, its moderate price placing it withmtm

AN ILLUSTllATIM) CYC'LOIMIUIA OF TllH GUKAT KXIIIUITIOX OF 18.-;1.

2;iri

iiost iill ulassuM : ami in tlio colder climates it is aimilarly lued alaofor
1 \vmp|)cra. ami cloak ami coat linings.

>m Asia Minor wc lnul specimciiH of tliosklii of tlicAiigoni goat, which
)duci;d ill lai-go iiuiulierj in that part of tho world, and in rciuarkahle
long, curly, rich, whito silky coat. It was formerly n inuat ciwtly

ihii>nublu article of ladies' wear, but it i.s at the prcHent time of little
■U'heu dyed it takes some of the most l)ea\itiful and brilliant colonrs.
|ow price has caused it to bo adiipteil to wraving purpcjsea with
It is frequently made into very bcautil'ul rugs for druwiug-rooms,
gos and other jiurposes. t
nay be interesting to state tho manner in which tho skins arobrouglit

etiito in wliich wo lind them exhibited. They are imported to this
ry from all cpuirters of the globe, but principally froiEi tho territories

Hudson's Hay (\impauy, Canada, Siberia. North .ind South America,
_iny, and other parts. The dealeiii have first to examine them in tho
,n which they are actually taken from tho anim.al's back : they are
:ent to tho " ilres-sers," where tliey are first placed in large tubs,'
phat resembling whio casks; salt butter is then applied, and tho
ai'o Rtamped^upon by men; and they next go through a process
i "flcsliing," whicli consists in drawing them rapidly aoro-ss a

somewhat resembling a chaffing knife, for tho purpose of getting

^1 extraneous substance.s. They .arc then " tubbed" ag.ain, with an
itiou of mahogany sawdust, in order to remove the grease not taken
the formation of leather. Tho skins then retm-n to the manufacturer,

0 by him delivered over to tlie " chamber-uKister." These men arc
pally Uormaus; but of late, we understand, our own countrymen
ucceeded in e.iualling their foreign competitors. Another important

K I of this trade is the process of dyeing. Of course it is here that the
It St amount of deception is practi.sed, and the art of dyeing skins has
B jeou brought to so great a state of perfection that anybody not
tely acquainted with the article could be most easily deceived,
class in whicli furs and skins are exhibited also includes feathers,
incipal British display of which was by Messrs. iVdcoek .and Co!
; their collection of feathers for dress, in a handsome glass case
British nave, were the several varieties of the feathers of the ostrich

1 and undressed, which vary in quality according to soil and climate!
were some of the finer sorts, such as the Aleppo and Jtogador, made
lumes, as asedby the Knights of the Garter, the Knights Grand

and the King's Champion at the coronation of George I\'. These

were also shown formed into a variety of Court plumes, such as
len worn since the beginning of the century up to the present time,
g tho alterations in the fashion during the la.st fifty years. Some of

ck feathers — which come from the back and wings of the bird are

nto plumes for military purposes, as used by the Highland regiment ;
ire dyed in brilliant colours, and. to show the perfection of the art!

colours are produced upon the same feather — a process never
ted until within the last twenty ye.ars. There were also specimens
he m.arabout stork (Leptoplilus cnimeniferm) made into plumes and
, with the feathers of the scarlet ibis, which have a very pretty
some of these were also dyed various colours on the same feather.
"rere likewise some knotted and made into trimmings, with gold,
._ for dresses a w<n-k of gi-eat time and patience, as every knot has
Jed sepai-ately.^ Some of the grey marabouts were dyed black,
in this description of feather, is a coloiu- very difficult to produce!
thers of the birds of Paradise were in great vai-iety, both in their
state and dressed for ladies' u.se ; some were dyed different colours,
f which, considering the natural colour of the bird (which is a bright
re very difficult to accomplish— as, for instance, the purple and rose
as well as the mixed hues, which are not very often seen.

plumes made from the feather of the rhea, or South American
were also to be found among the collection. These feathers are
called by the plumassiers " vultures," and are used for a variety of
i— some for military plumes, othore for ladies' wear. There were
feathers of the emu, which are much prized on the continent, and
« known as the plume de casoir. The feathers of the heron {ai-dea
, Tvhich are used by the Knights of the Garter, .are very valuable,
O their scarcity— a small plume bemg worth fifty guineas. The
*f the plotus aulmga {plumes daHU;/na), a rare feather, also were
r variety, some mounted with gold .and silver. These feathei-s are
fly called heron plumes, and are worn by persons of rank in the
Jesides these, there were the feathers of the large egi-et, which are
the officers of tlie hussar regiments. There were also the feathers
anall egret {hcrodias gurzetta), some dyed in different coloui-s ; the
of the scarlet ibis, in the form of ivi-eaths : also those of the artnis
i, made into screens, and the feathers of the peacock. We had

some from tho common cock, made into a variety of plumes as
.hose of the turkey, the swan, and the eagle ; the latter are used in
ilttnd costume.

interesting specimens of the Grebe (PodLvps crlslata) were' to be
he fur department. This is an aquatic bird inhabiting most of the
ea in Europe. The choicest specimens are from Geneva, Italy and
The feathers are of the richest white, having the appcai-auce of
^aiver, the plumage on theoutor edge of the skin being a rich dark
It IS used by ladies, forms a most beautiful au.l elegant article of
d IS worn as trimmings for the trains of court and drawing-room
mufls, cuff., boas, &c. It is very durable; the exquisite
6S8 ot the leathers prevents its soiling with. wear.

\\ 0 next notice tho beautifully noft and clastic down known iu< tlie lid.r
down. The bird from which this Kulwt.inco i^ taken is found in lir".-
immbcrs in Iceland, Norway, and Sweilcn. lU colour is dark grey ami
its elasticity, lightness, and roai«tance U> wet, aro i.rominent auiongU iu
other advantages; it is uied for the inside stuffing of muffs. On tho cou-
tinent the well-known eider-down quilts are, on account of their lightneiw
ami warmth, considereil almost indispensable to bedrooms. The cider-
down is ai.i-lied to wearing apparel ; by bo.iig jdaccd immediately under
the iiiimg, and quilte<I, it forma one of the lightcht and warmcat articles of
dress both for la<lie» and gentlemen.

Goosodown is maniifacturcd to a considerable extent in Ireland bv
being sewed on textile fabrics. Tho article has been patronised and 'sold
in hngland extensively, for the benefit of the poor Irish women by whom
It IS made up. Tho price, compared with the true swans<lown is very
moderate, lieing sewed upon cloth, it can be washed ; on the contrarv
swansdown must bo placed hi the hands of the furrier when required to
be cleaned. '

A specimen of tho ornithorhyncus, or .luck-billed platypus, a native of
Australia— one of the most extraordinary animals iu nature— wa-s exhibited
by Mr. ElliB, of Fore-street. The skin is very much like that of the otter
and seldom exceeds twelve inches in length ; the supply is very limited The'
animal is a sort of connecting link between the bird and the beast- having
tlie claw and body of the latter, and the bill and web foot of the duck
•The male is furnishe.l witli two powerful spurs on each hind leg, similar to
the game cock. Tlie female lays eggs, which she hatches, and then suckles
licr young brood— which extraordinary fact w;is not geuei-ally credited till
some yeai-s since, preserved specimens of the creature were brought to this'
country, and submitted to the late Sir H. Halford, who dissected" them and
delivered a lecture thereon at the College of Physicians, when thU ciroum-
btance was first made public. Many attemi>ts have been made to bring
them to this country alive, but without success.

In the Cape of Good Hope department a tippet was shown made from
the feathers of vai-ious Cape bird.s. From Van Diemen's Land some
leathers from the mutton bird, or sooty petrel (putJiaus hrevicmidm) were
shown. They aro well .adapted, and aro much used in the colony for
pillows, bolsters, and mattresses. From the immense numbers of these
birds which report to the islands iu Ba-sss Straits, and the profusion of
fc-athers with which they are clothed, there would be no difficulty in
obtaining the latter m any quantity that might be required. 'When better
knovyn in this country, it is not unUkely that they will prove a profitable
article ot export from the colony.

In the foreign department the display of feathers was rery Umited
1 hose more particularly worthy of notice were two splendid heron plumes'
contributed by MM. Perrot, Petit, and Co., of Paris, of the value of SOOOf
each, and some very fine bird of P;u-adise feathers. There were also some
fane specimens, adapted for ornaments for the mantel-piece for head-
dresses, and screens, exliibited by M. L'HuiUier and M. Lodde of Paris "

Sir W. S. Haubis's Lightning Conductors for Ships.— Among the
nautical inventions were exliibited practical models to illustrate the system
of Conductoi-s, invented by Sir W. Snow Harris, and now employed to
.protect the ships of Her Majesty's Navy from Lightning. In the principal
model, is shown the Uue of conduction on the masts from the vane-spindle
to the step ; to tho keel at the sides, and at stem and stern ; and iu the
other models are seen the plan and construction of the couducting-plates,
showing the alternate jointing of the plates,_&e. Copper is selected as the
best conducting rnetal, and is m rods three quarters of an inch in cUameter-
each mast having its conductor, "perm.ane.itly fixed and connected with
bands of copper passing through the sides of the ship, under the deck-beams
and with large bolts leadmg through the keels and keelson, and iucludin"-'
by other connections, all the principal metallic masses employed in the
construction of the hiUl. Under such a system, a dischai-ge of li-'htniu"
falling on a house or a ship, finds its way to the earth or the sea, without
the possibihty of danger. The gi-cat principle in applying such conductor
IS to place the ship or building in tho same electrical condition it would
a.ssume supposing the whole were a solid mass of metal, or as nearly as may
be ; and the conductor should be applied so that a discharge of lightnim'
falling ou the general mass cannot enter upon any circuit of which the
conductor docs uot form a part." Since these conductors have been employed
in our Navy, no damage from lightning ha:i been recorded.

CHIMNEY ORNAMENTS IN BRONZE.— LEROLLE FEERE3.
(Eti'jiua-ed in our last Xuml'tr, JK 224..)

This is a very elaborate composition, which makes a considerable step in
advance of the ordinary resources of decorative art. The centre group
represents the conversion of a Moor to Christianity; the dignified, earnest,
and chivalrous beai-ing of the Christian knight, who is pomting' out the'
truths of the gospel, and the deeply reflective and conscientious°eharacter
of the countenance of the Moor, being admuably embodied. On either
side are a knight in armour, of noble mien, and a Moorish slave bearing
his gloves. The accessories throughout are appropriate, bein- in the
Moorish style. The whole is of bronze, enriched with paintings°in silver
and gold. x- o

236

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AN]) ITS CONTENTS;

LIFEBOATS, AND LIFE PRESERVING APPARATUS.

LIFEBOAT MODELS.
THE general characteristics of the Life-boats exhibited take for their
■■■ common principle of buoyancy the construction of an air-tight Iming m
the interior of the boat-the space between the outward and the inward
sides of the vessel gi-adually widening until a very broad gx.nwale is formed.
lu other specimens, the air-tiglit cell is placed lower, running m the form

of a square or circular box round the boat, but beneath the thafts or seats.

\ few specimens are fitted with those cork belts and furnishings, which

keep the boat nearly as buoyant as air-
tight tanks would do, and certainly,
from the additional advantage of not
being rendered useless by an accidental
blow from a sea against the wreck.
This danger, however, is souglit to be
guarded against by the construction of
several airtight compartments — any of
wliich, we are generally assured, would
sufSce to keep the boat, with her crew,
above wJiter.

Tliere were several adaptations of
Surf-boats, built open beneath, the
buoyant agency being placed entirely
in the sides, thus letting the seas break

in and out— the level in tlie water of the boat being never altered ; the

bottoms of some of the lifeboats consLst merely of cross-bars on which to

A. Water Tuiik. 11.
. Air-tiglit Scats, encloshnj

F. Screw Valves to admit water into tlio Tank A.

rest the men's feet ; while in others there is a flat flooricig, only c6unected,
i.owever, by pins and bars with the clo.sed sides of the boat.

The United States showed several Surf-boats, or oblong spherical cases
of metal to contain air, for passengers to be conveyed in them, for a short
transit through the breakers. A number of the Lifeboats were on the
wheels and were built for port and .ship, as well as for coast service ; and
for hanging in davits, as well as for being hurried across the country.

The long shallow shape of the boats was universal ; and they were
(oustmcted -alike at stem and stern, so as to avoid the dangerous necessity
I f going aboi.t. A few had ri:dders litted on, but oar-steering appeals to
Le more generally practised ; the rowing-oars being generally attached to

pins on the gunwales, so as to allow them to swing. An ingenious att
to get rid of part of the difficulty of rowing in a sea-way from the m
of the craft, was in the model of a Boat within a Boat-the former swu
freely in the latter, and always preserving its equihbrium, m spite o;
roUing of the outward vessel. ' ,,,.,. j r

In a Life-boat from the Isle of Wight, the planks, mstead of running
and aft, were laid diagonally across, from the gunwale to the keel. ^ A W,
Boat was furnished with outriggers supportmg nets, into whicli p
miMit leap from a ship, while the boat was kept at such a distance :
dimiui.^h the risk of her being swamped against the T,yi-eck.

The Lowe.stoit and
mouth Life-boats \t
tlieirbuoyant appara in
the sides beneatli n
thafts: the oars d
liauked, and beside
man is a pump for i
rid of a sea when
the boat. A label ati
to these boats, stati
they are in use over a
of coast of about i
miles'; that not one v
has ever been ups.
tliat they have save.
500 to 600 lives. Th i-
fallible Life-boat"^ t
whimsical constructs i-
tirely open at the bi i;
and made, indeed, ( b,
after the same fashii
tomandtop. A Lane
Life-boat is remarka
the horizontid cuts
gitudinal opening;
loop-holes, piercir
sides in continuous lines ; beneath she is open to the water.

Holbrook's Iron Bottomless Life-boat, 26 feet long, was exhib
model : it is made entirely of wrought and sheet-iron, lined and c
with strong netting : it has six floaters made of .«heet-iron, filled with
formed into air and waterproof barrels, with tanks for 222 gallons c
water ; provisions, warm clothing, compass, alarm apparatus, fuel, fare
rockets, and 1000 feet of line ; and in the figurehead, a kettle that v
in ten minutes. The boat is secured together with 400 screws anc
and 10 000 rivets : total weight. 20 cwt. Having no bottom, this t
scarcely capsize : should its floaters let in water, the barrels msi
remain buoyant ; and it will carry nearly 150 persons, and food for mai
Bouney's Lifeboat, which has been experimented on in the Ser
and the Thames with unvaried success, was also exhibited : it is olinke
the sides are doubled from the bilge to the spar-deck, and filled mtl
percha water-tight cells ; and the fore and aft parts are divided inti
tight compartments. This boat has sailed full of water withou
diment ; and being hauled over and then half filled with wat
released, righted itself immediately. It rows or sails equally wi
ways, and the plan is applicable to boats already in use.

Among tlie n
were two Life-bo
Erskine: one prop
new pinion-wheels
acting syphon pur
other fitted with r(
air-tight cylinders,
tecting rings, &c.

Hely's Catama
T,ife-float, was ex
it is composed ol
proof canvas cyl
cases, filled with I
clothing, provision
&c. The same i
contributed aSalvt
wholly formed o
tubes, serving a
spheric and h
chambers with loa<
and self-shifting w
Here, too, wei
Soutli Sliields Lifc-bo.ata, completely fitted with sails, &c. ; a Whil

Air-light Deck; the spaces below are divided into air-tight compartincntB. C. Diagonal Aiv-tiglit Case.?,
iiir-tiglit compartments for dry provisions. E. Tubes witli Valves for emptying the water ont through the bottom

(i. A Belt of Cork. II. A Pump to draw water out of the Tank
K. Inner Skin, air-tight.

I. C'umpass.

boat, callable of emptying itself of water in four seconds, by two a
in the bottom ; and a Life-boat of wood and cork, with gutta-percha
compartments, and scuppers in the keel for letting out water. 5
Aberdeen " Momentary-motion Lifeboat," w;v) exhibited : it is stato
sess the self-righting power under all interruptions. Alowiug bSilB
weiglit per cubic foot sustained by this or other air-tight vessel, i
247 cubic feet will float a greater number than such boat can conti
the same buoyimcy is maintained, however placed. When inverted^
will float on her fore and aft air-cases, thus preventing the contact
ship gimw.de with water, whereby little water is left to displace.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOIMilDIA OF THE GREAT EXIIIRITIOX OF 1851.

237

le'a Lifoboiit ih built with (liaj^niiul IiiittouH, laiil lattice wi.so ; itrt ^mtcr
ing forinoil of gulta-pori'lia : its Imoyancy in .'sriO oiilne feet of ail',
ile of sustaining upwards of !)J tons, and letting; ofT shipped water hy
lolos; in the couvcxed bottom are t)irc6 perrdrateilatcadying-fins, and
thciu 2 tons of water, not ono ounce weight to the l)0at when
t; there are also galvanised springs placed at the stern, to act like
.ydjuffers in collisions ; besides fusees, rockets, and other lights. The
inventor exhibited a Portable and Folding Emigration Life-boat, to bo

iti rerpiisition in a few minutes; and, in wreck, to carry provisions for

t orsons seven days.

P ) Patent Collapsible Lifeboat viax exhibited by the Rev. E. L. Berthon.

6 , stated to enable pa.«3enger vessels to take to sea enough boats for any

I ;ency, witlieut crowding the decks : they are alway.< ready for use,
lod to under the davits ; " and, ou ca'itiug off the givketts, the boat
pen, and takes into fore and aft cells a large supply of air.

THE NORTHUMBERLAND PRIZE LIFEBOAT.

1 bo recollected, that in October, IS.'iO, in conseciuenco of theacci-
that had happened to life-boats around the coasts of Great Britain,
loro especially the lamentable case olf Shields, in December, 184!>,
by the upsetting of the life-boat, twenty of the best pilots out of the
were drowned, his grace the Duke of Northumberland oflfered a
1 of ono hundred guineas for the best model of a life-boat, the
being that 2S0 models and plans were sent to Somerset House for
|)titiun.

r n laborious examination of the several models, the six boats that

1 first on the list were, for the third time, placed side by side, their

i 1 points again examined, and the models carefully compared with

^ither; the result was a confirmation of the former nimibers, and to

imes Beeching, boat-builder, of Great Yarmouth, was adjudged the

dm for the best model.

report of the committee appointed to examine the models is a vei-y
ant and interesting docmiient ; and, besides recapitulating the
1' featvires of several of them, details the requisite qualities of a
,t ; the acci<lents to life boats ; the number of shipwrecks on the
of the United Kingdom ; the life-boat, rocket, and mortar stations ;
eritorious conduct of the eoast-guard service ; and suggestions for
sing the number of wrecks, &c.

have engraved the prize boat in detail, of which the following is the
description : —

body of this boat is of the form usually given to a whale-boat — a

y rounded floor, sides roimd in the fore and aft direction, upright

nd stern-post, clench-built, of wainscot oak, and iron fastened.

gth extreme, 36 feet; of keel, 31 feet; breadth of beam, 9;^ feet;

34 feet ; sheer of gunwale, 36 inches ; rake of stem and stern-post,

a; straight keel, 8 inches deep. The boat has 7 thwarts 27 inches

7 inches below the gunwale, and IS inches above the floor ; pulls 12

ouble-banked, with pins and giiimraets. A cork fender, 6 inches

y 8 inches deep, 111ns round outside at 7 inches below the gunwale.

■a buoyancy is given by air-cases 20 inches high in the bottom of

it under the flat; round part of the sides, 24 inches wide by 18

deep, up to the level of the thwarts, leaving 10 feet free amidships ;

the head and stem sheets, for a length of 8J feet, to the height of

Qwale ; the whole divided into compartments and built into the

also by the cork fenders. Effective extra buoyancy 200 cubic feet,

to 8^ tons. For balhist, a water-tank divided into compartments,

in the bottom amidships, 14 feet long by 5 feet wide and 15 inches

ontaining 77 cubic feet, equal to 2| tons when full, and an iron keel

cwt. Internal capacity of boat under the level of the thwarts,

bic feet, equal to 5 tons. Means of freeing the boat of water,

through the bottom, 8 of 6 inches diameter, and 4 of 4 inches

er — total area, 276 square inches, which is to the capacity in the

ntion of 276 to 176, or as 1 to 64. Provision for righting the boat if

IJ24 tons of water-ballast, an iron keel, and raised air-eases in the head

llm sheets. Rig, lug foresail and mizeii : to be steered by a rudder ;

pBtier heads for securing a warp to. Draft of water, with 30 persons

o^tA, 26 inches. Weight of boat, 50 cwt. ; of gear, 17 cwt. ; total, 67

(■,(\''ould carry 70 persons. Cost, with gear, 250?.

form given to this boat would make her efficient either for pulling

ng in all weathers : she would prove a good sea boat, and in places

Yarmouth, where there are always plenty of hands to launch a

r weight would cause no difficulty. By means of the raised air-

'laccd at the extremes, the absence of side air-cases for a length of

amidships, the introduction of *2\ tons of water-ballast into her

when afloat, and her iron keel, this boat would right herself in the

f being capsized ; although from the form given to her it is highly

ble tliat such an accident .should occur.

5sage should be left in the air-cases to approach the stem and stern,

many occasions the only way in which a life-boat can go near a

s end on, when the crew of it must be received either over the

the stern. The deep keel, 8 inches, however favourable for sailing,

idying her in a seaway, and for aiding her in righting, woidd be a

fctage in beaching, and would render the boat more ditlicult to turn

Kot wishing to place her end ou to a heavy roller coming in. The

lAhe delivering valves is lai-ge in proportion to the iutei-nal capacity,

vidd rapidly free the boat of water, down to the level of her draft,

i'Vith her crew on board, would not be to less than to a depth of

Home inches above tlie floor. 'I'ho n\rr.:mi:^ aro built into thi! boat, which
renilers them liable to accidents ; if this were remedied, and her internal
capacity reduced, a 30 feet or 32 feet boat built on Hiinilar linen, with hor
int(,riial fittings slightly modified, would make an efficient life-boat, adapted
for many parts of the coawt.

Ono day in November la«t this prize-boat made a trial trip out to the
Goodwin Sands, ami proved herself of the most extraordinary qualities an
a sea boat. Cajitain Charlwood, the inspecting commander of the district
of the Coast Guard, with Lieutenant Simmons and Mr. M'Donald, tho
master of the lio.ie, revenuo cutter, and a crew of 14 picked men, went out
in her to the Gooilwin, where she was placed in such positions as to allow
tlio surf to have the greatest effect upon her. Nothing could exceed the
admirable stylo in which sho behaved ; and enough was seen to satisfy the
officers and men who were in her that she would weather tho most tem-
pestuous sea. Her sailing qualities were also tested with the most suc-
ce.'ssful results ; indeed, it is said that if it were possible to throw her on
her beam ends she would not go over. Such was her buoyancy, that when
filled with water she cleared herself to the grating in about twelve seconds.
The success of the boat has been tho source of much gratification along
the coaat.

LIFE-PRESERVING CONTRIVANCES.
A TAniETT of buoyant Articles of Clothing were exhibited : they may be
worn as every-day clothes, and include " Yatching jackets," and ladi&s'
paletots, described as capable of supporting the wearer in the water. Many
other means of support in the water were shown ; such as belts, to be
inflated by tho moiitli, and lumps of cork, threaded like beads, to be put
round the body. Waterproof trunks, made so as to servo as supporting
media in the case of shipwreck, were exhibited, with models illustrating
their easy adaptation to the purposes of rafts. Air-tight mattresses were
shown, suitable for hammocks and berths, and which, of course, are
exceedingly buoyant ; together with " floating buoyant settees," (with air-
tight gutta-percha cases,) for the decks of passenger steamers ; and a marine
floating-chair for three pei'sons.

There were likewise exhibited Carte's Life-Buoy (circular belt) ; Swimming-
Gloves, web-fingered ; and Swimming-Boots, the soles fastened to flat pieces
of wood, to which are attached flaps or leaves working by hinges ; India-
rubber-cloaks, capable of being inflated, when they become small buoys or
boats ; and Caulcher's Cork-ribbed Jacket, to be worn, without inconvenience,
whilst rowing a boat.

In the American department were several buoyant contrivances, made of
vulcanised India-rubber, for saving life under peculiar circumstances.

The Apparatus of the Royal Humane Society was exhibited ; including
their Iceboat, constructed of wicker-work, covered with raw hides, and
from its lightne.^s easily propelled on the ice to the broken spot ; the Breaker
Ladder, with air-tight barrels, on wheels ; the Ice-sledge— two canoes united
by thwarts into a floating platform; Rope-di-ag, and Pole-drag, the latter
by an air-tight cylinder rendered a floating-dra,g. Here, too, were exhibited
the Lifeboat and models of the National Institution for the preservation
of life from shipwreck. There was also sho-wn Light's invention for
rendering ships' boats so buoyant that they become life-boats ; by filling the
spaces between the timbers and beneath the thwarts with a very light
material, and covering it with tliin boards ; and should the bottom be stove
in, the frame, held together by the fibrous material, would float as a raft.
The process can also be applied to any part of a ship, or boat, its mattresses,
or other furniture, so that each may become a life-buoy.

Grapnel Shots, with mortars for their projection, to aid ivrecks, were
exhibited. The shot has attached to it a strong but light line ; andconsist<
of loose curved arms, which fly out on being disengaged from the gun :
when the line being pulled from the shore, the implement fixes in the
bottom, anchor-like, and the boat's crew have the means of warping them-
selves off. Of the same class is the Rocket-gun, for carrying a 600-yard line
from the shore to a wreck, or vice vend. Another model proposes to project
a small anchor to the wreck ; another to propel a line without the use of
gunpowder ; and next were shown' the Life-boat and mortar apparatus of
Captain Manby, tho venerable patriarch of this family of humanities.

THE FRENCH INSTITUTE AND THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

{Concluded from. page 211.)

■pRANCE has shown in a le«s general and complete manner; and it is to be
regretted that several of our trades can only be judged by the recollection
of our Expositions. Tho vigilant severity of the jury has not allowed
mediocrity to present itself. Thus all our articles are remarkable for the
discernment with which they have been chosen. Our machines, though
few iu number, are real masterpieces, which have excited the admiration of
the English themselves, and which prove the degree of development which
constructive industry would attain iu France if it could obtain the ra.v
materials at the same price as our rivals.

Our mathematical, astronomical, surgical, and horological instrumenfs
excel all others, except, perhaps, the Swiss clock-work, the makers of whic'ii
have discovered the means of producing excellent watches upon a large scale
by the aid of processes peculiar to this ingenious nation, which deserve
particular mention. Our chemical products have sustained their ancient
reputation. ,

238

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

But it is, above all, in the manufactm-e of woven fabrics of every kind
that France ha^ displayed a power, and, if we may so speak, a flexibility ot
nroduction which are incomparable. If she has still left sometlimg to be
desired iu the spinning and weaving of cotton, she owes this u.fenority only
to the high price of fuel and iron. Each day, however, slio tends more to
compensate for what she lacks on tliis head by her capabilities m printing
the fabrics, and her increasing supply of new and tasteful designs for these
fabrics for shawls, and still more so for silks. In the latter manufacture
tiie town of Lyons hiis even surpassed itself at the Great Exhibition.

The Lvons manufaetorv represents in a marvellous degree the fate ^y0l•ked
out for branches of industry, the most chai-acteristic of French genius, by
the system which protects certiun of them to the real detriment of all the
others. Five^sixths of the special produce of Lyonese manufacture have
b-en from time immemorial sold to foreigners, especially England and the
United States. The power of exchanging its commodities for foreign
,nerch.andise is, therefore, an absolute iiecessity-a question of life or death
to this town And when we consider the importance of such a manufacture,
the influence which it exerts upon the production of silk, and the grand
traditions which it is called upon to maintain, we shudder to think that it
exists from day to day at the pleasure of a system of legi.^lation which has
procm-ed for lis reprisals, of which this branch of trade boars almost the

"r'riic'" wounds itself by closing its doors, and by sacrificing to ccrtam
branches of industry its surest elements of fortime, its artistic manufactures,
or m other words, those most eminently French. France is, in fact, at the pre-
sent dav thecountry most interested iu the freedom of commercial relations
-the Juo to which this freedom would work the gi-eatest good to whiph
restrictions work the greatest ill. This may bo judged of by her works
compared with those of all the foreign countries. All hat she manufac-
tures is em-iched with an exquisite taste and with inimitable art. ^Miatever
of her products ;u-e dear, ai-e so on account of the extraordmai-y and fictitiou^
chai-geswith which thov are burthened fu- the profat of some pnvileged
l^raiiclies of the manufacture, and not of the manufacture itself.

Whilst we shall gi-adually bring under the notice of the Insti ute the
other facts confirmative of thU state of tilings, the consequences wdl unfold
themselves Everywhere we shall see the spirit of commercial freedom to
labour, the fatal spnit of restriction, in opposition to opinions as to the
wcU-undei-stood public interests. ^ t^ i i

Havin- described to tlie Academy the distinctive characters of French and
English fndustry, it is fitting that we should inquu-e what has been the
part played bv tile nations at this univei-s^vl concourse. Several of them have
Thone there with remarkable brilhaucy, and have displayed there collections
of riches of the most mteresting and most varied nature. Germany, repre-
sented by the ZoUverein, occupies the first mnk after France ^ii<l K"f '"^;
and she owes it evidently to the modifications which have been effec ed n
the custom-house legislation of the celebrated association founded and
patronised by Prussia. Tlie brilliant collection sent by this union to the
Universal Exhibition heai-s incontestable witness to the happy influence of
liberal reforms up.,n industrial production, for tins co lection eomp.-ises
the same elements of fortune, in more limited propor ions, as tho.se of
France and England. The ZoUverein has especial y distinguished it.elf
by^he skill displayed m the working of metals and pe'-haps, if we were
to iud-e only by the perfection of certam articles, wo should be right m
saj^g'that this perfection is more unapproachable m the articles sent by
Prussia th.an in those of any other nation, i- j t„

Germany advances day by day in the career of the ar s as aPP'-ed o
manufacture. She Still lacks in reffud to riches ; and capital she makes up
for by the frugality of her workmen, by the cheapness of living, by tlie low
price of raw mnterials, and the perfection of means of eonveyanee in
Geraiany The Germans invent little in manufacture, but they mutate
cxcelleuev and they are perfect patterns of order, pnideuce, and economy.
t1™1." we!^x;e .In, in the working of metals, which is the startmg-
pomt of all the other brandies of industry, and they walk side by side with
England in articles of ironmongery, and m the manufacture of a host of
utensils of every-day consumption, Their porcelains, their glass then
woven fabrics, their typography, their topography, their paper and leatler
manufactures then- earplts, their musical and philosophical instruments,
Td Sieir manufactures of chemical products, haveattracted general attention
Saxony has exhibited the tliree first sheets of an atlas, the engi-aviug of
which surpasses all the perfections of English, French, or Austrian typo-
^■anhv The valley of Chemnitz has sent some productions which appear,
by their variety and their excellent manufacture, to unite the "^"-its, so
divei-sified of our Alsace, of Koub.ix, of Rouen, and of Saint Quentd. All
these artiJles, so remarkable for their good quality, are still more so for
their low price, thanks to the happy combination of the economy of
machinerv and hand-labour. , . , j n

The na-iveU of character displayed in German works is abundajUtly seen in
the porcelains from Saxony (so full of life and expression) the bronzes and
ca.,tinKs from Berlin, the objects of natui-al history from A\irtemburg and
that infinite variety of productions of their smaller branches of mdustry---
offsprings of hand-kbour and of- the domestic hearth-which defy all
competition and all uiachinei-y. , , ,, ■ i „„p

Austria, which country \k^ not yet taken part m the commercial confe-
deration of the ZoUverein, has displayed a variety of productions as

• Frpnch Bilks PKT in EnRlnnd from 12 to 20 i>er rent.; in the ZoUverein, 20 per cent ;
inthVun1ten5tS25p..r™nt.-, 30 t, 40 per cent, in IJiodmont ; 35 to 60 t.r cent, n,
Kussia; and are proliibitcd in Anstna.

numerous as are the different i-aocs which inhabit the empire. Silks f
Italy, glass from Bohemia, scythes from Styria, various .articles from A'i-
amongst which shine pieces of cabinet work more remarkable for i
execution than design — these have worthily distinguished the miuiufacti
of Austria. She reckons in the Crystal Palace more than seven hunc
exhibitors; and like the ZoUverein, more so even than the ZoUverein,
is distinguished by the splendour and the variety of her miner.al and mab
productions, by her silks, her musical instruments, and her woven feb
of every kind, almost all of which are remarkable, if not for »aste, at 1
for cheapness. The art of constmcting machinery has made gi-eat prog
in Austria ; that country, by dint of patience, labour, and economj
now beginning to be able" itself to produce all tlio articles necessary for
vast network of railways which covers its territory, and for the fleet of st«
vessels which Austria maintains in tlic Adriatic, the Mediterranean,
tlio Black Sea.

Tlie Imperial Printing Office of A'ioniia has sent a typogi-aphical collec
whieli is without any rival in the world, including magnificent specif
of works printed in more than 200 foreign languages, from the Phoeni
to the Japanese dialects, i\-ith rare perfection, and executed as if all th'
languages were regularly spoken or studied in the empire. Austria p'
at the present day about 150 million types, to which she is still
Her topography, already very honourably known by the maps
military staff, has made fresh progress, as is verified by a superb map
environs of Vienna and the course of the Danube.

In purely industrial mattei-s Austria ajipears to tend, above all th
cheap production. She aspires to rival our common printed cotto]
excels in the manufacture of small common shawls, of small dan ..
furniture, of common cloths and cheap silks, in saddlery, and lu wee
household linen. Her curriers, her tanners, her shoemakers, and her
mongers have the reputation of being conscientious and skilful worl;
Her chemical products— some of which are entirely peculiar to Ausi
•are esteemed for their good quality, and especially for their low

are esbeuuicLi I'ji uucii ^yjyj^i v|^.cn^,j, , —i — j .

Lastly, Austria, with the advantages of cheapness, seeks the more dif
glory of the arts : and the ai-ticles exhibited by that country have proc
a real sensation of surprise at tlie assemblage of qualities which they r
in this nation, and their wondrous vitality and energj' in making
efforts even amidst such causes of disturbance as the two great wn
Hungai-y and Italy, and the mo.st .serious internal commotions. In
case,"again, we are happy to find industrial progress has followed close
economic reform,— moderate and reserved though it was. Let Austn!
for all entirely dep.art from her present state of intellectu.al, manufact
anrl political isolation, then will she march on towards the most br

future. , ,, i i u

Our neighbour, Belgium, notwithstanding its small extent, numbe

less than 500 exhibitors

less tuau uoo Biuiuii,u.», and stands equal with the greatest nations 1
power of its capital and the energy of its spirit of enterprise. It is m
a manufacturing country tliaii any other, in Europe ; the one whi<
proportion to its extent, has the greatest number of establishments
nised upon the bases of those of Fr.ance and England. Her grea
companies, her zinc and iron foundries, her glass-works, and her mai
tories of arms, are known to the whole world. Belgium is the nation
follows most closely the development of the industnal wealth of the
advanced nations, and discovers the secret of their progress with the gr
perseverance and skill. Belgium, above .all. works economically,
means of transport in that country are perfect, both by land and\
coal .abounds there, the price of manual labour is not higli, and the i
tants are robust, intelligent, and indefatigable. The entire collection
she has exhibited, and particulariy her laces, her weapons, lier linen If
are distinguished by tlieir low price,— the lowest that could be pc
imagined for such works. . , „ ^

With Belgium finishes the list of n.ations organised for great ma-
turing productions. All the others, including Spam, Italy, and
Kussi,a, are especially producers of r.aw materials, or of articles ma
hand, witliout the co-operation of machinery, at least upon a scale (
importance. , ^ ■ i r_

Spain, represented by nearly 300 exhibitors, has sent a v.anety of tt
and metallurgical products, of raw materials belonging to the vegetab
animal kiu'^dom.s, and .some silken, woollen, and linen fabrics whict
witness to the reviv.al of manufactures in that country, Cataloma,
from distrust of herself or from indiflferenco or bad humour, hi
appeared. Amongst the recent inventions exhibited by Spain, w-
noticed a shawl of black blonde, with coloured flowefs-a curious iimo
in the art of lace-m.aking. ^\'e have also seen with n.uch mtcrest
straw bonnets, in tlie Italian fashion, of most lieautiful execution ^
Although several brandies of industry and r.aw products ot bpau
most inadequately represented in London, this country, neverthele
aflbrded auotlier proof of the fact, that, wherever the mr of hber
succeeded to restrictions, industry sprouts forth and prospers. 1 he
which might be derived from Spain is wdl known,— in her mercury
tin, iron, and sulphur mines; her alkalies, salts, marbles, wmes,nce,
.Iv^-woods, and oils, which will be spread abroad the more abuiida
pl-oportion .as Spain opens lier frontiers more widdy to the impori
with which they will be piiid for. v a ■ ■!■ M

Switzoriand ought to ha^e taken the precedence of Spam, if thi
comitry could be compared with the Peninsula in the extent of its s(
grandeur of its recollections, imd its territorial nchcs ; for it has sli
tlie Extiibition by a character of powerful and original simplicity,

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPyEDIA OF THE OIM'IAT KXIIIinTlON OF 18.-1.

2.10

xoitod uihI ;iIho mcritod t^rent.^ittontion. Swit/.prljind, iiotwitliHtaiiiiing

tj^iM'h'ultios of cruiiiimiiiciition, ju-isiiit; fVimi its gc(if(ra]iliic:il conligurution,

lOvortlu'IcsH jn'ovtiil iiow much iniiy l)(i pri)diiccil fiinon^Mt ii laborious

lo by the spirit of econoiuy, |iiitriiiri-biil imlustry, )]ntieuco, and the

eratioii of all t)io doincutiu jjowcrH to tbo succeHH of tho coniiiion wi)i'k.
Otwithstiindin/,' tbo i;ttor iil)sonco of Protection, tbo miiiuifiicturos of
, of woveu fiilirii'S, luul of i-ibbons. wbicli biivo boou cstiiblirtbud at
cli and Pinle, ]ior eiubroidoi'cd uuislius. :uid Iicr watciio.s and clocks,
no coniiietition ; and on tlic bonlorH of bci- bdcos rtro couHtructod sti;am-
lea wliicli ara Hold at a ju'olit in Italy, in Fraiutc, and even in (Icrniany.
ritzerlaud owes tluB rare jirivilogo to tho faithful observance of tho
amontul laws of production. Caj>ital is abundant there : tho division
bour is well oliservcd without being pushed to the oxtrcme ; and tho
ish pnuei)de of small i>rofits, incessantly repeated, favours tho growth
lalth beyond all expression. Tho simple mode of living of tho master
i9ipen, the activity of tho wcn-kuicn, their frugal habits, and their
ivoring tendency to saving, enable this people to hoM their favourable
Ion. Switzerland is, at tho present nionicnt, a subject for study full
;erest to econoini.sts, and a striking example of what can bo ollccted by
pirit of order and economy ju tho humblest households and in tho
est countries.

ly, entirely devoted to the arts, is repreBentcd by Piedmont, Tuscany,
sardy, and tlie I'apal States. Niijilos .and Sicily have sent nothing,
woduct' of tlie I'l'iiinsula do not belong to the same category as tlm
OS manufact\u-od in the industrial arsen.als of France and England. Italy
osocial (.luestions to resolve on this head : but few largo factories, and
Biaclnnery, are to be seen in that country. Silk and silken fabrics
loae tho chief part of tho Exhibition ; and I must make tho passing
rk. that the town of Genoa is distinguished there by velvets of most
rablc beauty. Somo beautiful mosaics; some rich inl.ayings upon

many of them very reuiai'kable, exhibited by the town of Nice; oils

first quality, some excellent eheniical products sent by Tuscany ; iron
the island of Elba ; several mu.sieal instruments perfectly made, some
3eautif\d anatomical models in wax, and some very gi-aceful specimens

Iptm-e and carving — such is tho assemblage of articles eome over
Italy to the Universal Exhibition, of which Tuscany has fm'nished tbo
pal elements. The rest figures beneath the banner of Austria and that

Pontifical Governmcut.

contributions furnished by the different Italian st,ates, modest though
ire, bear certain witness to the revival of industry, and furnish a
d of hope for Italy's future.

same may be said of Tui'key, which is represented by a real ency-
iia of products, exhibited in a ni.ass, in the name of the Ottoman
ninent. composed of more than 3000 specimens of r.aw materials,
!, and for medicinal and dyeing xises ; which are extremely remarkable
eirvai-iety, their i|uality,and some of them for their novelty. Mussulman
'oxy has not prevented the commissioners from adding to its coUec-
2 varieties of mnes from Syria and Asia Minor, from which, however,

not think competition is much to be feared by our vineyards. Lastly,
y has exhibited .above 1200 manufactured articles, comju-ising
entirely of silk or mixed with cotton, veils, girdles, female
og of all descriptions, clothes embroidered with gold, fabrics of goats'
isiddlcs, shawls, muslins for turbans, state costumes, worked skins,
rich variety of kitchen utensils, of pottery, of weapons, of pipes, and

raongery, forming a domestic museum most adapted to display the
ial state of civilisation in the Levant.

evident that the East is iu course of change, and that this country
.he way again to discover the primitive sources of its ancient wealth ;
arope cannot jiay too much attention to tliis scat of production of a
" raw materials indispensable in her manufactures, and to several
products which are executed with as much solidity as economv.
th.inks to the cheapness of the wools, of tlie dyeing substances, and

lUal labour, Turkey has succeeded in imparting an immense impulse

manufacture of Smyrna carpets, of which there is at the present day

important consumption in England. These velvet carpets, which
jj for fifty yoais. have been introduced into Great Britain since the
nic reform ; and, so far from being an injury to the English carpets,

are slight and not very durable, they have given an impulse to the
icture of these carpets by spreading widely abroad the taste for this

article of furniture.

pt and Tunis, subsidiai-y provinces of the empire, have also scut their

to the Crystal Palace. Their collections consist principally of raw

alg to the number of 300 or 400, comprising rice, cotton, sesame,

tobacco, essences of every kind, cereals, and vegetables without

•n of their local origin. The Egyptian collection, however, is far from
complete exhibition of the wealth of tlie basin of the Nile. Not
Tunis. The articles sent by tb.at country have a character of

lity and simplicity purely Oriental. These tents of camels' hair

ed with lions" and jackals' skins ; these colossal saddles, bristling

>urs like bayonets, embroidered with gold and jewels ; these vases
fragrant essences; these doubtful medicinal herbs ; these badly-

i_d osti'ich skins; these mi.serable iron utensils ; this fp'eudourand

igence, tell more than long )iagcs of economic history could tell.

evertheless, a rav of civilisation is seen to da\vu through these

t?._ Algiei-s already influences Tunis, and the East is coming out of

it into open daylight.

nark and Sweden have exhibited about a hundred articles, .ronsisting,

ally from Sweden, of tho products of bcr iron mine.?, cannons, files.

and carpets, pobslicd steel, and ironmongery of every kind; .and from
D.-iiiiiark, of nmthematical inHtrumcnt«, made with great rare .and at a low
jiriie, Bpeciinuns of pottery from .Tuthiml, specinicnn of skins, iaparined
trays, oilelotbe, &c. The prodiictivo powers of theno two countries cannot
bo judged of by so Hiiiall a number ofarticloH; but ouo thinj; in certain,
that is. that tliere. n« in Switzerland, there exist Imbitu of frugality and
economy which enable tbo workman to work at n low |irice, and (till gain a
livelihood, freed aahois from the frec^ucutly factitious wauUj of our soutlicru
Latitudes.

Close to the Swedish and Danish exhibition figure tho products of the
United States of North America and those of the Kiissian Empire, those
two great powers ol' the future. They are, however, but very inade<'iiiat<;ly
represented. Five hundred and fifty exhibitors hardly represented tho
United States. The character of their jiroducta is simplicity, rusticity, and
sometimes even rudeness. In all this is seen tho nation of i.ioncem;
nothing meets the eye but these licavy axes, these ploughs and aginoultiirai
implements, more remarkable for strength than for convenienco ; several
natural substances, elementary .and for dyeing purposes ; woods in iinnienso
quantities ; several models of bo.ats, made of light bark ; siwpension bridges ;
travelling ncces.saries, sledges, skins, common gla.ss-w.are, rifles for a long
shot ; everything that Is essential to a rudo society which Ilis commenced
in the heart of forests and on the margins of lakes and great rivers. In all
that relates to art and ta.ste the Americans of the United States have not
been successful. Their pianos, their mahogany furniture, their woven atid
)iriiitcd fabrics and their clotlis, their geographical maps, and their book-
binding, all bear witness to their baekwardnesji in this re.spect. They have
sent, together with some spqcimens of raincr,al3 and machinery, a host of
Daguerreotype pictures, which are tolerably successful ; some India-mbber
pontoons, articles of fashion, hats, wigs, works in luair, and tooth-powder.
Strength .and whimsicality, utility and futility, appe.ar to occupy the same
rank in their estimation. In the collection exhibited by them are to bo
found guns with four barrel.s, almost ridiculous heaps of ten-barrelled jiist.ils,
and some specimens of ears of Indian com, cereals, and vegetables of all
kinds of the ricliest gi-owtb. Altogether tho American exhibition is quite
incapable of giving any adequate idea of the gigantic development of this
people, whoso industry overcomes tho great rivers, mountains, and other
lormidable obstructions of nature, as the only adversaries worthy of them.
The Russians, who arrived late in consequence of the difficulties of the
spring naingatiou of the Baltic, have paid a more solid tribute to the common
festival of all manufactures than have the North Americans Most
prominently to be remarked are their beautiful works in malachite
their rich furs, their odorous leathers, their beautiful specimens of copper
and iron work, and the collection of their hemps, which supply all tho
markets of Europe. The Emperor h.os sent some magnificent porcelain
vases from his Imperial manufactories. Several cotton, woollen, and silk
stuffs bear witness also to the impulse given to manufacture.

Such is the general character of the principal nations who have figured
at the assembly of the workere of the whole world. The Exhibition of
1S51, by partially raising the veil which hangs over the future, will at least
have shown the most urgent necessities of the present. Every one, hence-
forth, will know the surest means of increasing public wealth, is to promote
the importation of the raw materials of manufacture, and the cheapness of
the food of tho manufacturer. It is not by the bi-illiancv and splendour of
their productions that nations prosper, but by the abundant circulation of
articles of common utility.

When the details of the productions of bo many different people .are
studied, as they .are revealed by the products themselves, and bv the
conditions under which these nations have produced them, we are struck
by the simplicity and inflexibility of the economic laws which govern them
notwithstanding the great variety in their aptitudes, their climates, their
geographical situations, and their political Governments. Whatever the
forms and requirements of these Governnents may be, provided the funda-
mental laws of labour are respected, their m.aterial prosperity is invariably
developed ; when these laws ai-e not understood, or shackled iu their applica-
tion, it perishes or languishes ; and the fact has been placed beyond all doubt
by the Univprsal Exhibition, that no nation can hope for a inauufiicturino-
future unless it walks forward with a firm and continued pace towards the
lowering of the cost of production, and the amelioration of tho condition
of tho producers.

Without entering here into details of figures, we can afl5rm. with a
certainty that we shall not be contr.adicted by any exceptions, that the
superiority, general and special, .absolute or relative, of every nation which
has appeared at the Universal Exhibition, is especially m.onifested in the
price of articles of large manufacture. If we had to present to the Academy
something more than a report— I had almost said a summarv inventory—
of the products exhibited at the Crystal Palace, we should "have had no
diificulty in making an analysis of these prices, and we should have found,
in every case, high prices the consequence of Protection, and low prices
that of Free Trade. England. Spain, Germany, Belgium, the Zollverein,
offer us a thousand examples of this ; no nation furnishes a single exception
of It. Other cases, doubtless, have aided in this reduction of price, but
the starting point has been the same in all nations ; and all other adv.an-
tages a>-e rendered impotent, or weakened, if the chief of all be wantin"-
that of commercial freedom and moderate taxation. °

France haii been a remarkable example of this, notwithstanding all the
success ^liich she has met with this year at the London Exhibition.
Never, perhaps, have her manufactures shone with more brUliancv ; never
have the nations awardgd her with more unanimitv the palm of taste ;

240

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS.

CURTAIN CORNICE OF rAPIEn JTACHK. — JACKSOS.

but, when we t

and go deeply int

matters, and to e

late the price o

many admirable

cles, the truth

not been long i

vering itself, an(

have leai'nt to 1

what our histor

cost us. The pri)

and characteristic

of our situation

of the whole Ej

tion, has been

following — '■ En|

excels all nationt

several natiqns

us, iu the low /).

articles made V

aid of machi

such as the spi

and weaving o

ton, thread, and

in a word, all

admits of proJ>

by machinery a

quiring immens

kets. These ar

cisely the ma

tures in whicV

workmen's wi

the lowest, ai

chances of c]

most freq

France, on thi

trary, reigns su;

both by low pri

quality, iu al

depends upon

vidual, regula

coutinu.al prod'

in which comp

is less activi

wages higher,"

The true pro:

of our couul

therefore, that

rests upon tli

gressive devek

of her natural

tries, that js to

nearly all the

which skilfiJi

hand and pu

tuste are abl^^ t

their influence

To these

France owes tl

jjositiou she h;i

tliis year at tli

versal Exh

They only req

and light foi

extension ; the

the fo\mdation

manufacturing'

of France, ar

upon the firll

perishable

national geni'

stead of e^isi

rule and artifi

those under t

trol of machin-

capital.

Ill

■,vo!:kki> mi --i in it i:

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OF THE GREAT EXIlIlJITlOiN OF 1851.

SILVER DISH. — ANGELL.

SILVER DISH.— BY ANGELL.
!i -liver dish by Mr. J. Angell is embellished with a subject designed
' 1 iimur and commemorate the Great Industrial Exhibition — her
liiaty, as Britannia, receiving the contributious of the vai'ious nations
INo. 16, January 17, 1852.

of the earth"; in the rim ai'e a medallion containing profiles of the
Queen and Prince Albert, and othei-s allegorical of the four quarters of
the globe. The design is by J. Henniug, jun. It has a very pleasing
effect.

Price One Penny.

242

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

BOOKBINDING.

-pHE

various specimens of bookbinding exhibited both on the British
and Foreign side, afforded evidence that an animated stiiiggle is going
on for pre-emiueuee in the ornamentation of the outer pai'ts of books ; and
many ingenious and gauily devices are the result. But upon the whole,
we cannot approve of the taste which Ia\-i3he3 so much upon the externals
of om- literature ; it is neither in harmony with the calm spirit of intelli-
gence which should
preside over the
hours of study, nor,
to speak upon deco-
rative points, do we
think that so much
laboured and fiir-
fetched vanity im-
proves the appear-
ance of the shelves
of the library. Pro-
ceed we now to a
few details.

BKITISn SIDE.

Remnant and Ed-
monds contributed
a good selection of
bindings, including
Owen Jones's stamp-
ed leather covers,
and a pleasing spe-
cimen or two of
" classic " books it
calf. Barritt and
Co. next showed the
wonders of their
workshop. Their
huge Bibles, with
the sunk panels, gilt
metal ornaments,
and profuse em-
bellishment, cannot
please any one witli
good taste. Wright,
of Noel Street, sent
a copy of "Sylves-
tre,"in morocco, very
finely tooled ; and
" Das Niebelungen
Lied," in white vel-
lum, inlaid with lines
of or.ange and pm-plc
leathers, making a
tasteful pattern. Let
us here, once for all,
protest against 'the
absurd ity of deco-
rating the edges of
books with jjictures.
Macomie and Co.
contributed a large
Bible, bound in mo-
rocco, with a bronze
ornament running
round the side ; an-
other Bible, in buhl-
work, and a " Bocca-
cio," in white vellum,
inlaid with colour.
Mr. Macomie seems

fond of the raised panels — a style we cannot admire. Evans, of

Berwick Street, " the inventor of English illuminated binding," as he
calls liimself, filled a case with examples of this wonderful art, and
of the "Victorian" style of binding. Here we had a copy of one of the
book covers in the British Museum, very well exeoute;'. in coloured
leathers : the rest was mere " fancy stationer's work." Batten, of Clap-
ham, had a case containing some richly -tooled bindings for the "Song
of the Bell," " Moore's Melodies," and a " Shakspeare ;" but Gothic
church window.s are not fit ornaments for the bookbinder's use, even
on Bibles and Prayer-books. Orr and Co. sliowcd books iiubllshed and
hound by them : some of them with good gilt ornaments. Josiah
Westley had a case chiefly filled with publishers' bindings, that are
certainly a great advance in style on the productions of even two years
suice. Binns and Ooodwin. of Bath, showed one spjcnuen elaborate
enough, but not to be praised beyond the execution ; and tlien we come

GUOCP OF BOOKS.

deal of pretence' about'this case, which we cannot say was particularly w
earned out. In one compartment we noticed manuscript copies of c
printing and old engravings marvellously executed, and there were sot
unostentatious examples of excellent binding ; but who will admire
decorations of a Bible, which, because it is called " King William's Bibl
has the clasps formed of cables and anchors " in honour of the Sii}
King !" ^Vho cares to see " Burnet on colour," with a painter's palette ■
the side — mind, not a conventional ornament, but the verisimiUtude oi
palette, dabs of colour and all ? Tlieu tliere was " Kasselas," boimd i
oriental stripes; but tliis is so richly and well done, that we will i

quarrel witli
" Bacon's worl^°
hog-skin ! Vemi i"
•• Life of Xapolen
bound intri-eulouT
morocco, tlie ed,
diapered with b.
ascending and ji'
tte-lU reversed, '■
pifying the rise
Napoleon and i
fall of the Bo
bons;" and then,
better taste, "Tli(.
sou's Seasons," w
the twelve signs
the Zodiac ; a
"iHoratius " a
" Macanloy s La;
in classically or
mented calf.

There were 1 1
some books i
painting on the 1 1
on sunk paueb I
good enough as
as the painting
concerned, but i i
not a poor idea t ,
to ornament a hi J
lug! ButifMesj
Leigh ton's cone j
are somewhat abs |
(their workman: i
is excellent), w ji
shall we say to
Churton, who
blessed with " a ) (
for ornament [
books by era or ;
ject !" A work ;
railways has B I
is nieaut to b<|
tunnel, clabon
worked on the ;
witli gold lines. '
Pu-ate and , Tli
Cutters is decorn
with cable ornamt
and Shakspeare v
an Elizabethan
chitectural sci
Surely these pv
lities can hardly
patrons.

Mi's. Lesvis ha
case of we)l-bo
books — one on
raldry.appropriii
enough oruamei
with small coat:
arms at tlie corners ; Cimdall and Addy showed some examples of
morocco bindings of Mr. Kayday (who unfortunately did not him
exhibit), and an elaborate pierced metal cover, executed by Burtt
Sons, for choice examples of art workmanship. The design of
ornament — copied from an old Venetian binding of tlie 17th cent
— is very beautiful. Leighton and Son next exhibited some ole
designs for bindings by Luke Limner : two Bibles very creditably bou
and an elaborate cover for a small Bible in stamped gilt metal. (
of the best and most honest-looking bindings in the show was
tributed by Mr. Tarrant, a copy of Sir Thomas Lawrence's Works
orange-coloured morocco, richly gilt, and with a little inlaying of ot
leathers. Clarke, of Frith Street, showed a variety of good, substani
volumes, in the old " tree-marblcd " calf, and regular library bindii
— his green and purple stainings were more curious tlian admiral
.'VIr. Briddon and Mr. Wiseman, from Cambridge, each exhibited Ifi

LEIGHTOX.

to the large show made by Leighton, of Brewer Street. There was a great j Bibles, elaborate and oroditablo; and our Scotch friends sent us a .

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOIVEDIA OF THE GllKAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

24Ji

fund ill wliito iiKiroi.'co, iiihiid with coloured roneH, and oniumcutcd in ttio

iti'o with a gilt fountain and tlowoin ! Krom other spcciincnH I'mrn the

jrth country wo :ire only ahlo to pithur thiit Rood taste haw not yet heoa

li hu'eil to thu Scotch hookhindcra. Mr. Parker, of Oxford, Koiit ii case

i|l\ commonsurato with liiH reputation. Mr. Kivierc^, of Oroat Qucon-

iiad, perhaps, the choicest collection of all. Ho contributed but

kn, and all are oxeellently wtfll bound. Spenser's WorkH, in

o, elcLjautly tooled with lines, sorucwhat in the Urulier style, among

I h tlio letters V.H. aro just traceable. A Common Prayer, in nioroeco,
IN old stylo; V'iryil, in white volhun, rather too much inlaid with

: and a );oo<l example of " tree-marbleil " calf. Hone and Son had
■ outiiuiiug some of thu best designs for clotli bindings, well carried
lil tiicir (Ictiul. We.stloy and Co. had a large display ; among some
111 cloth and morocco examples, we found a huge Bible, ornamented
naido of the cover (which wasshown to the spectator) with a (lothic
windo'.v, elaborated , with a profu.siou of detail, all

to provo wliat excellent workmen, but what
1 arti.stB, ill thi.s instance, Messrs. Westley have em-

lu the Fine .\rts Court, was a Bible, contributed

II rs. Nisbet, but bound by Mr. Hayday, each side ex-
( ' I y ornamented with a richly carved panel, in boxwood,

'1 by Harry Koger:;, and carved by his father, lir. W.
1 13. This was the only liinding worthy of great ad-
• n contributed by Ejiglisli exhibitoiu

corners was the symbol of the EvanKoliiitii — on odkcI, a lion, a bull, and an
eagle — all in silver. The next wiw an album, likewise in blue velvet,
ornamented with gilt metal and traceiy of ebony (beautiful in design) ; the
cf-ntro WiiH a bronze medallion, sot round with a i-tring of pctiris. The
third was a largo volume in grccu morocco, inlaid with red and buff Icatlier
ornamented with gilt metal-work, enclosing ten medallions, painted liko
b.us reliefs, in metal. Next came a large and beautiful book, entitled
" Landschaften," bound in purple velvet, exquieitely ornamented with
pierced ivory of most elaborate pottcm. Then there was a volume of
" National Music," covered with metal-work and carved ivoi-y. Jn the
centre wero the arras of Austria ; and, surrounding them, fourteen little
oil-paintings, mostly of rur.il costume, descriptive, we imagine, of tho
national songs. Next was a book in morocco, inhiid with ivory and a light
blue enamel, beautifully oruaniouted with gold ; and, behind it, a volume
bound in tortoise-shell, with gilt and silver oniameuts of Oothic design.

^ ■ FOREIGN SIDE.

llono of tho divisions at the extreme south of the

oitlod to Franco wore tho coutributiuus of the Frcncli

llitbindcrs. M. Gruel fii-st

c lue our attention for his two

fcto volumes bound in mo-

► ;o, inlaid with coloured

k hcis, forming very bold and

jid designs ; and for a missal

l^vi;lvt-t, richly oniameuted

irti gilt metal and jewels ; but

Bc^iinend us more to some

(liUcr^books of ** Hours," uue

lBaa'\ed ebony, one in velvet,

»f;red with a tracery of ivorj',

aithcr in bright velvet, with

abeautiful design iu carved

wood ; and to two or throo

volumes in Kussia and

et slightly ornamented with

hinges and clasp.^ of ex-

\y graceful ecclesiastical

go, very different from tho

rmed and heavy Gothic

to Ije found on om-

jlish bibles. Iu the adjoiu-

ca^e M. Niedrce exhibited

perfection of workmanship

lioate gilding. There were

tiny volumes of this col-

Qu that might challenge the

d for their superior. M.

iree seems to prefer speud-

lis chief talent on the inside

is covers ; .and on one of

slittle volumes especially there was the most exquisite design, most ably

^uted. For honest bookbinding, without the factitious aid of metal- work,

or inlaying, il. Niedree clearly, in our opinion, bears the palm ; and a

ui.^te would, pcrliaps, be bctterpleascd with this little show of volumes

M «ith all the glories of their more man;uificent-looking brethi-en.

il liLiiier sent a " Don Quixote " bound in light calf, with a good orua-

iii Uil dcsigu darkened upon it, and as a centre the celebrated wind-mill :

u .L ■■ Molicre "' decorated with a Grolier pattern : his other specimens

Jj nut to be praised. Maine and Co., the great publi:*hers, of Tours,

i.'iijitcd a vaiiety of cloth and morocco biudinga, which we ai-e sorry we

la lit commend : in general the ornamentation was gaudy and Ul-designed.

»'. i 01 taste docs not seem to extend much through the French provinces.

the Northern Gallery, over the covirts appropriated to Belgium,

■' ' :.ici|, of ilechliu, exhibited a trophy, as it were, of Litui-giesin various

IS and all sizes, some of them illustrated and illumuiated, and

.11 bound in a showy way with stamped metal corners, clasps, -and

uta. The nr.st impression promised something worthy of praise,

are sorry to hud tliat a closer inspection dispelled the illusion.

<i room iu which MM. Leistler, of Vienna, displayed their beautiful

-ii.-i, there were .^ome marvellous examples of Austrian work.

icnciug at the left-hand side of the Gothic bookcase, we first

1 a foUo volume, bound iu blue velvet, ornamented with silver tracery

ii Gothic design. In the centre -.vas a figxu-e of Christ, and at the four

GliOUP OK BOOKS. H.iStCQ, OF MECHLIS.

and three female allegorical figm-es iu metal. These books claun admirrfioii
for the elaborate and costly ornament upon tliem. They are — •witli the
Gothic bookcase that holds them — a x>resent from the Emperor of Austria
to her ilajesty. We have our doubts, however, as to whetiier all the credit is
due to Vienna; more especially assome plainmoroccobooksinthesamecaifie
did not exhibit tlie same amoant of ta^te or exctlleuce of v. orkinaDship.
Among the minor volumes we noticed a peculiarity not unpleasing; the
titles of the books are lettered in raised metal letter?, chased or burnished
on the surface.

■\Vateblow's ADTOGRArHic Press. By this apparatus, any person may

with faciUty print any number of letters, circulars, pen-iind-ink sketcbfle,
mufsical notations, &c. ; the ^vhole machinery bting compassed in a ueat
box not l;u-ger than a lady's 'n•ritin^'-ca9e. The process i^ as follow.= : — A
letter is written on prepared paper, and then transferred to a polished
metallic plate by hand-power, assisted by a *' scraper." The paper is then
wa'shed off with water, when the writing remains on I'we plate, and is ehai-.;ed
with ink from a roller. Paper is now laid on the plate, and upon the
application of preeeui'e, the impression is derived, and the process may be
repeated sixty or seventy times iu the lionr, the plate being Eubjccted to
the ink roller for each impression. When euiiicieut copies are ca.'rt. off. the
plate is cler.ned, and ready for a fi-esh operation. The sj ccimens worked
are equal to lithography.

244

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

FOREIGN AND COLONIAL DEPARTMENTS.

FRANCE.
A VARIETY of circumstances contributed to lender ttie Frencli collection,
next to that of the United Kingdom, one of the most attractive and
extensive in the Exhibition. The lengthened and successful experience
enjoyed by France in exhibitions of national industry gave to the exhibitors , represented by the French exhibitors.

BAT OF'. THE FRENCH DEPARTMF.NT.

an advantage not possessed by the majority of those contributing to t
Exhibition, so far, that is to say, as concerned the arrangement and e:
oution of the miuor details inseparable from a display of this descriptio
The results of these national expositions of French industry, and thi
effect upon the industrial progress of the people, and the development
art applied to the things of life, have been unquestionably great, a
these were now presented to notice in a palpable form. No class ■
the Exhibition, considered in its pliilosophical subdivision, was left

In raw materials, machine
manufactures.
Fine Arts — the ft
grand sections i]
which the thi
Classes resol
themselves — sp
mens of every ti
ety were exhibit
The total numba
exhibitors amoun
to about 1750, (
the area occup
by their contribat
articles was V
lai'ge, both onj
nortli and
sides of the
Eastern Avenud
in tlie Gallerieq
The principa]
tures only of '1
large and vain
collection will
indicated in this^
troductory nol }
Among the raw
terials, the beaui ,
specimens of
and thrown
attracted univt j
admiration. Tb j
a department ol j
dustry which is
stantly assur 1
greater imports I
The samples of
wound by modi j
tions of the cusl j
ary processes
of great beauty; I
an interesting s>
men of cocoon
the frames in w
the silkworms
reared and pel
ted to spin the''
derful enveIop(
the pupa, gav
good idea of
manuer in whicl
culture of tlies
sects is carried
The Iiemp,
and other te
materials exhil
were likewise i
esting. Tlie
cassful applici
of philosophy
manufacturing
mi^try for a c
derable time has
duced good re;
in this departi
of industry. It
universally at
ted fact that,
some of the i
delicate chei
prepai'ations,
as vegetable
loids, the pre
tions of the Fr
manufacturer
those of other
tions. The gri
products were
wise exhibited;
these, howeveij

AN TLLUSTIiATKD CYCLOI'^T'IDIA OP THE GUKAT KXIIUUTION OF 1851.

245

e SUCCORS vtaa
somanifeflt ns
limilar jn'ochic-
IS of BritiaU
libitora, proba-
bocnuso tlio
ler are geue-
,y mauufnc-
sd on a very
;e and exton-
I scale. Tlio
lents and vari-
specimens of
its exhibited
each tlieif
sial value and
irest. Speci-
IB of metals
of skill iu
allic manipu-
ou were also
, — in parti-
ir, some large
oimens of
ten copper and
ed brass, and
cimens illus-
ive of the iron
lufcctxu'es. Ar-
es of prepared
were also
ely exhibited.
. fair coUcc-

of machinery was likewise shown. It included, ainoug many objecta

nterest, a large prime mover in the form of a turbine water-wheel, a

banical contrivance for

development of power

the descent of water.

;ceut introduction, and

idy of extensive ajjpli-

'n to the cotton and

fiictorics of France,

to other mills. Tlie

''. I developed by the

I motion is very

:i . :iiid the arr.ingemeut

>lUc iiiachiiic extremely

■' jiact and effective.

r. liiule.s for cotton-spin-

li . the carding engines

bicottun and wool, and

61 endless pap?r-niakinpt

" ': ^, formed objects

iietivo companson

. L' magnificent dis-

li "( similar machines

ill'' liritish collection.

itcheu apparatus,

and numerous

ii'hines, were like-

'iU instructive cha-

The philosophical

nts and musical

'uts. inclusive of

111 in the nave,

:d.50 an interestinj,'

; objects. Ojjtical

iits of diflerent

. i re exhibited in

: tcction.

J tlie manufactures

! importance came

-:eous productions

Ik-Iooms of Lyon.s,

'Vere arranged in

the Gallery. The

iiianufactures. and

' wool and linen,

' interesting. The

displayed admi-

taste, and the skilful

;ement of many of

articles added mucli

leir attractiveness iu

Ixhibition. Thesplen

THE Roy.VL F.iN.— DL'VEI.LEROV.

whole collection. They were accompanied by specimens of Sevres porce-
lain, the articles in which, inclusive of vases, paintings, &c., were of gi'eat

CABINET — m\ART AND ANDEIEUi

ipestriesof the Gobelins, and of other national manufactories, as that
luvais, formed, perhaps, one of the most interesting features of the

rarity and costliness. The furniture exhibited partook of tlie usual
chai-acter of the French productions of this class, and many indicated the

246

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

employment of taleut of a high order in their design and execution.
This collection -n-as extremely rich in those articles which form so large
and important a feature in Parisian industry — articles of bijouterie, vertu.
&c., and iewellery. The multitude of objects exhibited in this class, and
their vai-iety, strongly suggest the idea of a great demand for siich elegances,
and of the existence of many skilful designei-s occupied in tlieir production.
The beautiful display of jewels exhibited by her Majesty the Queen of Spain,
and the jeweller of that Court, attracted universal notice. The specimens
of paper and printing exhibited included a number of objects of interest ;
and the coloured and other lithographs, and stereotype-, by new processes,
evidence much progress in this department. Photograplis on paper and on
silver (Talbotype and Daguerreotype) were exhibited. The French photo-
gi-aphers have" made great progress in the art of the Talbotype (an English

followed by others, relating to the representation of its special braiii
of industry, as indicated by the commodities sent for Exhibition.

SDSPEXSIOX. — VOI.SINLIElI,\'.

discovery), and beautiful jiictiircs taken by modificationsof that process were
shown. Objects of sculpture and of the Fine Arts were likewise exhibited,
and added to the interest of the collection.

The improvement in tiic manufacture of the commoner articles of life,
which is now rapidly extending in France, may bo in part attributable to
the powerful encouragement to the production of this class of objects
con6t;mtly offered at tlie Nation.al Expositions at Paris. Tlie whole collec-
tion formed a fit illustration, and also an adequate one, of the present state
of the industry of France.

Of all the foreign nations invited to the gi'eat celebration of the vast jubi-
lee of industry of 1851, and who have shown by the extent of their prepara-
tions the interest which they felt in the success of that great undertaking,
none occupied so high a position as France. But how little is known of her
present position, cither in a commercial or a manufacturing jioint of view, or
of thn jirngress which, as our most foiniidable rivals in many respects, the
Fi-enc!i have made of late years, both in commerce and njanufactures ! \\'a
propose to give, as part of oiu- record of the Exhibitioir. a series of articles
on the progress and present condition of French industiy, which ivill be

STATISTICS OF THE INDUSTRY OF FRANCE.

Statistical science is of modern growth, and although on most sabj
connected therewith few countries offer the student ampler materials I
France, still, in questions relating to its industry and manufactui'es, g
difficulty is experienced in obtaining accurate and authentic informal
In such matters, as well as in many others relating to the social econ
of that coimtry, the inquirer must be content to trace Ms researchesf 1
to the reign of Louis XIV. ; for in those times originated almost all
civil and administrative institutions of France — and they, likewise, san
dauTi of correct information with respect to manufactures.

Colbert, having paid particular attention to manufacturing interests,
being anxious to ascertain the result of his exertions, decreed tliat a gei
inventory of the manufactories in the kingdom should be made out.
turned out a failure, taken as a whole ; but in some respects it was coi
enough to give an accurate notion of some particulai' branches of
— of the woollen trade, for instance, one of paramount importance
time, since the cotton trade had not then been called iutf) existeni
the silk manufacture was still in its infancy. The statistical retu;
obtauied showed that the kingdom then possessed at least 34 .'200 lo(
the weaving of woollen stuQ's of all kinds, inclusive of camlets, sergi
other inferior fabric?. The amount of materials produced was not L
C70,5I0 pieces, worth 19,978,291 lirrcs toimiois — equal to about 40 mil
of francs currenc3^ There v\-ere 60,440 artisans set to work thereby,
loom wove 20 pieces of stufl" annually, and pi-oduced 1200 francs wor
fabrics ; each piece being worth aliout CO francs wholesale selling i
And if we suppose that, on an average, they measured ninety yards
it gave but 3 yai'ds of woollen apparel to each inhabitant ; a fact \
proves that a great portion of the population, instead of wearing comfoi
woollen clothing, was clad in coarse linen cloth and other inferior matt
spun by the country people outside the factories.

But, on the other hand, it i.s curious to observe that there were V
artisans in the lace trade — a fact, denoting what a considerable .'^liarelv
and the taste for display had in the industrial pursuits of tiie seventi
century, at a time -nlien the bulk of the people were in need of the i
saries of life. It is at the same time only right to state that Colbert
tronage was bestowed upon the most usefol arts and br.onches of indi
such as foundries, tin manufactories, glass, leather-dressing, ^c.. which
considerable progress. He brought over to Fi'auee the brothers ^'um-
who founded at Abbeville the manufacture of Dutch cloths. Alreac
1048, had Nicholas Cadeaxi introduced at Sedan the weaving of 1
cloths, and in 165(> the looms in the hosiery tiade had been imported
Er.gland by two merchants of Nismes. Tlie importance of such iu
tions had not escaped the observation of Colbert, who knew how to
anil appreciate them.

From th,at time to (he year 1788 no record is to be found of the coa'
or progress of the commercial and industrial intei-ests of the count]
that 3'ear, however, 1^1. de Tolosan, then Intendent-General of thi
mcrcial Department, a^ ailed himself of his official position to carry
original plan of Colbert. The result showed the industrial w
France at that perioil, divided under three principal heads — miner
table, and animal (with a small addition for arts and sundries)
>a.s follows : —

Mineral kmgdom . . 163,160,000 or 18 per cent, of the entire prO"
Vegetable kingdom . . 316,500,000 or 34 do. do.

Animal kingdom . . 451,800,000 or 48 do. do.

Total. . . . £931,460,000
Add arts and smidnes . 60,000,000

It is not necessary here to dwell upon the several conclusions that I
be driiwn from this record of the industrial state of the country!
Louis XA'L, at a time when it had been favourably developed by peaci
by the administration of Turgot, Malesherbes, and Necker. We will
observe generally that such industries as boi-row their raw material
the mineral kingdom were remarkably backward, and did not mee
requirements of the population ; while, on the contrary, those deriving
supplies from the animal creation had acquired considerable import
The woollen fabrics, in particular, had increased sixfold iu value sinci
time of Colbert. The value was, imder Louis XIV., two francs per he
tlie population, while it was nearly ten francs imder Louis XVL
yield of the starch trade, which amounted annually to twenty-four mil
of francs, proves how extensive was then the use of hair-powder, and B
what influence fashion exercises upon certain branches of industry,
soap manufacture was far from having reached such a pitch of prospe
and the jiroduce was S3 per cent, inferior to the former article.

M. de Tolosan's returns comprise items which arc well worth not
He endeavoured, in each of the chief branches of industry, to point ou
share accruing to hand labour, iu the shape of wages. The result C
inquiries showed ; —

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCL0?.T;1>IA OF THE GREAT EXIIIRTTIOX OF l«ni.

247

. f.585.()ll0,00fl
. . 250,liS(l,000

.ii, son. 000

. . 206,850,000
. 335,550,000

raw nmterial bcinp
in tlio Buin total of

JTho total value of ffthrics of all mrl» to l)c

nitto of raw iniiti'riiiU

IVofitH . . . ■

^VaRcs . . •

I'otiil of labour anil iHolitK

,1 11 till' braiu'h of hcmn and tlax manufacturos, tlio

,|ne grown, tlicir value was low in proportion— and, ... v ,. «.

j'ds wlicn made \\\k thoy claimod but a proportion of 25 per cent. ; thus
-Irinc thropfourtlis of tlioir market value for labour and profit.
I 11 tli8 won) Ion department, the r.uv material bein^ oiie-lialf indigenous
j|l one-lialf exotic, the price of tlio made good.s w.as higher, and was
«ally divided between the price of tlio material and thiit of wages together
Sh prolit.i.
knil tliir.Uy. in the silU tr.ado,the material, being all drawn from abroad.

AUM CHAIR.— JEAXSELME.

med two-thirds iu the total value of the article when mauufactured. and

but 33 per cent, to be divided between wages and profits. It will bo

Testing to see hereafter how far those proportions have been maintained

ihanged.

riien came the gi'cat events of the Pievolution. Before twenty years had
e)sed, the industry of France, and i'rance hcr.^elf, had been completely
tiaformed. A decree of the National Assembly, issued iu 1791, had
alished trades unions and wardenships, and proclaimed the freedom of
1 )ur and industry. Freed from the shackles of the past, and iucited by
ti necessities of the present, national industry maiJe immense strides.
I'the arming, clothing, equipping, and maintenance of 14 armies and
4,10,000 Nation.ll Guards, the country fabricated more iron, steel, bronze
tt textile w.are3 than had been made since tlie time of the Valois. Un-
li pily no sure or complete data can be collected to give an idea of its
■^ eat that period, and we thus reach the year 1S12, when Napoleon,
flowing tlie idea of Colbert, resumed the statistical survey of industrial
Since — that is. of France as it wa^ then, comprising its annex.ations.
links, however, to M. Chaptal, the celebrated Minister of the Interior, we
n enabled to present the returns applicable to France proper, which show
ti following result : —

. Mineral kingdom ....

- Vegetable kingdom . . . .

. Animal kingdom ....

. Sundries not othenvise denominated.

f.391, 572,000

per cent

771.63S,000

5CS 385,000

118,405,000

Total

f.1,820.000,000 or 100

inillims. The coniinmption of munufactured (joodH, which at the fi/rmer
r 'liod wa8 equal to 37 francii per head, lail reached G3 franc« in 1S12.
I'liiM was an incicasc of "0 [ler cent., even relatively to the conHidcrablc
iiicrtase of the jiopulation. It may not be uninteresting to j.urBuo tlio
inquiry, and to Ktato Rome of tlio changcH which took place in the period
hetween 17MS.uid 1812. Th<: extraction of rock unit increased from 40
millions of kilogrammes to 150 millions. The requiienients of war rai«c<l
llie annual canting of iron from f!9 million kilogranunca to 112, or nearly
double. Br.asa foundries trebled their product'. The liberty of the pre.s*
mgmented fourfold the jiroduction of the paper trade ; from 8 millionB in
1788, it rose to 32 millions. The usages of progressive civilisation caiwcd

Thus, in the sp.ace of twenty-four years — from, 1788 to 1812 — the
iiiistrial wealth of France had doubled, and had risen from 931 to 1820

THE GUAIIDIAN ANOEL. — VITTOZ.

the consumption of soap to increase from IS to 33 millions. The pro-
duction of tostile fabrics, or the hemp, flax, .and cotton manufactures, nearly
doubled in value, and movo tlian doubled in quantity, for prices were con-
sider.ibly reduced. Valued in the bulk at 225 millions of francs before the
Revolution, they were set down at 435 in 1812.

On the other hand, the silk trade, wdiich always suffered very gi-eatly in
disturbed times, could barely sustain its former state of prosperity in this
instance. In 1738. it was set down at 107 millions of francs ; while, towards
the end of the Empire, it was 135 millions. Not so woollen fabrics. Their
value, when compared at the two periods in question, differed not only by
tlie increase in the quantity of manufactures, but by the fall in prices, by
the introduction of machinery, by new processes of manufacturing and dye-
ing, aiKl by the fabrication of a number of new descriptions of goods con-
taining much less mateiial within the same measurement. The rate of
increase is shown iu the following figures : —

Number of loans .....
Number of hands employed . . .
Number of woollen pieces made .

Finally, not to carry details further, we will observe that an ai-ticle
almost unknown or despised before 1789— viz., coal— was brought into use
as soon as the wars of the Revolution had set iron mines to work and had
started numerous fouudries. In 1794. the produce of coal mines was equal
to two-and-a-half millions of metrical quintals— from 1813 to 1815 it had
increased so that the avaraje production for the three years wxs 8,200,000

1788.

1812.

7.285 .

17,074

76,817 .

131,409

324,440 .

. 1.240,977

248

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS ;

quintals : it had moi-e than trebled in the space of twenty years.
see elsewhere what it is in the present day.

We shall

This e.stimate was evidently under the mark, even for the periodi
which it applied. And it did not comprise either the value of means
conveyance or of motive power used for iudusfo
purposes — though these ai'e too important ite
to be overlooked.

The next estimates worthy of attention
those of M. C. Dupiu, in 1827, which emfan
Agriculture and commerce. They ran thus —

Private industry ....

fl,973,000,(

Public works

659,000i(

Conveyance, preparing, and retail

sale of agricultural produce

420,000,t

Profits on products of industry .

281,000,

Profits from fisheries, shipping

trade, &c

362,000,

Interest on capital

370,000,

Wealth from industriallabour £3,325,000,"

In the year 1844, we find the total numbei
factories and other industrial establishments
be 47,300, of a total rental of 34,372,681f.,
quiring an amount of i-aw material valued at
less than 2, 530,764, 181f., which, when wrouj
is enhanced to 3,64S,764,488f. These mauu
turing necessities employ annuallyl, 057. 915 hai
among whom we find 672,446 men, 254,371 won
and 131,098 children, working each resjiectivel;
a salary of 2f 9c., If. 3c., and 73c. per diem.

The return of machinery set in motion for
purposes of the above is thus divided : —

Mills moved by water

„ |by wmd

„ by horse power
Steam-engines

22,
4,
1,
2,

Horses and mules

26,

Cattle

Furnaces

Forges

Kilns

Looms ......

305

Other contrivances

Spindles 5,008

If we compare the three periods' just spoke
— the latter of which, let it be remembered, ( I
not exhibit the whole production of France- i
find it ill 1844 to be four times, even in it6|
complete statement, what it was in 1788, and doil
what it was in 1812.

Again, examining each department sepaiatj
we find the figures to be —

1844.

Millions of
francs.
Mineral products 6285
Vegetable do. 1955
Animal do. 1005

In 1S12. In ly.'H

Millions of Millii

r2 francs. fra]

S_ [391} 16

< 11 \ 771 J 311

I' [508 452

VASE. — ODIOT.

The estimates of the industrial wealth of France in 1812, accjrding to
M. Chaptal, are thus recapitulated : —

Raw materials derived from agriculture .... f.41 6,000,000

Exotic raw materials 186,000,000

Labour and wages 844,000,000

Sundry expenses, wear and tear of tools, repairing, interej^, &c. 192,000,000

Profits 182,000,000

Total 1.1,820,000,000

The compai'ison would seem to indicate that
greatest improvement has taken place in the v
table department, while the least advance has I
in animal products — the yield being in the for
case six times what it was in 1788, and ne
treble wliat it was in 1812; while in the la
the difference in respect of the total had dwim
from four times to twice what it was in 178S.
A further comparison of details in the ret
itself will enable us to ti'ace the progress m
xip to 1844 in individual branches of indus
Thus, in the vegetable department, we notice
following : —

Flax and Heary Fuhrks. — Value of gc
manufactured, 93,015,743f. ; value of raw in
rial, 57,9G7,226f. ; wages and labour, 35,048,51
made in 4597 various establishments, by 51,
hands.
Cotton Goods. — Value of the manufactures, 410,627,202f. : value of
material, 257,355,905f ; value of wages and labour, 153,271,2971'. : maJi
2360 establishments, by 242,428 hands.

Mixed Fuhrics.—\ a\Me of goods, 101,201,762f ; value of raw niatei
6S,05G,6eif ; wages and labour, 33,145,101f ; made in 483 estabhshmo
by 45,958 hands, both men, women, and children.

Thus we see that the proportion between wages and the price of mati
— so much in favour of the former in 1788 — is totally ditfereut now, ac
in favour of the latter nearly 100 percent.

\N ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPyRDTA OP THH GREAT KXHIRTTFON OF 1851.

2 to

rill.' Hiiiiio i-uHults arc oljHcrvublo ill proiluctH of uninml origin, :iml aro
Mil iiioro Hti'ikinj^, thus; -
W'aiiUm 0,ioih.—\ ii\yw of niaiuifacturea, 439,9fi0,0nnf. ; value of raw

ii.rial, :iM,4:)l>.l"lflf. ; wagoa and lalidui-, 125,5;!0,0n0f. ; mailo up in '2021

I ilili.sliinunts, l).v r2ii,73'2 l>auil». There i.s groat ilifl'crenco between thia
1 IMii-tion now ami what it was in 1788, while in silli goods it seems to
,n (' raliit'd.

,s;// (,'«.,/.<.— Value uianufiicturod, 4().';,822,0ll(»f. ; value of raw material,
:;:;.JI \<iiiof. ; wages an.l lal)our, 172,«0'l,lJ0lJf. ; manufactured in 1051
htaliiialimeiits, by lr;.'),l.''j(i hamls.
I If wo consider tlio foreign trade of Franco
1 tlie bull<, fur the year 1787, the earliest
! wliich any correct record may bo traced

wo find a Ruccessivo decrease down to
^ I .'i , and then a revival and a jirogrossivo I

mentation, wliich becomes in 1849 treble
li it. it was at the time of the Restoration.
In; ni.ay be seen from the following
' tiact, presented iu round numbers: —

together, the avenigcs of theno two (locciiiilal periods give an oxcom of
4!) per cout. to tlio latter over tlio former; and if wo tnko tho two
extreme terms of tho two periods together, the progress in marked by ii
dineronooof 851 millions -being 921 millions in 1827, against 1772 milUous
in ISK!.

The separate accounts kept in tho import returns of " materials for indu«-
trial puiposoH," and in tlie export list* of " manufactured goods," oasist the
inquinM- in noting tho variations of tmdo and industry. This will be iLown
in tho foUowini; table ; —

\ iiirs.

1787

17!I2

17:17

I, SI II I

]Sl,"i

1820

I i8;io

: 1840
1S49

^1787
' 1792

I7;i7

1 Mill

1 -15
1 s-iO
is;j0
IS 10
I.s 19

Imports.

551,000,000

929,000,000

353,000,000

323,000,000

199,000,000

363,000,000

638,000,000

1,052,000,000

1,142,000,000

Kxports.

440,000,000

802,000,000

211,000,000

272,000,000

375,000,000

455,000,000

573,000,000

1.011,000,000

1,422,000,000

The preceding abstracts embrace tho
jholc traffic of the country, but for our
ireeent inquiry it is necessary to take
iiore partiodarly into account what is
iiUed tho comma-ee special — that is, that
art of the returns which includes the
iipurtation merely of products retained
'I- lonsunqnioti, and the exportation of
■celusivcly native products and manu/ac-
"■■^'. This will give a more precise idea
I' tlie state of the national industry and
laiiutactures, iu so far as they are shown in
10 intercourse with foreign countries, and

will be seen that the latter, in the
■11' i;d exchange and movement of com-

" iitii's, claim a proportion of some 70 to

' I "I' cent.

'i'lie comparative progress in "special
iiniiierce " has been a.s follows : —

V.a.s.
IM.-,
1 Jil
111.' 5
I 1835
184 0
1845
1849

Year.'!.
1815
1820
1825
1S35
1840
1845
1849

IinporLs.

. 199,000,000

. 335,000,000

. 401,000,000

. 520,000,000

. 747,000,000

. 856,000,000

. 780,000,000

Kxports.
. 422,000,000
. 502,000,000
. 544,000,000
. 577,000,000
. 695,000,000
. 848,000,000
1,032,000,000

tVi:.— DE B.iY.

Thus the aggregate of the special commerce-which amounted in 1S15 to

21 milhons, and m 1820 to 878 mUlions-rose in 1825 to 954 millions the

e-arfy avcrj^ebemg about 750 millions. From 1827 to 1S3S, and from

'I to 1846, the average was annually 1001 and 1489 millions; compared

Import.^.

Exports.

jriitoi-ial.s fur

Manufactured

Sfaterials for 1 Manufactured

-Mamit.actures.

Articles.

Jianufixctures.

Articles. |

Francs.

1787

431,000,000

120.000,000

285,000,000

154.000,000

1789

514,000,000

63.000,000

283,000,000

157,000,000

1797

279,000,000

74,000,000

93,000,000

118,000,000

1800

281,000,000

42,000,000

128,000,000

143,000,000

1805

412,000,000

80,000.000

199,000,000

176,000,000

1*10

296,000,000

40.000,000

160,000,000

205,000,000

1815

174,000,000

25,000,000

156,000,000

242,000,000

1820

330,000,000

33,000,000

163,000,000

292,000,000

1825

460.000.000

73.000,000

259,000,000

408,000,000

It appears then that the imports of materials for home manufactures

250

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

ro=efrom 13D,752 000 in 1815, to 269 millions iu 1825; 378 millions in
1835, and 611 millions in 1845, having more than quadrupled in the space
of thirty yenrs. From more recent retui-ns it appears that the yearly
average has been, iu the decennial period 1837-1846, 543 millions agaiBst
316 millions iu the decennial period 1827-1836, showing an improvement
of 72 per cent. Iu the same way, commodities of direct cousumptiou
reached 178 millions in the latter, against 128 millions in the former period,
lieing an increase of 39 per cent. Lastly, in manufactured articles, 55
millions stood against 36 millions, being a difference of 53 per cent.

The total exports of national produce or manufactures were, in the
decennial period 1826-1837, 521 millions; in the second period, 1837-1846,
it had reached 713 millions, thus showing au augmentation of 37 per cent.
Natural produce came in for 159 millions against 186 millions, thus showing
an increase of 25 per cent.; while, on the other hand, the improvement in
the sale of manufactured goods was 41 per cent., being 527 millions against
372 millions.

EVE. — BY DE BAT.

The idea of this veiy masterly group, which was exhibited in the Gobelins
room, is poetical and picturesque, and Ls ably carried out The First
Jlother appeai-s to be lost in a reverie as to the ftiture destinies of her
offspring, the principal incidents of which are foreshadowed to the spectator
m the b.as-relief sculpturings on the pedestid. All things considered, we
sliould be inclined to pronounce this to be one of the finest works of
Rculptiu-e in the Exhibition. Some have given it the fanciful title of the
'• Fu-st Cradle," or Nature's Cradle;" but as that does not do justice to
the poetic mystery involved in the conception, we prefer the simpler
title by which we have denoted it.

EOYAL Fxy. — BT DDVELLEROT.

DtivELr.EBOT has made a specialite of fans, iu the production of which he is
]jerhaps ivithout a rival. His fame extends not only over Europe, but has
nude it,? way to remote quarters of the globe. Even the Chinese, so
famous for their fans, so unwilling to learn, and jealous of cluonge,
have copied his desigiis. It would be rather difficult to describe
the truly gorgeous fan which this celebrated artist has made for the
Emperor of Morocco. It ia a fan of wonderful magnificence, and, to say
nothing of the painting and general enrichment, the diamonds and the
jewels alone h.ave cost more than lunOZ. He exhibited al.so a set of &ns
illustrating the stories of the "Arabian Nights," which have been nmde to
order for the Sultan of Turkey. But oui' present business is with the
icentail royal, the sidiject of our engi-aving on page 245. In this little work
of art b.er Majesty and Prince Albert are represented sitting iu the draiving-
room at Buckingham Palace, surrounded by their Koyal children, after a
picture by Winterhalter. The handle is of mother-of-pearl, and the
medallions in carved gold. In the centre of the handle arc the Royal arms
of EnsUnd. carved iu alto rilitro, in the thickncs.^ of the mother-of-pearl : tlie
lion and unicorn support the 'scutcheon ; and the two mottoes, Bani soil
qui ma' v pense, and hieu, et mon droit, appear iu lettera of mother-of pearl
on a ground of gold. Each of the radiating branches is terminated
by a Royal cro\vn, and the two pi-incipal branches bear, chiselled in the
mother-of-pearl and richly gilded, portraits of the Queen and her Royal
Consort. "U'e understajid that M. Duvelleroy employs upwai-ds of two
thousand men. This is easUy accounted fir, when we state that he makes
fans as low as a halfpenny each, and that even these have, every one of
them, to pass through the hands of fifteen workmen.

SUSPEXSTOX. — BT TOJSINLIEU.

Tms is a very pretty contrivance or suspended vase for flowers, &,c., made
in porcelain, "of which M. Voisinlieu exhibited several very pleasing varieties.

THE GUAKDIAN ANGEL. — ET TITTOZ.
Called in the orginal catalogue la Portmie el le jeuiie enfant ; this was an
extremely successful .specimen of French bronze-work.

GEAXD VASE. ET ODIOT.
The va-se for the centre of a table, exhibited by Odiot, ia a stately produc-
tion, in silver, partly bright, pai-tly frosted. The devices on the frieze,
vase, and cover are composed of .attributes to the God of the Ocean —
) roVjably out of comjiUment to the Ocean, in whose territories the Great
Exposition was held : at any rate, it woidd be very appropriate as a yacht
or race cup, and one of the handsomest things that could be adopted for
the purpose.

BOOK-CiVSE. — ET EIVART AND ANDEIEUX.
The iise of porcelain a.s au inlay to ebony seems peculiar to this house ;
but the present book -case is not so happy a specimen of its use as the casket
in front of it. It is, however, a very showy piece of fiu-niture, in style
belonging to a late rinaissance era. and appears to de.-;erve the credit of
being one of the best examples of French workmanship in the Exhibitio u.

FlEE-EXilNGUlSHiNQ CEILING. This automatic contrivance wa.s exhibited by
Mr. Bergin, for extinguishing fires in laundries and other parts of a building
specially liable to such accidents. The inventor proposes to have a large
tank, containing water, fixed at the top of the room ; this tank to be per-
forated witli holes, and to be fitted with a valve plug, like a shower bath ;
the plug to be held do«-n by a string, to be fixed near the most combusti-
ble materials ; in case of fire, the string would be buint, the plug would
rise, and a deluge of water would be showered down on the incipient fire.

MEMOIRS OF WORKING MEN.

JOSIAH -WEDGWOOD.
THE name of Josiah Wedgwood deserves to be recorded iu the longlii
of English worthier. To many artists this may be a name but litU
known ; it therefore becomes the more necessai'y, iu a work of thisdei
tion. to state a few facts connected with the life of this extraordinary mail
He was bom on the 12th of July, 1730, at Burslem, iu Staffordshire, wl>ei|
his father carried on business as a potter. The limited opportuaiHd
afforded him for acquiring education may be judged of by the statemeii
of his biographer ; that at eleven years of age he worked in his eldi
bi'other's pottery as a " thrower." This occupation he was compelled 1]
relinquish in consequence of an incurable lameness in his right leg, canst
by the small pox. After a time he entered into partnership with a perse
named Hai-rison, at Stoke ; and during this period his talent for the pr
duetion of ornamental pottery first displayed itself A dissolution
partnership ensued, and, in connection with a person named ^Vheil4>
he manufactured knife-handles iu imitation of agate and tortoise-sh«:
also imitative leaves, and similar articles. Wedgwood returned to Burslei
and commenced the manufacture of a cream-coloured ware, calli
"Queen's" ware. He was, by Queen Charlotte, appointed her potter. B
business greatly improving, he, iu conjunction with Mr. Bentley, a man
tast" and scientific attainments, obtained the loan of specimens of .sculptui
vases, cameos, intaglios, medallions, and seals, suitable for imitation by tl
processes Wedgwood had discovered.

His ingenious workmen, trained in his manufactory, produced the mo
accurateaud beautiful copies of vases from Herculaneum, lent by S
William Hamilton.

About this time, 1763, the celebrated Barberiui vase ^n the Eriti
Museum, some time since broken by a lunatic, but now admirak
restored), wa,s offered fur snle, and Wedgwood bid against the Duchess
Purtland ; but on her promising to lend it to him to copy, he withdn
from bidding, and the ducliess became the purchaser, at the price
eighteen hundred guineas, Wedgwood sold fifty copies of it at fil
guineas each, but the cost of producing them exceeded the .amount oft
sum thus obtained. After numerous experiments upon various kinds
clay and colouring substances, he succeeded iu jiroducing the m(
delicate cameos, medallions, and miniature pieces of. sculpture in
substance so hard as to resist all ordinarj' causes of destruction or inju
Another important discovery made by him was that of painting on va
and other similar ai-ticles, without the glossy appearance of ordin;
painting on porcelain or eartlienware— an art practised by the ancii
Eti-uscans, but lost since the time of Pliny.

Amongst other artists employed by Wedgwood ^vas Flaxman, w
assisted him in producing those beautiful sculpturesque ornaments, wh;
he wa,s the first iu mod"rn times to execute in pottery.

I-,^ 1771 he removed to a village which he erected near Newcastle-uni
Lyne, and characteristically called Etruria. Here his works b
point of attraction to all civilised Europe.

Not only did he encourage artists, but he created a great trade-
pottery, and by his taste and talent improved the national taste.

Wedgwood's success led to the establishment of improved potteries
various parts of the continent of Europe, as well as in several places
Great Bi-itaiu and Ireland.

His exertions were not merely confined to his own manufactory, ]
were cheerfully given to the establishing of several useful measures,
the 17th of July, 1766, he cut the fii-st clod for the formation of the Trc
and Mersey Canal, which, by the skill of Erindley, completed a navigai
communication between the potteries of Staffordshire and tlie shores
Devonshire, Doraetshire, and Kent Wedgwood was a Fellow of I
Royal Society, and of the Society of Antiquaries, and had bestowed o
siderable attention on the science of the action of light, with a view
fixing the images produced by the camera: but neither he nor
Humpliry Davy, who also investigated the subject, were fortuni
enough to discover any method of retaining these images— a won
step in chemistry applied to the Art,?, which was reserved for Ni
nearly half a century later.

After a successful and honourable career, by which Wedgwood amas
an ample fortune, hedicd, at the age of sixty-five, on the 3rd of January, 17

Alarm Bedstead,— Mr, Savage, of Birmingham, exhibited a machinej
which, by means of a common alarum clock hung at the head of the b
and adjusted to go off at the desired hour, the front legs of the bedste
immediately the alarum ceases ringing, are made to fold underneath; i
the sleeper, without any jerk or the slightest personal danger, is placed
the middle of the room ; where, at the option of the possessor, a cold h
can be placed. The expense of this bedstead is little, if any, more tl
that of an ordinary one, • i v i

JuDKiN's Sewing Machine— sews in a circle, curve, or straight line, I
stitches per minute; the rack in which the cloth is placed being mo\
forward by a spring, at a given distance for every stitch. There ai'e «
threads— one is carried in the shuttle, the other taken from a reel at
top of the machine, and passed through the cloth by the needle; i
when withdrawn, both threads are locked in a lasting stitch.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOP JIDTA OF THE GREAT EXIITRTTTON OF 1851.

251

IKMINSTER CAUPKT, nKSTfiNEP
WINDSOR CASTLK.

EXHIBITED BT WATSO>f AND tlF.lh.

i';irpet fttti'actoj general nttoution, from ita

I 1190 Mize (t!ie extreme length being 52 feet,

wiilth 3S foct). and from the brilliant, yet

L;:i',uly colouring. The design was made by

I 'inner, Esq., expressly to the order of Prince

' -rl,, for tlio drawing-room of Wiailjor Castle.

" I'librio (the bo.'it description made) is entirely

ilv.'l by hand, every stitch (64 in a square

111 lieing tied through the b.ack, so an to secure

lUr durabiUty tlwn in any other description of

I'lts. 'J'lie work, which required the greatest

intion to the working pattern, and the selec-

; '''the various shades, was executed at Wilton ,

y IViackmoro Brothers, for Watson and Bell, of
I street, on whom the responsibility of suc-
ilevolved. V\"at30u, Bell, and Co, exhibited
laee specimens of the same quality mth that
hich they have made for Windsor Castle. It
ppears that these cai'pets have been produced
J show that there is no necessity for resorting
J France or Belgium for these first-class carpets,
5 those exhibited ciu be sold for less than two-
uirds of the price asked by foreign mauufac-
uicrs for the same qnallty. Indeed, we might
ujiply France and Belgium largely with those
"tides, but for the duty on importation, which
lay be pronounced as prohibitory, being at the
ate of from 250 to 500 francs per 100 kilogrammes
u entering France — in other words, upwards of
0 per cent, on the average.

252

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

PLATE, AND PLATED. GOODS.

WORKS IX ELECTRO-METALLURGY.
QF all the branches of iudustiy represented at the Eshibitiou, there was
probably none which excited feelings of greater interest in the man of
science and the manufacturer, and certainly none which shows a more rapid j
and striliing improvement, than that of electro-plating. Ten years have j
scarcely elapsed since small medals, coated by the aid of electricity, were j

and the favour bestowed upon them by all classes of the community, ar.
now sufficient to show that the public, always slow to appreciate 'nei
inventions, have at length resolved to patronise the elegant productions o
the manufacturers of electro-pUited goods.

The electro-plate establislimeut of Messrs. Elkiugton and Mason o
Birmingham, is extending most rapidly, and though commenced wlthi[
the last few yeai-s, it already employs many hundred workpeople. It il
divided into two branches — one for the manufactm-e of plated and gill
articles generally, including the working of the patent processes, and thi
other for the more especial production of articles of the finer and mori i

TABLE IN ELECTRO-SILVEK. — ELlvINGTONS. — THE PROPERTY OE HER MAJESTY.

shown as curiosities ; and its application to useful purposes was then i
considered by the many as more than doubtful. Fortunately, however,
for science and the arts, Messrs. Elkington and Mason determined to show
that, in the application of this subtle and mysteriuus fluid, lay hidden
one of the most powerful agencies for the promotion and dissemination of
a love of the fine arts, and for the multiplication of the comforts and
luxuries of domestic life. Had they escaped the opposition of the interested
and the prejudiced, their case would have been an extraordinary contrast
to that treatment to which the originators or inventors of new principles
and discoveries are generally subjected ; so far, however, were they from
enjoying thU exemption from the usual fate of discoverers, that they
received a heavier amount of vexation and harassment than has probably
fallen to the lot of any other persons of a similar class. But the objections
of manufacturers to tlie use of the apparently more difficult process of
employing hard and white metal in the place of soft solder — the objections
that the metal would peel oB; that plain surfaces could not be produced, j
that raised edges and ornaments could not stand the wear, have now been
most successfully removed. The great demand for articles of thi.'i kind, {

VASE. — ELKIXGTOXS.

recherchi character, such as bronzes, &c. A third establishment is fill
progressing towards completion, intended for the production by machiaei
of forks and spoons, which will employ a vast number of hands, althoug
the machinery is so perfect that several hundred dozens can be produce
in oue day. A piece of metal placed in one portion of the machine
produced, at the other side, a finished article, of any ornamental shape c
design that m.ay be required.

By the application of electricity articles of solid metal may be produce*
as well as those having merely a deposit of metal upon the surfefl
required to be coated. One of the most remarkable instances of th
successful production of solid silver articles by electric agency is th
electrotype copy, in pure silver, of the celebrated cup of Benvenuto Cellin
from the original in the British Museum. Of the works of this famou
Florentine artist which remain at the present day, there are none whia
show in a more remarkable maimer his consummate art than this cup, UO:
all attempts to reproduce it have hitherto signally failed. Those who hav
had an opportunity of inspecting the original will be able to judge he
complete and successful was the copy exhibited by Messrs. Elkiugton

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOP.'RDIA OF THE GREAT EXIITIUTION OF 1851.

253

lilo' tlio pvico at wliiuli it ootilil lio ]ii-oiUicuil in tlio iufui'ior iiiotiilx

a mortt BtrikiiiK iiiHtanco of tlio bunolits which are likoly to roHult

m thuH placiiiK within tho monnH of all claasoa articles which cannot fail

produeo a lovo of tho fino arts. Another reniarkahio inHtanco of tlic

:coRHful application of tho process ia tho lifcsi/.o fi(,'iiro of OcofiVoy

indovillo, Karl of Oloucostcr. In this caie the metal was (Icposited in a

luhl, tho interior of which wna prcvionsly rendered condncting. The

r-c-s of deposition of the metal is gradnal in its character, and proceeds

II I Kinglo point first made, until tho wliolo snrfaco is coatoJ, and tho

11 iition of particles proceeds until tho desired tlilckncss of deposit ho-s

11 iiWtained. There were various other articles of tliis class exhibited,

wing tho application of tho process to tho production of solid metal.

EVE.^BELL. IN ELECTRO-BROKZE BY ELKINGTONS.

*By far tho more numerous of tho articles exhibited, however, are those
i which a precipitation of one material or substance has taken place upon
'iects previously prepared for its reception. The whole of the electro-
l.ted articles manufactm-ed by Messrs. Elkingtou are produced from a
! tal which consists of an alloy of nickel, copper and zinc — the introduction
■which is one of the most important improvements in connection with the
Jiufacture, as the alloy is of greater hardness, whilst its colour approaches
i:eedingly close to that of silver. When castings are required, the metal
limployed, as in the case of other metals, in a molten state, and is poured
10 moulds previously prepared for it: in large or complicated objects,
f-h as the vase hereafter noticed, they are ca.st in separate parts, which
i afterwards joined by solder. The great improvements which have
tently been made iu the modes of casting metal enable the manufacturer
t produce articles of the most elaborate and ornamental character, as was
eimpUhed in many of tho castings of iron, zinc, &c., in the Exhibition,
iiere surfaces are required to be finished perfectly plain, the process of
Tiing by stamping the required ornaments upon a sheet of metal previously
1 linated is employed. In such cases the pattern or form 'required is
e;i-aved upon hardened steel dies, which are placed under the hammer
Ci stamp which moves between two perpendicular rods, and, falling with
gat force upon the;sheet of metal placed under it, completes it in the form
cdesign engraved upon tho die. Smooth surfaces are also obtamed by the
yial process of hammering. When the required surface has been obtained.
Is polished by means of brushing or grinding by steam power with emery,
sd, or rotten stone. The various parts, such as handles, borders, and
0;amental cast work, &c., required to form the complete article, are united
vjether by hard solder, melted by means of the blow-pipe, and when finished

by tho chaser they arc ready fnr the roieptioii of the metal to be deposited.

Tho advantage which, at thin period of tho manufacture, the article
possesses over other platel goods in the sarao stage, conHintu therefore in
the uso of a white metal — foruK^d as above described, and of greater atrcng^h
and hardness than silver itself :ih a ba«o, inHtcad of copper, upon which
the pure met.al i.'! deposited. Tho colour of the metal forming tho ba«c
ap)>rc)ximates closely to that of pure silver, and thereby avoids the unsightly
appearance presented by tho copper showing itself, after a short period of
wear, in those plated articles where that metal is uHod as n baxe.

Wo have now taken the reader through the various preliminary procemee
of ni.anufacturo, to tho stage when the article destined to receive tho coating
of pure metal is polished and completed in every respect. The next step

ri-NTRL riECE. — EI.KI>"GTOXS.

is the electro-plating itself. It is an exceedingly interesting sight to witness,
iu the workshop of the artisan, the galvanic troughs and the magnets
sending forth that subtle agent which iu former times was known only in
its uncontrolled power as it^issued from the thunder-cloud ; but which,
traversing the slender wires, becomes in the hands of the workman a means
of accomplishing his purpose as fully and as completely as any other tool
or implement wliich he employs, and causing at his discretion a deposit of
the gold and silver iu the solutions to take place upon the articles requiring
to be coated. Messrs. Elkingtou and Co. have employed iu the manufacture
of a large number of the articles which they exhibited — nearly the whole
of which were made expressly for the Exhibition — a gigantic magnetic
electrical machine, worked by a steam engine of five-horse power, a shock
from which ivould annihilate a dozsn men. This monster machine consists
of a series of sixty-four permanent magnets, arrani^ed in a circle in such a
manner that an armatuie of WTOught iron may revolve with great rapidity
at a short distance from their poles, the current produced from which is
conveyed by means of wires to different parts of the foctory, iu the same
mode a.s gas in ordinary houses. The solutions of gold and silver are
formed by dissolving au oxide or salt of the metal in cyanide of potassium ;
for electrotyping with copper a different solution is required. The articles
which are required to be coated are attached by the operator to a wire, in
connection with the positive or zinc plate of the electrical apparatus, and
are immersed in the solution. A plate of silver, gold, or other metal
required to be deposited is placed iu the vessel which contains the solution
— and, being connected with the negative or copper plate of the apparatus,
is partially dissolved, and transferred to the article by the current of
electricity which passes between them. A period, varying from five to ten
houre, is required for a good coating of silver ; gold, in consequence of a

254

THE CKYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

less proportion being usually needed, being deposited witli greater speed.
Whei-e it is requii-ed that the object should be only pai-tially gilt or coated,
the portions not requiiing the deposit are covered with a varnish w hich
effectually prevents its adhesion.

When the ai-ticles have received tlieir coating of pure metal, deposited
without the blight surface, they may be either burnished or polished. The
polishing which spoons and forks and smooth plain articles of that naturj
undergo, is performed by an instrument formed either of blood stone or
polished steel, of vai'ious shapes as requued ; the bm-uishing which all gilt
articles receive is performed by rubbing the sm-face with a burnisher and
soap and water. A large number of females are employed in this department.

The great advantages which the finished article produced by this process
possesses are, that the union of the deposited surface with the base is so
perfect and complete as to form, in fact, but one body. This is proved in
a striking degree by the great pressure which the surface undergoes iu the
polishing, and by the fact that it will support a red heat without injury.
To those who object to electro-plated goods on the ground that the surface
is liable to peel off, such tests as these would, we should conceive, prove
quite satisfactory. A second great advantage is, that the metal deposited
on the more prominent parts of the irrticle, and those wdiich are more
expose 1 to wear, is stronger than on those portions which arc less exposed ;
thus giving to electro-plated goods a decided advantage over those plated
by the ordinaiy mode. The articles exhibited also show that the most
beautiful plain surfaces, as well as every description of style, however
elaborate, and whether embossed or engraved, can be produced with equal
facility and success. We would particularly refer to the Elizabethan tea-
tray or salver in the Exhibition, as a fine specimen of the perfect, plain
surface obtainable by the electro process.

Her JIajesty exhibited two of the most beautiful productions of this class
of goods; the one a bronze jewel case, gilt and silvered by the electrotype
process. It was designed by Mi'. L. Gruner, and manufactured by Messrs.
Elkington. It is ornamented with portraits on china of her Majesty,
Prince Albert, and the Prince of Wales — suiullcr medallions representing
the profiles of the other royal cliildi-eu. The other royal exhibit was a
very elegant small table of gold and silver plate, the top of which is a
reproduction of a plate of fine workmanship, obtained and copied for
Messrs. Elkington, imder the dii'ection of the Chevalier de Sohlick. The
subjects in bas relief represent Minerva, Astrologia. Geometrica, Arithmetica,
Musica, and Rhetorica. The centre figure represents Temperance,
sm-rounded by the four elements. The table was designed by George
Stanton, a young artist in the employ of Messrs. Elkington, and a student
in the Birmingham School of Design.

A vase exhibited in the collection of Messrs. Elkington as a piece d'occasion,
four feet in height, de.«!gned and modelled by William Beattie, is also
eminently worthy of notice. It is thus described in their catalogue : —

"A vase, intended to represent the triumph of science and the ludustriul
arts in the present Exhibition. The style is rich Elizabethan. The four
statuettes on the body of the vase are Sir Ifixac Newton, Lord Bacon,
Shakspeare, and Watt, representing astronomy, philosophy, poetry, and
mechanics. On the four bas-reliefs, between the figm-es, the practical
operations of science and art are displayed, and then- influences, typified by
the figures on the base, representing war, rebellion, hatred, and revenge,
overthrown and chained. The recognition and the reward of these
ennobling pursuits are symbolised by the figme of his Royal Highness
Prince .Albert, on the apex, who, as originator and pitron of the Exhibition,
is awarding the palm of honom' to successful industry."

Several veiy fine specimens of electro bronzes were also shown, including
the statue of the Earl of Gloucester ; the Theseus ; au historical gi-oup
repredcuting the Welsh Prince Tewdric, wounded, and urging ou the
pursuit of the flying S;ixons, attended by his daughter and au aged bard,
iu the act of proclaiming victory. Also a fine specimen called " The Hours
Clock Case," from a design by Bell, an engraving and description of which
we gave iu No. 6. p. 88.

Though we liighly admu-e the process of manufactm'e we have been
describing, we cannot always approve of the designs upon which it, any
more than that of the more precious metals, is sometimes applied by the
ti-ade. There is need of a reform here, and the iufusion of new ideas which
genius alone can supply. Our last illustrated work, by Messre. Elkington,
is a lai'ge and showy centre-piece for eight lights, in silver and electro-plate.
The design is of a very ordinary chatacter, by which we would imply no
disparagement of the labours of the producers, but rather a reQcctiou up' ai
the tastes of purcliasers, who " ordinarily " love to load the centres of then-
tables with as large and impen'ious a mass of plate as they can afford to
purchase. To produce these structures, little boys are called into the
service by dozen.?, without having time to dress themselves, and there they
sUmd in tiers, with fruit baskets upon their heads, and shells or unkind
rocks wounding their unprotected feet. One of the greatest evils of thi."
style of table furniture is that it mtcrcL-pt« tlie view across the table, both
sideways and lengthways— obstructs conversation ; and not only that, but
tlut interchange of smiles and intelligent regards in which half the charm
of a social party consists. We shoidd be glad to see these pompous
displays — wo might almost call them pompts fv.nihres — discai-ded, and
BOmethlug more rational, BOmething quite as handsome, but less intrusive,
supplied in their place. Indeed, we must ad<l, that Jlessr.?. Elkington
themselves exhibited a diimer service, designed fr^m the antique by thf
Chevalier do Schlich, which is perfectly to our ta-te. Here the centre-
piece, which is of elegant design, does its duty as a piece of ornamental

fuijiiture, without obstructing the free cu'culation of ah' and thought in tl
midst of the table, and adds to the effect of a handsome bancjuet, witho
monopolising all the attention to itself.

On a futm-e occasion we shall notice the productions of other maauf
turers and exhibitors of this class of goods.

TEXTILE MANUFACTURES.

WOOLLENS.— (Bkitish.)
IT would be no easy matter to overrate the importance of the admirtil

display made by the woollen manufacturers of the United Kiugdom
the Great Exhibition. In a dep;irtment of our national industry whi
may be s;ud to be one of the ancient staples of the country, it was
course expected that a good and satisfactory display would be made. E
fe-.v, probably, expected such a result as we found here so unmistakeal
produced, even from the finest broad cloth and doeskin down to t
coarsest frieze and tweed: and whilst we hope to do justice to the mer
of our Continental neighbours, we cannot but congratulate the Engli
exhibitors in this department on tlieir skill, judgment, and public spirit,
taking care that a manufacture of so much importance was duly representi
We have no hesitation iu saying that the expositiou thus made will
more than a thousand "Wool Leagues" to place the cloth manufacture
its true position — and that, too, without raising up a baneful and pcrniciu
system of rivalry between two industries, which, after all, have essentia
one interest. None but the veriest partisan could ever conceive hi
cotton and wool were to be pitted against each other in the mai-kets of t
world, or how it was possible to forego the use of the one in order
promote the exclusive prosperity of the other.

Looking at the question in au economic point of view, we find that t
demaud for the raw material of home-grown wool is greater than e\
and that consequently prices are kept up in the market. The supp
too, from our colonies is constantly on the increase ; but then our mes
of production by machinery increase also ; and in proportion as product!
is stimulated, prices come withiu the means of the masses, and the dema
is again increased, to the greater consumption of that raw material whi
but for this very machinery could not be used at all, but which is rait
iu price by the extra consumption consequent upon more economic moi
of production. Thus the circuit of commerce embraces all interests, a
does infinite service even to those who had fancied that they had
interest in common with the spinner and the weaver ; as if loom ij
plough were rivals, never to be reconciled — whilst the truth is tb
commercially, they are, when men du-ect them aright, the most cordial'
all allies, since their workers naturally consume the produce of each otl

The importauce attached to the woollen manufacture of this country,
a period far beyond existing records, is proved by the stringency w
which its operations were formerly directed by gudds of merchant tail
and wool-staplers ; and the earlier records on tliis subject give a m
himiiliatiug picture of the now exploded fallacies by which certain trat
were attempted to be supported by the restrictive policy of legislate
Happily all this has passed away, and in the broad daylight of the Cryt
Palace we had our oldest and our most recently introduced industriei
woollen and cotton — brought face to face ; each excellent and useful iu
own way, and each employing its thousands of workers under an extent
.system, which has alone grown out of that freedom of thought and act,
which m modern times has been the characteristic of manufactuB
communities, in contradistinction to the selfish exclusiveness of by-gl
periods.

In connection with this department wo must particularly notice I
display of various specimens of wools as shorn from the fleece, exhibil
by Mr. William Cheeseborough, in the Bradford compartment. Th
examples were of the wools of the sheep of the vai-ious counties of I
United Kiugdom, and showed to great advantage the peculiarities of 1
raw material. The scries of examples of the processes to which t
material is subject, in its transition from the wool to the finished eld
were admirably displayed iu the contribution of Mesei-s. John Brooks a
Sons, of Honley, placed in the Huddei-sfield division. In this scries
examples, the wool was placed before the visitor in the various forms
assumes in the course of manufacture, commencing with an example
fine Silcsian wool, as shorn from the animal ; next comes a specimen
the same material scoured — and then as i)repared for dyeing, or, as it
called "woaded." The dyed wool comes next, and, following th
specimens " willowed " and " scribbled." Carding, slubbing. spinning
warp and weft, and an arrangement of warp yai'U follow ; and then COD
the cloth in its firet state, as a fabric technically called " raw thread" — \
oil which had been added after the dyeing, to restore artificially 1
natural oleaginous character of the fibre for the purposes of spinning a
weaving, having been again taken out Then follow specimens of the ok
Ui various stages, from the " balk," or twilled cloth, through the " raiM
and " cropped " states — the series being completed by specimens of 1
iamc cloth " boiled," " tentered," and finished as fit for the market. X
aroimd the very handsome glass case in which this interesting series*
displayed, were hung specimens of the cloths manufactured by Messrs.
Brooks and ,Sons, the exhibitoi's ; iu which the results of the procOB
ihowii were ftdly exemplified in the excellence of the texture, dye, a
tinish.

In the depai-tment to which cvr attention is now to be directed we

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851,

255

(full imd comploto illuRtration of tlio proeont jiositiiiri of tlio woolloii

iiiiiriu:tuiv, RH ovirloncml in llio proiliictions of the two ijrnivt loi-aliticH in

hli it ia now can-ioil on — tlio Wost of ICnglaod anil tlio West Hiding of

liii'c Kiicli of tlioso ilistrictrt comes before UH ;m tlio oxponont of

lii-imclioH of tlio wodllon tnulo to which jt« manufacturers nmro

lily clii'cct their attention i ami whilst the superfine liroad-ch)ths of

W i-it of Knglaiid illiistnito. in a marked def^rec, the beautiful character

■ iiroduets of that locality, as adapted to tho wants of the nioro

ilthy chutios of society, tho misccllanoouB but equally meritorious

liut'ons of the West Itidiu'j; show how largely that district is engaged

■ iil'plying tho wants of a great ma-is of the people, not only of this

null y. hut of tliiiso forei'^n nations and British colonies which liavo not

I ' \ 'u attempted to manufacture this class of goods for themselves.

inanufaeturing district known as tlie West of England comprises
muntios — Qloucestor, Somei'set, and Wilts ; and tlie various towns or

I I ; ill wliieh the nianufaoturo of woollen cloth isearrioj on are scattered
r I considerable tract of country. The system is altogether diflereut

III I, hat of the maimfacturing districts of the mirth, and the rural
(irih-ter of tho localities of tho respective seats of manufacture is not

ir>\oil by the cimcontration of masses of workpeople, tlio erection of

iictorioB with tall chimneys, and the roaring of steam-engines. Yet

i i a considemblo division of labour, so to apeak, for we lind certain

liiii'S noted for the produetiou of particular claisses of goods. Thus

I .liridgo produces trowserings, aud narrow goods. Frome i.s chielly

1 1 ill medleys and coloured woollens. In Dorchester aud its neigh-

lod kersey cloths and drab coatings are manufactured, whilst Tiveitoa,

.■lijenliam, Melksliam, aud Stroud, each produce the finest woollen cloths.

'\q former scuds forth the finest l.ieavers made in England, whilst the

,ter produces the finest and best-made black, blue, and scarlet cloths.

(Amongst the exhibitors from this qiurter especially df serving honourable

lifetttion. were Mr. Helme, of ,Stroud, (whose kei-^^eymeres and iloeskins were

exquisite quality and brilliant dye, aud who w,x< the successful competitor

a gold medal, ottered liy Messrs. Bull aud Wilson, for the best specimen

black cloth, no restriction being made as to price) ; Meesi's. Maiding and

., of Stroud ; Messrs. Playne, of Nailworth ; Mr. Partridge, of Banbridgo ;

. Palling, of Painswick ; Me.ssrs. Philips and Smith, of iMelksham ;

■. Overbury, of Wootton-under-Edge ; Messrs. Carr, of Tiverton ; Messrs.

ter aud Co., of Trowbridge ; Messrs. Stanton and Son, of Dorchester ;

. W. S. Wheeler of Bath, and of Lu'lgate-hil! ; Mr. T. Sampson sliowed au

ortmeat of shawds and glove cloths, manufactiu-ed from tlic w^ool of the

^a Vicugna — a material which seems rapidly coming into use for the fiaer

olity of articles, as used by ladies.

Tho West Riding of Yorkshii-e bi ought forth its beat examples on this
"i'asion, and in many instances no effort had been spared to render the
lutributions worthy of the intelligence, the industry, and the mechanical
^nuity of probably the most thriving community in the world. Tho
eds exhibition of woollen cloths was one of which the inhabitants of that
vu have a right to be proud ; and though we are quite aware th,at, in
) many instances, the cheap cloths of Yorkshire deserve all the odium
lich has been from time to time cast upon them, yet here we found it
linly demonstrated that the faidt re.ally lies with foolish buyers of low
oed, and consequently badly made goods; and we trust that one of the
lults of this Exhibition will be to prove that the che.apest article is that
which the quality is commensurate with the requirements of wear, aud
tt Borne articles are dear at any price.

Ifessrs. Benjamin Gott aud Sons had a handsome glass case in the great
mue, containing a remarkable display of the various qualities of woollen
ths which they supply to the various mai'kets of the world. These goods
re brilliant in dye and excellent in finish, and, as examples of a class of
xls made for the supply of large and distant markets, cannot be surpassed.
e general manufacture of the Leeds district was well illustrated by the
itributions of Messrs. Sykes aud Son. These consisted of a variety of
ths in the usual colours, and were intended as a complete representation
the class of goods u.sually supplied by the Yorkshire manufacturers; for
list the AVest of England trade may be said to represent the require-
of the wealthy cla.sses, that of Yorkshire has for its object the supply
gi-eat mass of the community, at such prices and in such quantities
daily increasing demands lequire.

pilots, tweeds, and Spani-h stripes, the Houses of Messrs. Hague,

and Wormald, and Messrs. Yewdall and Son, exhibited the latter

ides ; whilst Messrs. York and Sheepshanks, Messrs. Pawson, and other

"' itoi-s, displayed some of the finest examples of the former classes, and

of cloths of the best qualities made in Yorkshire.

in mohair cloths, and camel's hair qualities of goods, now so much in

lihion for outer garments, the display was a good one ; and Messrs. Gill

' I'-.dinp, and Messrs. Edwin Frith aud Son, showed the value of tliese

ul materials in a most satisfactory manner. In blankets and carriage

I ere was also a very superior display, whilst billiai-d cloths and a

. ariety of felted fabrics were shown by Mr. Fentou and Messrs. Wil-

I and Co.

^"or was the display from Huddersfield less satisfactory than that from

Jieds. We have already spoken of the character of the cloths exhibited

Messrs. John Brooks aud Sons, in connection with their illustration of

' ;'rooes.ses of the woollen cloth manufacture. The specimens of trou-

-s exliibited iiy Messrs. Hinchcliffe were worthy of attention, as also

■ lose of Messrs. Is.aac Bearusell aud Co. The corded trouserings of

■ s. Lookwood and Keighley, and those of Messrs. Earuicot and Hurst,

1 which colonial wool has been largely used, instead of the Saxony wool

gcuer.dly imported for that purpose, were all very good. In top coating!)
the mohair and Vicugna mateiiulH played a very conhidcrable part. Me^Bm.
.1. and T. C. Wrigley and Co. made an ttdmirablo diHpluy of goodn of thi«
class from the Canadian and KuKsiau marketH, in which cloths of great
wei^dlt, ttrength, aud substance were ahown. Messrs. David H\ia-K, Son,
and Co. also exliibited some excellent exauiplcs of a peculiar mixture,
which had an excellent effect, liy the irregularity o( tint which ia given to
the grain, and by a velvet-like mirfaco obtained in Oniahing,

Tho other portions of tlio British woollens were of a very iniscellaneoua,
aud generally of a very excellent chiuMcter. Tweeds were exhibited in great
variety by the manufacturers of Gahiflhicls, and in both coarco and fine
qualities they were generally very excellent.

The manufacturers of Kendal also mailc a vei-y creditable di)!])lay of the
coarser kind of fabrics manufactured in Westmoreland. Messrs. Ireland
and Co. exhibited a very extensive assortment of those indispensable
requisites to the traveller — railway rugs. These are made of Alpaca wool, an
also ponchos and coatings. Hoi-so blankets and horse clothing were also
comprised in this contribution. Kendal, a.s an early scat of the woollen
trade of the north, has done its duty on this occasion, to the satisfaction, and
we trust the profit, of those who have exerted themselves.

In horse clothing and blanketings there were the old repeated produc-
tions of Chipping Norton aud Witney. The kersey checks for horse clothing,
railway wrappers, and al[)avicugna beaver for ladies' cloakings, were all
excellent for manufacture and finish. The blankets of Mcsara. John Early
and Co. were of the usual character of Witney blankets — good, substanti^j
and clear in colour ; but Mr. Edward Early made au effort to do something
more, and exhibited a series of blankets manufactured from tho wooU
grown in various counties in Eugland.

In flannels, the grey and dyed specimens of Messi-s. Kelsall and Bartle-
more, of Rochdale, displayed great excellence. Mr. Bamford, of Rochihile,
also exhibited fine gauze flannel ; and Messrs. Smith and Sons, of Saddle-
worth, showed specimens of fine and superfine flannels with silk warp.
These examples were all of a highly creditable character. The Welsh
flannels exhibited by Messrs. Lloyd and Co., of Newtown, Montgomeiy-
shu-e, were also of a superior quality. The Welsh productions are gent rally,
of coui-se, of a primitive character, aud illustrate the employment of the
peasantry rather than the state of a manufacture. In this respect there is a
strong analogy between the productions of the Principality and those of
Ireland, a.s far as the woollen trade is concerned. The division devoted to
Dublin showed examples of the woollen manufactures of Ireland, from the
ooai'sest productions in Connaught frieze up to- the finest examples which
the present state of this ti-ade in tliat country permits it to produce. In
the higher or better class of goods, Mr. Dillon, Messrs. Williams, and
Mr. Richard Allen — all of Dublin — made a very satisfactory display. The
trouserings were firm and well-made articles, excellent in colom*, but
deficient iu finish. The friezes made by Catherine Xeili and Sons, of Tallaght,
and exhibited by Mr. Allen, were good examples of a rough material ; but
the economies of Irish mauuticture were best illustrated by the contri-
butions of Widow Mm-phy, of Ballysmutton, county Wicklow — who grows,
shears, dresses, spins, dyes, aud prepares in every way the materiid, to
be afterwards woven and finished iu her own homestead. The friezes and
blankets exhibited by Mr. NicoUs, of Coi'k, were also worthy of notice, as
showing the growing disposition for industrial pursuits iu the south of
Ireland.

POWELLS BISUNHjUE OR REVERSIBLE CLOTHS.
ANE of the most remai'kable novelties in textile mauufactures exhibited
was Powell's Bisunique or Reversible Cloths, of which we now proceed
to give some account. M'e must premise that in all the vast improve-
ments which have been made iu the machines used for the manu-
facture of woven fabrics, from the first preparation of the raw material to
its ultimate rinish ;ifter it has passed from the loom, there is not a single
important deviation from the simple jiriuciples of the rudest process of
which we have any traces from antiquity. Whilst this may be said trulj-,
even of the most complicated and beautiful machinery which the ingenuity
of this country, more than any other, has introduced into the various
operations which the fleece, the fibre, or the down, must undergo before it
reaches the hands of the weaver, at the same time the truth of the paradox
is most complete and remarkable in the case of the loom itself In caixiing,
comliiug, spiuning, throwing, and wai*piiig. the beautiful, in some insiances
the wonderful, contrivances bj' which British invention especially has
superseded the labom' of man's hand, aud to some extent the worliing of
his mind, are in reality but improved modes of applying old principles, or
modifications of the primitive liandicraft. But they eS'ect, however (by
means .almost identical), vastly increased rapidity, vaetly multiplied
quantity, aud most v.aried quality. The card, the spindle, the bobbin, and
the reel, are practically the same as evei', but the various aud intricate sub-
stitutes by which they are put iu motion give a totally new character to
the operations, aud iu some degree may be considered as introducing almost
new principles even in the primary processes.

The same cannot be said of weaving. The stupendous machinery of the
cotton-mill ni.ay disown all obligation to the wheel and spindle, or the
simpler tUstaff ; but in every essential except the motive power, and certain
accessories for speed and fashion, the newest of our power looms has every
essential principle in common with the plain hand-loom, or the simple appa-
ratus which the tenacious Hindoo keeps imaltered from the remotest age
of civilisation. All tho working parts are the same, with Uttle modi-

256

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS.

fications. The beams, the treddles, shuttle, lay, and batten, are much alike
in both. That the manufacture of every kind of -woveu fabric has been
advanced in all respects to a prodigious extent in the British islands, within
the foiu- hundred yeai-s that have elapsed since the first settlement of
Flemish weavers was fixed by the favour of Edward III. (in the busy and
far-famed West-Riding), and" that much of the wealth, gi-eatness, and even
the peace which we now happily enjoy, is owinsto thab advance, created in
part by improved methods of weaving, are of the proudest boasts of our
age and country. The gi-eat variety of new fabrics which have been of
late and are diuly produced, especially in worsted and mixed cloths — such
as merinos, paramattas, Orleans, and the like — are rather the results of
improvements on previous processes than in weaving itself. Scarcely any
alteration can be said to have taken j)lace in the process so as to affect the
nature of the product itself.

But we have now before us what appears to be a gi'eat departure from
the ancient mode of weaving : it is that recently introduced and patented
by Mr. Samuel Powell, of Loughborough, Leicestershire, and London.
The only essential improvements on the primitive mode of weaving until
this time may be stated to be the fly-shuttle, the Jacquai-d-loom, and the
practical application of water and steam power, as substitutes for the hands
and feet of man. But the novelty to which we allude consists in the
manufacture of a variety of fabrics, which Mr. Powell has chosen to desig-
nate by the name of '* bisunique," or two-fold, each' side of the cloth or
fabric having two faces of cUfferent colours or pattern perfectly finished,
and capable of exhibiting any variety of pattern or design, as a single fabric.

Four examples may be noticed as shewing the application of the new
mode of weaving patented by Mr. Powell : —

1st. To produce a cloth in which both sides are of one
make or pattern Neither side showing a different colour
from the other, or both sides of the same colour and finish),
the wliole of the wai*p threads are divided into two equal
parts, each of a different colour. They ai-e then jnit into
the loom alternately ; that is, a single thread of one colour
and then a single thread of the second colour, and so
throughout, the twist of the one being open band, and the

nOj

HORSE GROUPS IN THE RUSSIAN DEPARTMENT.

These little horse groups, which stood under the glais case in the Russian
department, are remarkably spirited. , They are in bi-onze gilt, and are
admirably executed.

twist of the other cross band. The warp is flushed on bi
sides, four picks and each coloured warp is bound iu
made fast by the same shoot of weft passing through 1
middle of the warp, there being as many threads above 1
weft as below it.

2nd. To produce a clotli in which one side shews two
more colours, while the other side is of one colour only
is necessary that one-half the warp threads should be of I
requisite proportions, say of red, gi'een, and brown,
the other half of the one colour only. The coloiu
threads are placed in the loom either alternately ani
equal nnmljers, or in such order and numbers asf
int' uJed pattern requires, while the other half of the i
will be seen only,

yrd. To produce a cloth of which one side is to be S|
dilVcrent quality from that of the other — sa}', one side*
tine drab and the other of black, brown, or blue — one-h
of the warp threads are of a fine and the other half o)
coarse wool.

4th. All the different arrangements of the 1st, 2nd, a
3rd, may be combined in one piece, and in this combii
arrangement a greater or less number of warp threads J
used to form one side than the other, also the threads
the warp on one side may be made of two or more difl'ert
colours of thread and twi.sted together, wliile the threads
warp forming the other side are all of one colour;
when preferred, both sides may bo made of twisted thres
of dilferent colours.

Experience only can determine the utility and applicati
of these fabrics, and any advantages they may possess.
is obvious tljey will lessen the difficulties of supplying
sufficient variety of patterns in remote settlements in t
interior of Asia and America, &c. By this invention
single piece of any fabric, woollen, silk, cotton, or mix*
serves the purpose of two, as far as regards choice
colour, pattern, or quality, while at the same time t
whole bulk to be carried inland is reduced to one-half wh
would be generally required. Nor are these the only advantages whii
they possess, for our traders at home will be enabled to keep double t]
amount of jjatterns in the same space which is now required for thi
ordinaiy stock, or the same variety of stock which they now keep will 1
obtainable at little more than half its present cost ; and thus the amoui
of each trader's capital will in effect be greatly increased,

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPiEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF ISJJl.

THE NAUTICAL DEPARTMENT.

[ERE can, we apprehoud, bo littlo doubt iu tbo opinion of all connected
Iwith, or interested in, naval art and tbo national science of sliip-buildiug,
it Grant Britain, in ber maritime capacity, was not adequately represented
le Exbibition. If tbero was any one department of industry — any one
ional ptu-suit to whicb, more than another, the place of honour, in all
meanings of the phrase, ought to have been assigned, it was surely that
(jinectod with our much-boasted empire of the seas ; we ought to have
A complete epitome of the naval architecture of the realm, and, if
isible, also, a complete epitome (both by means of models, of course) of

the history of ship-building in England from the earliest times; we ought
to have been able to trace our progi-oss from tlie days of the coracle and
the primitive galley, founded, perhaps, in a great raoasuro. upon Roman
models, to the last screw-propeller man-of-war launched from ; Woolwich
or Plymouth, or the last crack yacht set afloat at Cowes. A few ancient
models were certainly to be found in the Naval Gallery ; wo had a model
of a Roman war-galley, with four banks of oare, very curious ; and another
of the famed ship of Henry VIH., which carried him to the conference of
the Field of the Cloth of Goldj^another of a first-rate, built in Charles I. 's
time ; and several of the not ancient, but old-fashioned, tubs in which

Price OitE Penky,

258

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

Rodney and liis sea-dogs won their battles. The coUoetion was, however.
but fragmentaiy : we had only scattered links of the chain which, if
completed, would hai-e formed one of the most interesting and purely
national portions of the Exhibition. With these remarks, which we will
not extend, we now proceed to describe the main features of the collection
which was actually broight together.

It consisttd, then, lu-incipally of models of ships of war, showing their
lines ; and, in a few cases, of section models, showing the ai'rangements
between decks. Many of the former class of models were in what may be
called bas-relief — that is, only one side of the vessel was represented, the
object simply being to bIjow lier mould and run. Tliese were arranged upon
the western wall of the Exhibition, and were principally reiirescntations of
vessels constructed in our naval dockyards within the last twenty yoais,
many of them having been built daring the long contest which agitated
the naval world between the Surveyor of the Xa^•y and his numerous
antagonists. There were also a fair number of models of steam-boats —
some screw and some paddle — some in relief and others entire. A large
passenger-ship or two were exhibited, showing/ome of the most recent
improvements in interior arrangements , and, after glaucing at a number
of minor rigged models of schooners and cutters, introduced rather as
specimens of the skilled neat-haudeduess of their builders, than as
exemplifying any principles of naval architecture, we came upon a vast
variety of plans and inventions for life-boats. [Some account of these
we gave in Ko. 15, p. 23(3, and we shall illustrate individual models in a
ftiture article.] On the other side of the stall on which the life-boats
made so conspicuous a figure, was arranged a great variety of models
of ship machinery, particularly that connected with anchorage, such
as capstans, windlasses, chains, and anchors themselves. We had then a
number of compasses and graceful designs inr binnacles; and, lastly, after
inspecting an omnium gathemm of naval odds and ends, such as the gun-
harpoon^f for striking whales, and almost equally formidable weapons for
shooting ducks from punts, models of oddly -shaped ships with sliding keels,
and catamarans constrncted out of spars of wood, and air-tight bags acting
as buoys, we came to an infinity of diving apparatus, illustrative of the
entu-e process of adventuring, remaining, and working below water.

We will fir.st briefly remark upon the bas-relief models of men-of-war.
Had the set been complete, or had specimens of different ages been copiously
given, the observation of the gradually shifting forms adopted in our
dockyards would have been specially interesting. As it was, however, we
could gather from the collection hints not mthout signiticance. The first
thing which strikes one in modern ship-bviildiug is the cutting down of the
bulk which our ancestors were fond of rearing above the water. The castles,
and quarter-decks, and poops with which they delighted to encumber their
vessels, began first to give way at the bows ; and the forecastle has long
been a mere name, the thing having vanished more than a centui-y ago. It
was not, however, until a much more recent period that the mountains of
timber piled up astern began to be reduced; and the naval battles in the
latter third of the last century wei-e fought by ships of the line with
taifrails rising forty and sixty feet above the water. The tendency of
improved ship-building is now to lay the whole expanse of deck as nearly
as possible upon the same level. A few smaller vessels, we believe, have
been actually built flush from stem to stei-n ; but, at all events, the modest
height of the quarter-decks now constructed contrasts strangely with tlie
old notion of the symmetry and propriety of a towering poop, ornamented
mth all the art of the carver, and furnished with range over range of
quarter galleries. Beneath the water-mark the tendency of advancing ship-
building has been to adapt the curve of the swelling side, and the concave
portions of the ship, which, in nautical phrase, " take most hold of the
water," so as to prevent, as much as possible, the heavy and injurious rolling
motion, which is increased by the quantity of weijht a man-of-war must
carry above the water, to cause tlie ship to sit as stiffly as may be, ami heel
over as little as possible — tlie special desideratum in a fighting vessel — and
to arrange the Hues of flotation so that the lowest tier of guns shall always
be carried at least three or four feet above the water lino. To these divers
qualities the naval architect has, of course, to add the consideration of that
of speed, and the delicacy of the ship m answering the slightest touch of
her helm. The peculiarities of modern improvement in all these respects
are easily obsei-vable, upon comparison of an old-fashioned with a newly-
built hull. The bows of modern men-of-war are sharper and far finer than
the old style; and there is more of the concave shape about them — a form
whicli flings the seas sideways and backwards instead of aboard, as the old
bluff bows used to do ; the belly of the ship is by no means so round
as it used to be, the sides or walls being far flatter, an improvement which
diminishes the tendency to roll ; and the dimensions of the part of
the ship immediately before the rudder, called "the run," and in wliich the
convex form changes into a pure and finely modelled concave, diminish so
as to allow the body of water displaced to close quickly and easily, flinging
its full force upon the helm. The spectator will oiiserve that in modern
ships this " run " is of larger dimensions than in the olden craft. An
exception to this rule is, however, in some degree to be foimd in tlie vessels
built under the survey of the navy. Take the Queen for example, a first-
class man-of war of 116 guns : a full model of her hull was exhibited,
which for bluffness, and. to modern eyes, clumsy ugliness of mould, could
not be beaten by any o^ the ships which carried the fla;;s of the Byn? or
Rodney. The merits of the Queen have accordingly been lung a fruitful
theme of controversy iu the naval world. Hei' best qualification is, we
believe, that she can-ies her guns well out of the water ; but she is slow.

and rolls tremendously iu a sea-way. In the lines shown of new frigati
andgun brigs, it is curious to observe the approach to the style of buildii
which has been long ago adopted in the construction of yachts — the bov
sharper and finer than ever ; " the runs " of great size, and delicacy
mould ; and the height of the ship attaining its extreme point when measure
from the tatfriiil to the lower extremity of the stern-post. The effect of tij
latter arrangement, taking into consider.atiou that the ships in cjuestion a)
made to sit witli the stern low in the water, is to cause them to di-aw mai
more feet of water oft than forward, to give them great steering power, ai
a strong fii-ni hold of the water. The attention of the spectator may 1
profitably directed to the models of the Pique and the Incuiistant, two
our heavy first-class frigates. Of these, the former seems the more gracefu
but the latter has proved herself the most efficient vessel. Loth V.
Pique and Inconstant, however, belong to tlie old school. Our iirst-ek
frigates are now rated to carry lifty guns, and beautiful specimens of the
are found in tiie models of the lines of the Jialeiffk and the .4»vo//a)i(— tv
of the noblest .ships oil the water, and bigger than Lord Nelson's old sevent
fours.

After inspecting the new-fashioned men-of war, furnished with auxiha
screw propellers, such as the Iloguc and the Agamemnon — vessels carrji
the most formidable b:itteries of caunon ever borne across the ocean, and
doubt destined to take a conspicuous part iu our next naval war — if ever sue!
misfortune should iiriso — we may advantageously study the moulds of t
little squadron of experimental gun-brigs, the evolutions of which exoit
so much interest some five or six years ago. There is no department of c
naval architecture in which we have made more progress than in t
construction of tlie small men-of-war, called gun-brigs. The old vessels
this class were a disgrace and a reproach to our dockyards. Over-masli
deep-waisted. ill-modelled, thoy went down or went ashore with such i
regularity, that they aecxuireil the significant nick-name of '• cofiins ; " I
were still — not much to the credit of successive governments — emploj
as packets, until the last of the fleet was either wrecked or worn o
Now-a-days, the gun-brigs form one of the most creditable departments
the Navy. In tliis department of the Exhibition we saw the models — t
beautiful they are — of the fleet built both by private and official euterpr ij
the peaceful records of whose cruizes filled so many newspaper colun
half-a-dozen years ago. The precise question of their merits was never v
fairly settled; but the general opinion was, that the Mutinc, the Dan^
and the Espityle were the flowers of the fleet. The Mutine after
gi'catly distinguished herself on the coast of Africa. The Flyiwi-Fish,
the quickest of the squadron, was so wet, as seriously to interfere with'
comfort of all on board ; but still, altogether, the vessels in question forir
perhaps, the most beautiful and best adapted squadron which ever vs
to sea.

A few, but only a few, models of merchant sailing-vessels were exhil
One of these was a perfect specimen of the latest improvements in firsf
passenger-ships ; we allude to the model of the hull of the Omen Glo
one of Mr. Green's splendid fleet of frigate-like merchantmen, built
Blaokwall. The capacity for stowage in this fine ship is beautifully combi
with a faultless outward mould. Her bows are sharp, and have that sligl
concave tendency which denotes speed and dryness, and the run is bea
fully fine, and what sailors call " clean." In one respect the Owen Glcudi
dlfl'ers from the new fashion of flush building, now so prevalent. She cat*!
a quarter-deck not loo high, but of more than ordinary length,
sufficiently lofty to allow an airy and comfortable cabin, with bertha '
state rooms to extend below it. Thus the passengers are accommods
upon the level of the main deck. They have plenty of air and vcntilat
The height at which they stand above the sea allows of larger wind
being formed than would be possible had they to descend a " compaui
to attain their cabin, and thus a handsome airy apartment is -ecu;
removed as much as possible from unpleasant smells, which are alaayt
stronger the further down you go in a ship ; while a considerable spao-
gained beneath for extra stowage. A similar arrangement now 1
generally holds in the American packets ; and different modilicatious of
same plan, such as round-houses, cuddies, and so forth, have been 1
familiar to the passengers of East India ships. Forward of the deck ca
in the Owen Gkndowcr, is an excellent arrangement of pens for live iti
and a compact cooking apparatus : while the crew are accommodi
beneath a raised forecastle upon exactly the same princijile as the paa.sen|
abaft.

Above Mr. Green's fino ship stood a rigged model of a class of ve
which is making great and rapid iunuvatious upon old-fashioned mercai
marine — an Aberdeen clii'per schooner. ^J''ho port in question has tfi
the lead in the pjroduction of this very beautiful, very safe, and very
class of vessel. Indeed, the Scotch jjorts on the eastern co.ast, partioal
Leith and Dundee, stand conspicuously out for their excellence iu
structing a new class of exceedingly elegant and exceedingly i'ast-gi
ships, which will, no doubt, gradually come into universal use.
" clipper" is constructed upon the general theoiy, that a small amoua
stowage-room may be ailvantageously given up to secure a great amc
of speed, and with that speed a preference for cargo and a greater degre
safety from the accidental risks of the sea ; since no one can dispute tb
vessel able to go ten or twelve miles an hour, stability not being sacrifi
must, in the nature of things, bo a more secure ship in every respect tl
one which is able to go only five or six. The clippers were, we belt
first built to carry up perishable cargoes of salmon from Norway and
north of Scotland to the Thames. They are now commonly used iu traffic

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF TllK GllKAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

2Ba

fcho couvcynnco nl' r;|..ily -poil..! umm,1s, mh.I I'.ii' lli;-! "f .iii].', ••In, I, ,1
detoriorated in cuiniitiini hy In-iii^ l<'ii^ Ht m':i. 'lii',' p;i'ii(>r;ii t'ruit tniflf
from tln^ Mrditinaiieivn, tlio oraiigo tnulo from the AzfU'eH, an well aa the
Scotch coa»tiii(,' tniflie, arc now almost ontiroly earrieil I'li \>y clippers — craft
jf na boaiitil'ul an appearance on the water as nny of (,'oopor'a ulnviiig, or
pirate, or privateer Bchooiicr.s, and able to go iVoni the Noro to theHiimlier
n the time wliieli a cluin.iy Nowoastle bi'ig would take to work clown tho
3wiu to Harwieli. Tho fa«t incraiwing claims of 6crew-propoIIer boats-—
)rincipally devoted to traffic in uattle, between the Thames iind Ireland,
ind Holland — arc also built and riggeil on clipper prineiploi ; and Aberdeen
los recently been asserting her right still to contiiiuo in tho van of tiieraeo
Q naval architeetnro, by building clipper sliipa of largo tonnage, one of
vhich, in 11 voyage from China lately, beat an American thip, loudly
rumpeted as the fastest vessel whioh ever boi'e the stars and stripes, and
lonscqutntly, of course, in tho opinion of Yankee-land, the fastest in the
vorld. Tho model in tlie Exhibition showed tliut the Aberdeen clipper
choonors, while they are formed abuftmueh upon the ordinary moulding of a
racht— that is, as wo have explaineil, with B Ion™ and fine run, and very
ligh from the bottoiu of tho atern-jiost to the tallrail— aro modelled forward
ipon the principle of the bows of a Clydo steamer, involvuig great sharpness,
ising into a concave shoulder o( oKuggerated hoUownesis eumparod with
hat more tendency to ooucavity which wo Imvo described as chni-aeterising
nany new vessels both men-of-war and nierehantmon. The etlect of this
lOnstruction is not to prevent the vessel pitching, but to eauso her to pitch
rithout being wet. tho overlapping portion of tlio bowa Hinging the water
lomiwards and backwards fronl tlie obstacle, while the sharpness beneath
mables the shi)i to slide quickly and steadily through the water. As yet,
vith few exceptions, the clippcr-build is confined to coasting craft; but the
nitiative has boeu taken in the oonstruetion of large full-rigged ships upon
hfl same princiido; tho success of more than one of wliicli bailing from
jiverpool and Aberdeen has lately formeil tho subject of uewspaiier
tl'agraplis. Of the coasting craft, a few, but only a few clipper brigs have
ceu built, tho m.ajority of the smaller vessels being schooners. In tho
igging. considtrablo improvimcnts, both as respects lightness and elegance,
ave t.dicn place. The olipper is less towering aloft than the old-fashioned
ormaphrodite schooner ; but her yards aro squarer, her boom and gafl
jnger, and she is thus enabled to carry as great a spread of canvass and to
lanage the cloth with more facility than the loftier rigged vessels. The
Id hermaphrodite schooner carried foremast, fore-topmast, and fore-top
illaut-mast, ami occasionally even a fore-royal mast, in all four pieces. The
Ijpper uniforjnly contents herself with a foremast and fore-top must,
taking up for tho diminished height of the " stick " by the great squareness
ihe yards— the fore-top gallaut-yard being sometimes, if we mistake not,
to come down upon the fore-topsail yard, so as to compact the rigging
diminish the leverage of tho swing of high and heavy top hamper,
clipper has, further, an air of smartness and ship-shape which the
ary merchant coaster is far from pretending to. She can go at double
speed of the lumbering collier-brig or coast-schooner, and shows beside

im, too, like a hunter compared with a couple of dray-horses.

" e steamboat models were numerous, and not uuintere,sting. A number

bas-reliefs were shown of vessels in the process of construction by
Mare, for the (Jeneral Steam Navigation Company — cratt of beautiful

lign, and whioh will, no doubt, turn out very fast ; and there w^as a half-
lOdel of a 2000 tons steam screw-propeller yacht on the stocks for the
jperoy of Egypt, which has since been Launched, and which deservedly
itfacted a great deid of admiration. A large model of a new paddle wheel
-- icr, fully rigged and complete dowu to the minutest details of 6nish,
placed in a prominent position, facing the eastward-running inner
lUery, and repaid minute inspection as a peculiarly perfect model of a
clii-ss craft of her species. She was flush decked and carried swivel
al guns upon her paddle platform. The floats of the wheels were
sposed. not, after the too comniou fashion, in a plane with the spokes,
it perpendicularly, so as to strike the -water edge.sise and to expend the

.ole force of the paddle upon a productive lateral, and not an unproduc-

e downward movement. A number of contrivances, more or less

inious, of feathering paddle floats were displayed, but we understand

it is found in practice that machinery of this sort, however theoretically

ible and however supported by abstract soientific laws, has such an

rbrtunate tendency to get out of order as to counterbalance the nominal
Ivantages. W'itli improved mechanical contrivances, however, it is quite
lasible that the feathering system may yet be made practically available,
lless, indeed, the screw achieve the final overthrow of the paddle-wheel!
The models of the Victoria and Albert and the Fairy — the well-known

lyal yachts — excited much attention. We do not know, however, whether

are to place perfect credeuce in the miniature presentment of the larger
Issel. Soon after the launch, it was pretty generally reported that she
a a contemptible botch, and that all sorts of tricks and sly patching had
en resorted to in order to make her sail respectably. Whether these

irieswere true or not, we cannot vouch, but it was often asserted, and
;Ver denied, that, as in consequence of oomo mistake in her lines,' the
xloria and Albert went fastest when down by the head, she was ballasted

as to bring her into this position, and th'tn built up upon, so far, of
|urse, merely as the bulwarks went, and new painted to conceal her
■jkward sit upon the water. Be that as it may, however, the Victoria and
■ba-t now goes very quickly through the water, a eonsummation for
•icU she has, m some degree at least,' to thank the immense steam power

erewith she has been provided. The Fairy is a sweetly formed and

1 1 most faultless little craft. Her speed in nmooth water in wonderful, and
the good weatherHhoman.igcs to make in rough, conBideringhcrsliallowneM,
i.s eq\mlly marvellous. In crossing tho Irish Cliann-I in a gale of wind the
day her Majexty rotuiTied from Kelfoxt. ivo arc toM that, except mere «|iray,
she did not ship a couple of bucket«-full of watiT, while we can bear pfjmonal
testimony to the fact, that tho .«ea wnMhed in toiiii over the fore part of tho
deck of the, Cararfoc, one of the new crack llolyheiul and Kingstown packet*,
while crossing at the self-same hour. Not far frorii the models of the Royal
packets was ono of the screw atoam yacht* bulll by Mr. White, of Cowe«,
for tho Emporor of Kuasia. The Pelerht^ nam» noioh »uch a veiuicl as the
/"uiry— very fast, extremely elegant and Kracafiil upon the water, and made
a good sea boat by tho very force of her liglilnuat and buoyancy, combined
with a sharp wedge-like outline, wliiuh onublus lier to itlip through head
sea«, offering them but a very trilling rubiaumco.

In the same case was a large and Imndsomo model of a Gravesend boat,
the Jupiter, said to bo tho fiutist on tho river Tlionios. S!.c is immensely
long ami narrow, with vast pad(lla)i, and will probably goat high velocity,
but is only intepiU-d foi- sjaootU water. Close to her wa« deposited a
curious contrast, in the shape of a model of a Uoman galley, showmg the
way in which tho oers were worked on buard theso eminently cluiosy vesaeb.
Beneath tho water-line the model 18 round and lumpy, with very little
indication of a run, but wo much doubt whether any authority exists for
the exact mathoniatical proportions actually observed by the early Italian
shipwrights. What may be called the main deck i-'i very low down indeed
— a mere flooruig, in fiet, above the keel ; but upon it are erected double
platforms of four diflei-ent beighta, ooch platform seating Ave or nix rowers,
who grasp the va.st sweeps by whioh the ve.'sel is propelled. The arrange-
meut of these sweeps is curious. The circular holes through which they
pass run diagonally from the upper gunwale sternwise towards the keel,
tlie benches within of course ob.^erving a similar disposition. Upon small
patches of deck, running round the bulwarks, and crossing from side to
side —somewhat in the fashion of a steamer's paddle bridges — tho warriors
stand ; and at the stem and stern there are species of covered reoept-oclea
surrounded by circular wooden roofs, which afl'ord shelter from the weather
and the sea. It is diflicult, however, to get anything like a olue to the
i actual accommodations for the continued residence of a number of men in
I these ships. The slaves who rowed — and awful slavery it must have been
to tug thesis long heavy sweeps — probably took up their sleeping quarters
upon the pricking-for-the-softest-plank principle.

The two moyen-aije ships— the Barry Orace de JHeu and the Soyal
Sovereign, built by Charles IL, were well worthy inspaotion. The former
model was rigged, the latter only a hull ; her form and general mould,
however, diflfering in no remarkable respect from, and showing little advance
in construction, over her predecessor, although the latter was buUt not
less than 113 years before her. Both ships are piled up with huge unwieldy
masses of forecastle and poop, In the Hany Grace de Dieu a number of
circular senti-y-boxes, or watch-towers, rise all round the bulwark, as though
it had been the outer wall of a fortification, and the port holes are sur-
mounted by ranges of loop-holes for mnsketi-y. The Royal, Sovereign
appears to have been built rather for purposes of pageantry than war. She
is elaborately carved, principally with Roman emblems and devices ; but
we miss the warlike appendages of turrets and popper-box towers which
gave the true mo2/««-ni'c ships theair of aailiiigoastles — theideaofthearchitects
having, indeed, manifestly been to manufacture a species of feudal floating
fortress. The rigging of the Harry Grace de Dieu shows us the earlier stages
of the combination of the still-existing square rig, with the lateen disposition
of yards common to feluccas and their northern offspring — luggers. She
carries three masts rigged square, with huge round tops; the two after-
masts showing the lateen rig, which afterwai'ds changed into the common
schooner fore and-aft mode of slinging the yards, still in existence, and
which is based upon the same principle as the felucca arrangement of the
Mediterranean. Altogether, the two models are so interesting as to nsake
us again regret that they only show two incidental eras in the histoi-y of
our naval architecture — tvi'o accidental links in the chain which began with
the log or bark canoe, and ends for the present with the 120 gun ship,
carrying 8-1-poundei-s on her lower decks, and flinging thousands of pounds
of ii'on at every broadside.

[Models of native boats were exhibited in several of the Foreign and
Colonial Departments, which we shall describe in a future ai-ticlc]

Dawso.n's Autophon.— Mr. Dawson's Autophon, which is simply a
modification of the ordinary church organ with the addition of a pair of
rollers, between which the perforated card boards or milled boards con-
taining the tunes to be played are introduced, was placed among the
pianos and other musical instruments, in the middle north gallery.
The perforated sheets of music having beeu introduced within the
instrument, by the operator tm-ning a lumdle with his right hand, pass
underneath the various pipes through which the wind fi-om the bellows
is forced. The bellows and pipes ai'e, of coui-se, differently arranged from
those of an ordinary organ. The unperforated parts of the boards serve as
valves to shut off those pipes that are not required in any given tune. A
great advantage of this instrument is, that the time may be in any key, and
not limited as in the case of the barrel-organ. The operator is also
enabled to dwell any length of time on any given harmony. In many
rural districts, especially where the annual stipend of a professed organist is
a barrier to the introduction of an instrument of the usual kind, Dawson's
autophon will be found to be a gi-eat acquisition.

260

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

261

'WO

,4'' J.

m^^^

FOREIGN AND COLONIAL DEPARTMENTS.

THE INDUSTRY OF FRANCE.— (No. 11.)
N our lost article on the iiuUiatry of France, we traced its progroBg
through a series of official and other authentic documents issued by the
French Govorunicnt, from tlie time of Louis
XIV. down to a comparatively recent period.
How far its condition, a-s then shown, has
been altered by the events of the last few
years, it is no o:viy task to determine posi-
tively. It is well known that France, more
than any other country, lias suffered terribly
by the late revolution, and it is but foir to
beai- in mind that, in the late industrial con-
test, she could not be supposed to bring into
action all the resources wliich might
be at the disposal of an undisturbed
country enjoying all the vigour of its
natural strength. As M. Dupin ob-
served with reason last year, in his
address to intending exhibitors — " If
Franco could have chosen her own
time for an E.Klubition, she would
not have selected the period between
1850 and 1852; she would not have
lilt !" ^^^ ^Cr^i selected that era in her life, when

n ti *''¥>''^' >'?'1 ^nc\\ severe straggles have enfeebled

her for the present, and weakened
her confidence in the future."

What change political events may
have bi-ought mto her previous pros-
perity and productive powers, none
but a local observer can well appre-
ciate. An able writer, M. Audigame,
lias indeed instituted such an inquiry,
and published the results of his per-
sonal experience ; and these possess
so much interest, and bear so directly
upon the question before us that we
are in justice bound to offer some
quotations therefrom.

Manufacturing France, he says,
may be divided into five zones. In
the northern zone, which comprises
eleven departments, is accumulated
the greater portion of theu' industrial
wealth. This tract is advantageouslj'
situated for manufacturing purposes.
The vicinity of the seaboard, its con-
nexion mtli Paris by means of a large
river, numerous canals, and gi-eat faci-
lities for procuring fuel for factories
— all account for its position and in-
creasing importance. Besides larger
towns, such as Lille and Rouen, which
employ some 100,000 hands each
within their limits, that district eon-
tains other localities the names of
which recall some special branch of
manufactures, and rank conspicuously
in the annals of industry. The east-
ern zone exhibits in several places an
activity similar to that in the north.
Mulhouse, Troves, Rheims, Rive de
Gier, St. Etienne, St. Chamond, Ta-
vare and Lyons, compete with the
large factories in Xormandy and
Flanders. Industrial pursuits are
not, however, here so general ; na-
tional activity splits itself into more
divereified avocations ; manufactures
do not spring up as the natural pro-
duce of the soil. The southern zone,
though not so fixr advanced as the
eastern district, possesses, neverthe-
less, some fine and wealthy establish-
ments. The Rhone and the Loire
do not monopolise the whole'of the
silk industry. Nismes and the Ce-
vennes are tlistinguished for kiads
of indastries peculiar to themselves ;
but under the benign climate of the
south, labour has cast off its rude and

uncouth appearance. Wiwlied by the ocean, fertUinod by the Loire, tho
Oironde, and othi.T streams, wcHtorn Fnmco devotes leitB attention to
industry and manufactiireo than to foreign tnule. Tho ccntnil zone cm-
braces the whole of I'arisian industry. When diverging towards the south
to enter tho heart of France, a country is to bo seen intersected with
mountains, valleys, and uncultivated lands, but having few manufacturing
estalilishmonts ; and tho departments of Corrizc, Cautal, and Haute Loire
circumscribe on one side, by farming or povorty-strickon tracts, that zone
which presents 'at the other end so many wealthy IndustrieH, and so many
splendid arts agglomerated together.

Retracing our steps, wo find that the staple manufactures in the depart-
ment of the North are the spinning into yam and the weaving of cotton,
flax, and wool. In the cotton yam trade there are at LUle 34 large
establishments, tho capital sunk in which Ls not less than seven or eight
millions of francs. Again, the laco trade in that town gives employment
to 295 looms, the cost of which may have been l,300,000f. During the
recent crisis, the production of those two industries fell by one half short

^'■

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f>v

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r*:

MICHAEL OVEETHBOWINO THE DRAGON. — M. LE SBIQNEUE.— (SEE PAGE 267-)

36a

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

of the average of the preceding yeara. The diminutiou is still more
severely felt in the liueu yarn trade, which possesses in this locality 49
establiahmenU. setting at wurk lOS.OOO spindles and 10,000 hands, with a
capital of at least twenty millions of francs. Orders for the army have aloue
kept up some activity in the factories at Armentieres aud Halluiu. It is
true that the trade had already shown symptoms of decay previously to
the breaking out of the Revolution iu Februai-y.

Tourcoing and Roubais are, iu the north, the principal seats of the
woollen trade, and are renowned for then- woolcombiug and spinning
establishments, and also for their carpet manufactories ; Tourcoing is at the
same time a great mart for native and foreign wools : out of 12,000 hands
which those industries kept employed, about 8,000 were almost thrown out
of employment by the Revolution. The woollen trade maintaining 30,000
artizans at Roubaix, and gives an annual return of 25 millions of francs.
The spinning and weaving of cotton, moreover, require 16,000 hands on
an average, producing some live millions worth of goods. But Roubaix had
its share of public calamity. In IJarch, April, and May, 1849, fabrication

CLOCK. — LEROT ASD SONS, PARIS.

fell short by ouc-thu-d of what it had been iu 1817, and consumption by
about two-thirds.

The several industries in existence in the liopartment of the Pas de
Calais viewed generally, seem to have suffered less. The preparation of
oils, especially — which, in the districts of Arras and Bethune, keep 180 fires
lighted — bore the ciisis firmly, and maintained almost all its usual com-
plement of hands At work. Not so the twelve engine establishments and
foundries exi^itiug in the same localities ; almost every one of which was
compelled to stop working.

The lace and cambric trade, impoverished already by the powerful
competition of TuUes, had fallen twenty-five per cent. The hosiei-y factories
in the district of Boulo^nie, or more properly at Hesdin, cut short their
production to one-tldrd of the ordinai-y yield. The splendid flax-spinning
establialiment at Cap^cure, founded in 1S3G— workirg 8000 spindles, and
employing 1800 hands — although aissisted by the Chamber of Commerce
and the local banks, gave way to the storm .after a desperate struggle. At
Calais and St. Pierre lea Calais, the three flax-spinning establishments,
which brought out annually two millions' worth of products, were obliged
to dismiss the 1,500 workmen they employed. Likewise, in the department
of the Somme (a part of the district of Abbeville) cotton, wool, and flax-
spinning, the mikiug of oottou velvet, and ol wooh either single or mixed,
hosiery, and the liuon trade known as toiles de Picardie, gave sustenance
to about 142,000 hands. Such of those manufactures as were more espe-
cially for the use of the wealthy, such as wool, fabrics, and whose designs
vary with each season, were broughtto a^dead stand — while the others

decreased fully one-third. The district Of Abbeville is peculiarly situated:
in all the country around a curious aud traditional industry is prevalent — ■
that of locksmith — which is known as " of Picardie." Each cottage is a
miniature factoi-y ; each having its fire constantly going, its vice, &o. The
articles are disposed of as quickly as made ; and, being coai-sely wrought^'
would lose much of their value if stored up. The breaking out of the
revolution brought a discontinuance of orders, .and consequently of labour.
Thus, driven forth by poverty, those country locksmiths had no resource
but to bog.

In the department of the Seine Inf^rieure, violent demonstrations had
momentarily e.itinguished the last glimmers of an industrial activity not
unlike that of thi» department of the North. At Rouen and its neighbour-
hood, the spinning, weaving, printing, and dyeing of cotton produce, for
the purpose of internal consumption and exportation, a mass of goodB
valued at more than 250 millions of francs. The requirements of 270
cotton-spinning, 32 weaving, 43 printing, and 75 dyeing factories. gi\e life
to a considerable uumbor of foundries, tanyards, leather-currying, engine-
making, bleaching aud drus.-iug
establishments. The spinning, ^veav-
ing, and dyeing of wool at Kmien,
Darnetal, and especially at Elbcu^
keep pace with the cotton trade in
those places ; but, with the excep-
tion of a momentaiy cessation,
printed calicoes at Rouen were IcM
affected than Rouenneries, properly
so called ; yet on tlie other hand
— faring even worse than Roui
neries — the beautiful tissues
Elbeuf wore left on the shelvi
unasked for. and scarcely a few
hundreds of the workmen, producers
of t'lose cloths, were kept employed.
In the other departments of Xor-
mandy, connected more or less nith
the industrial welfare of the Seine
Inferieure, similar causes produced
similar results. At Louvier,?, the
warehouses of which had for iii^uy
years been already overstockcl fot
want of au outlet abroad, maniit';ic-
torios gave way under impending
ruin, and loss of credit and foioign
tiadc. The slackening of ]''r( educ-
tion was about one-third at Bcrnay,
Nvhere the making of linen and
cotton ribbons occupied 9000
hands, that of linens 4000, and flax,
oottou, and wool-spinning about
2000 more. On the contrary, at
Pont Audemer, the cotton aud
linen trade, thout;h so severely tried
in other lociHties, sufiered less
(h.au tlie traditional industry of
lcather-ures?'ng, which seemtd to
rest upon a more solid basis. Tlie
lace trade at Caen, in 1847. Ka«»
employment to upwards of 50,1
persons— that is, to one-eighth
the whole population of the
vados. Thousand.? of females get
their livelihood thereby, .^fter
the revolution of February, factors, receiving no more orders
from the Parisian houses, stopped at once their operations. But the
hosiery trade at Caen and F.alaise, which is almost entirely taken up by
local consumption, underwent scarcely any alteration. At Lisieux, the
manufacturing of linen cloths, called " cretonu.-s," and of serges, are, hke
the preceding ones, branches of industry, as it were, innate to the soil, and
have been so for many ages. The factories of this district weave annually
40,000 to 50,000 pieces of lineu cloth, valued at nine millions of francs, and
100.000 pieces of "frocs" of a similar value. The looms were often short
of hands, and several times during the preceding years labourers had been
sent for from Belgium and Holland; but iu March, 1848, tlie foreign work-
men went away, and the natives were hardly .able to procure half the work
they had been accustomed to get. In the industrial districts of the Oriie.
at Alenfon, Serte Mace, TAigle Tinchebr.ay, Vimontiers, Flers, &c., tlit
niaiiufocturing of lace, linen, common cloth, pins and wires, cotton, &c.,
fell more than oue-half under their previous amount of production. In
the dep,artmeut of the Mauche, which is the boundary of the uorthern
section of France towards the west, scarcely any vestige of industrial
activity is to be traced ; but the link of the great economical phenomena
engendered by the crisis continues unbroken in tlie last three departments
of the same zone — the Aisne, the Ardennes, and tlie Oise.

Tlie town of St. Quentin was formerly distinguished for its exeellenoe in
the most diverse industiie.s. Previou.sIy to 1848, twelve eottou-spiuning
mills, setting 93,000 spindles to work, produced annually 500,000 kilo-
grammes of spun cotton — worth, ou an ayerage, three millions of fi'aucs.

.-are

THE CKYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS; AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPiEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

THK CRYSTAL PALACE AS A WINTER"CARDEN.

266

THE CRYSTAL PAIACE AND ITS CONTENTS)

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

(Frenxh DEP.vBTsresT — Continued from paf/c 2G3.)
numbered before Februai-y. 1848, not fewer than 140.000 spiDdles and
18 000 bands. Beinc the c'euti-e of this large tniffic, and the chief manu-
facturing sejit of tlie six departments lying at the eastern extremity of
France, Mulhouse for several montlis .'topped working the gi-eater part of
her looms, and reiluced by oue-half the work in tliose that were kept
going. Reduced in ordinary times to almost nominal profits upon each
yard of cahco, and making up for the smallness of profits by the enormous
amount of sal&9, the mauuficturers of this town could not well stand the
sudden, fall of prices simultineously with a considerable contraction of
business : while in the neighbourhood of Mulhouso, at Sainte Marie aux
MioM, the spi:m!iig and weaving of dyed cotton wool rcaisted the storm
better, and, like the printed calicoes of Rouen, enjoyed a good run in the
summer of 1848. Cloth and woollen stuff manufactories, cotton-spinning,
weaving, and dying e-stablishmtuta, which in the Baa Rhin employed from
11 000 to lii.uoO hands, the forges at Nicderbronn, the hardware fabrics
ofMolsheim au-l Zornhoff, the iron works for the con.'itrnction of ma-
chinery at Illkirch and Stnisbourg, which gave employment to 6,000 more

all came to a etand-Btill iu 1848, and, when revived, recovered but

impartially their productive power. The mctallurgic establiehments of the
Haute Marne, however, although previouply impaired by several exti-aneous
circumstances, did not bear without a Rhow of energy the brunt of
political events, and paaeed through the ordeal less exhausted than might
have been anticipated. Almnfct all the forges and establishments in the
iron trade haviny been shut up, and the works on railways entirely dis-
continued, it is needless to state that production fell much below the usual
sum of 16 or 17 luillions of francs, which is its yearly average, and which
makes up about one-tenth or one- twelfth of the total metal c:ist in Fi-ance,
One fact may be mentioned, as illustrative of the state of the metallurgic
trade m 1848: at the celebrated fair held at Beeancon, called the Ascen-
sion Fair, where thousands of tons of iron are usually sold, not ono could
be disposed of.

The other branches of iodusti^ of the Haute Morne— the Klove-maUing
trade of Chaumont, which usually distributes seven or ei^ht hundred I
thousand francs annually among some 3.000 workpcjile as wages, and the
cheap cutlery of Langres and Nogeut le Hoi. the products of which are
about five millions of francs— have been reduced to a partial cessation,
tantamoxmt to the loss of one-half their usual productiveness. Not to
mention 150 cheese-making dairies, churaing 1,200,000 kilogrammes of
cheese annually, the Jura departrae;it offers to the inquirer the most
diversified indobtries scattered all over the country. Excepting the paper-
mills of Saint Claude and Lessard, and also one cotton-spinning mill, no
artizans are to be met with cougregatcd into factories. Iu tiie middle of
their family, near the domestic hearth, does one see here the toyniaker at
work, the clock, the basket, and the common cabinot-maker. Those several
trades fell off, some one-third, some one-half; and prices declined some
35 per cent.

By its geographical situation, the department of the Rhone is naturally
connected with the group of the eastei-n departments, but its staple trade
belongs to the southern. The peculiar organisation of the Lyons tmde is
known by all ; it is a well-ascertained fact that the loom there nbeys and
awaits orders. No accumulation of goods therefore, no anticipated pro-
ductiveness, takes place there— the loom stops as briskness in orders
slackens. Of all cities in France. LyoiiR could not but more keenly feel
the effects of a crisis which weighed o^peciatly upon articles of luxury;
while home consumption was almost null in 1848, tho demand for silk
fabrics from abroad was hindered by the political state of Europe. For
several months, the working population of that city had no resource to
live upon but the wages earned iu the making of scarfs and banners
bespoken by the Provisional Govemment. Like Lyons, addicted to the
making of ait'.ck-^ of luxury, the little town of Tamre is celebrated for its
brocaded labiics fnr furniture, and its plain and figured muslins. In the
surrounding country upwards of 40,000 ijcr^ona are occupied iu muslin-
weaving. The liinnufacturing interest .^ti-uggled bravelv against the crisis,
but was here, as elsewhere, compelled to yield, and p'oduce decreased
about one-half. Being of moro modern growth in the industrial world, the
department of the Loire nearly equals that of tLe Hhone. The city of i
St. Etienne, of which St. Chainond i.% aa it were, the satellite, presents j
the contrast of two branches of industry very dissimilar; ribbons, velvet, |
and lacfrmaking face here the rough working of metals. The local sta- i
tisticsmaybetlius condensed: 110 to 120 mjllions' worth of product*, and
80.000 to s.^,fJ0O artiaana. TUo» numberd were reduced by two-thirds
during the crisis, which caused a like havoc at Rive de Cicr. In the glass-
trade, for mstance. out of forty-four kilns extant iu the depaHment, thirty-
seven were at work in Januaiy. 1818. out of which twenty-seven were
Btopped m the course of the year, and 1500 people out of 2000 thrown
out of employment.

In Eouthern France the brilliant indusiiy which throw,, idl the others in
the dark— the sdk trade— was severely tried in its several departments. At
Nismes. whore th.. making of «ilk and floss silk, together with figured silk
fabnca, employs from 25.000 to 30.000 hands, prices having fallen forty per
cent, work was completely stopped. Uocjons went offuith difficulty at
^e-third under theu- usual value. Being more felt at Montpellier and
Gang^. the fall of price 3 brought ruin on the spinning and silk-stockin^
manufactonea. The same cause acted upon the bilk-throwing and weaving
milla at Avignon, and compelled several houses to ^op payment. At
Valenciennes, where the product of the factories reached, in years of

prosperity, the sum of seventeen millions of francs, the ownerfi of silk-
worm nurseries, finding no sale for thoir cocoons, spun them themselves
by means of small home-ma<le, deficient, aud expensive apparatus. Thus
did that noble iudustry degenerate from tho high position acquii-ed by
prior progress.

Tho impoi-tance of the lai-ge establishments in the Qard and the
Avignon, and a few isolated foundries at Vienne, Toulon, 4o.. give to
metallurgy the second i-ank in the industrial classification of the south.
The causes of the slackening of business wero the same as in the Hauto
Mama, and brought on a decrease of one-half in the aggregate bulk of
goods produced. The chief manufactories are to be found at Vienne,
Carcaesone, Chalabre, Limous, Bayonue, RodeK, St. Gcuiez, Castres. Mont-
pellier, and Clermont TH^-ault. Some of those establishments, favoured
with orders from the Govemment, were able to ride through the storm
gently enough ; but others, which work for exportation, received scarcely
any order from abroad. The greater part, manufacturing for local con-
sumption, had, in consequence of the national distress, their usual outlets
cut oflFfrom them by the ordinary requirements of the population being
curtailed. ConcuiTently with this stoppage of the weaving looms, au
immense fall in the price of wools is to be recorded. The glove trade at
Grenoble and Milhau ; the preparation and dressing of leather in the
latter town, undertaken on a largo scale ; the weaving of hemp and flax
cloth at Vou-on ; and especially the soap aud oil manufactories of Mai'-
seilles, deserve a particular mention iu the productive inventory of
southern France. With the exception of the tan, shammy, tawing trade at
Milhau, and some trades peculiar to Mai-seilles, industry underwent every-
where a decline of oue-half or two-thirds.

In western France, two towns only, Cbolet and Mayenne, deserve the
designation of manufacturing towns. At Cholet — the looms of which
gave wages to about 80,000 hands, when flax was spun by hand — spinning-
mills stopped from tlie outset of the criftis, weaving was discontinued for
several months.while the cotton and woollen trade lost but one-half their
usual complement. At JIayenne, cotton-spiuuing and calico and gi*ey
linen oloth factories, missed the summer season, and the inactivity of the
manufactures lasted for several months, at a time when generally they are
most brisk. The most important fabrication for the western departments
is scattered over the surface of part of tho ancient provinces of Bretague aud
Marne. The niunes of Quintin, Saint Brieuc, Keimes, Morlaix, Laval, and
Mamers, indicate the linen trade, already so much modified by the revo-
lution created by the introduction of machinery. A few special industries
peculiar to some localities pive, however, life and variety to the otherwise
monotonoiLS i)icture of the western districts. Thus the paper trade of
Angouifimo, now four centm'ics old, gives an annual produce of six millions
of francs ; tiie hemp and flax mills of Angers work up the beautiful pro-
duce of the valleys of tho Loire ; the glove trade of Kiort remains
unshaken, iu spite of the competition of woollen and cacheniire gloves.
Bankruptcy, winding-up, or, to say the least, cousidei-able losses aud partial
inactivity — .sucli has been tli^j lot of the firms engaged iu those trades.

Central France, apart from the metropolis and its radius, contains
somewhat more numorous manufactories. Textile industries are there
represented by silk fabrics, trimming, and small ware articles, the
carpets and cloths of Tours, the carpeting wonders of Aubussou
and Felletin, the common but substantial cloths of Chateauroux,
the linens and woollen tissues of Romorautin, the Limogese flannels
and drugget-. The large cstabhshmeuts of the Nievre .show the
excellence of its motallurgic products ; so docs tho cutlery of Clermont-
Ferrand and Thiei-s. The porcelams of Limoges, the pottery of Tours, the
eai-thenwnres of the AlUer aud Seine et Maine, occupy a more or less
conspicuous rank iu the scale of the ceramic arts. Duiing the crisis, the
silk stuffs of Tours, especially intfuded for sumptuous furniture, kept
scarcely any loom at work. The long-established manufactories ofAubusson
carpets were compelled, by the dearth of credit and sales, to dismiss 3,000
workpeople. Chateauroux made a good stand in the industrial affray.
Eomr.rantin had produced weekly 7,500 yards of cloth, thenceforth reduced
to scarcely 3,000. Tlie immense works of the Ni^vi-o, at Irapliy, Four-
chambault, &c., which required a considerable capital, and whose
working expenses did uot diminish in proportion to the decie;ise of
bu8iDc:^8, cxpeiieuced losses equal to a fall of one-half in the aggregate
mass uf their ti-ansactions. The cutlery trade of Thiers and Clermont-
Ferraud gave employment to scarcely 4,000 hands, in place of 20,000. The
twenty-four porcelain Mirjiufactories extant at Limoges, numbering
thirty seveu fires and 300 inillstoues, had, all but four, shut up and
stopped In May. 1848. Without being so extensively di.sturbed, the other
ceramic establishments of the centi'al districts had to contract their
production by about one-third.

With respcLt to I'aris aud its district, it is well-known that since 1816,
and especially since 1830, the manufacturing interest has taken a pro-
digious eiteiiflion. Tho metropolis of sciences and fine arts, Paris, ha.s
become an industrial emporium. The precincts and suburbs of Paris Ibrm
around it, as it were, a belt of mills, manufactories, and iudui^trial establish-
ments of every description. In 1847 the establishments working by meauu
of machinery, or employing more than twenty hands regularly, were 318
in number in the dcpaitm(.-ut of the Seine : they paid wages to about
30,000 persons of all sexes and ages. This does uot include all hands
employed iu manufactories of a different description from the above.
Parisian industry, proptrly so called — that is, cabinet-making, bronze, gilt»
jewellciy, paper, inlaid works, and twenty other fancy fabrics— supports

^e spinning of wool, which had hitherto been checked and stationary.
had also received a sudden and immense impetus. The productive power
of the town and surrounding villages, such as Guise, Ribemont, St. Michel,
and Fouruires, had reached seven inillions of francs. Not a skein, uot a
thread, left the country. The weaving-looms and factories resorted to by
30,000 work]>eopIe took all that came out of the mills ; and, though yielding
ground to the formidablo competition of Alsace, the cotton-spinning trade
still occupied on the eve of the revolution of February, 40,000 handa Fifteen
thousand females of all ages, divided into numerous categories, were
employed in lace and muelin embroidery. If to these principal iudn:;tries

The cloth-mills and metallurgic establishments of Sedan had in store m
Febi-uary, 1848. a mass of raw material, which allowed fabrication to' be
carried on in spite of stagnation of affairs and fall in prices. On the contrary
the woollen trade at Bethel, the combing, spinning, and weaving interests'
have lain fallow from the beginning of the crisis, being deprived of a similar
resource. In the tlcpartment of the Oise, wool spiuuing — beingin this district
entirely forh li-priced aud rn-st-rate articles for the wealthy— was struck at
the root, and all the country artizans employed in the making-up of merinos,
cachemires, &c., wci-e left without means. A few more common articles',
iu the way of delft, oavthcnwai-e, ftc, experieueed but a slight injuiy.

FnONTIBPIl-OE — CRCCHni.

are added bleaching, dressing, and other special establishments intended to
give the last touch to tissues — and likewise important iron-works for the
construction of engines and machinery — one may have an idea of th*^ nume-
rous interests accumulated in this place, which is comparatively of modern
gi-owth, and we could hardly find a spot which has suffered more from the
political storm. During the months of March and April. 1S48, almost all
the factories had stopped working; and, taking a review of tho whole year,
tlio usual briskness of tlie place had abated fully two-thirds. In tho
Ardennes, the manufactories of Sedan had not beeu so totally stopped.

VASE AXD TTV-O tinOCra K SILVEIU— TCOMKKT-MEUBICE.

i In tho east of Prance, where impoitaut ludnstrial centres ai-e more
' distant from each other, the iutcrnol shock was not so continuously felt;
! but on entering manufacturing towns the ft.»me afBicting effects are to be
j noted. Rheims, for instance, was driven tL> ciost, iu March, Anril, and
May, the magnificent wool-spinning mills which were her pride. Com-
' muuat workshops, on the model of the national attliert, swallowed up, in a
■ few weeks, an estraordinary loan of 400,00Of. ; and, had it not been for
an order of I, SOO.OOOf. for merinos, sent frum Kcw York at the moment
when all means were exhausted, the crisis would have been desperate. At
Troyes, which contains several important cotton-spiimuig establishments,
whose products are absorbed by the local hosiery, glove, aud knitted
articles manufactories, all the cotton tissues made iu the winter of 1847-S
awaited tho spring and summer sales, when the Revolution bui-st out
Instead of beiug drawn off as usual, goods remained undisposed of, and
filled the warehouses; and the mills, for want of fresh orders, stopped at
once. On the other baud, metallurgic establirfunente in Moselle, the silk
plush manufactoriifs for the bat ti-ade. the earthenware factories of Sarre-
guemiues and Longior, iho ^oes manufactories of St. Louis, Gcetzeubruck.
and Forlaeh, and tho tan-yards of Sierek, did not give way under the
I pressure; but the raw material was not forthcoming to the expectant
artizau, and the los.s of credit prevented any important outlay. The em-
broidery trade at Kancy suffered to suchaa extent, that 26c. wages perday
were hardly doled out to tlte women employed in that bi-anch of industry.
The cotton-spinning trade iu the department of the Haut Rhin
{ContinxKd at piif/e 266.)

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOI'^DIA OF THE GREAT BXIIIHITION f)l-' 1H51.

207

!ir.lR nf liil.OOU (iitiniiii farnilieH. It wnuld bo useli'BS to exiiatiato upon
iH'oct.s of tli« orinifi. in ho fni' na ivliitoil to tlio industrious cliwunH and
a pi'odnctivo aliilitioH of niannfiictnrijri, otlnii'wiso than to obHervo
fnncy aiticloa nnd eoHtly K""'l" 'i"' "loro likely than otiiers to suffer
mea of general distress; and although no nlticial returns have been
hod on the subject, yet, if the reports attributed to oompoteut
Ids, who have been coiiRulted on the s\ibje<'t, are to bo implicitly
ted, it would follow that the hiss to Parisian industry wiis not at the
less than nino-lenths in sale transaetiona, and about Kevon-tentha in
isuftl auiouiit of gooilH produoiid : while, in other (lui<artnients of nianu-
r«8, the dilliM'piico seems to have boon respectively two-thirds as to
, :uid one-half as to the amount ]>roduced.

wo now roi'.ipitulato all the above, wo find that in tho aggregate the
■a must ha\e been, in tho coniiTioreial transactions of France, to the
it of one-half what they arc in their normal state. The amount of
s proilucod is valued at (tho minimum) 2.000 millions of francs ; out
lich the four staple manufactures of textile fabrics, linen, cotton, silk,
wool, claim l,(iOO millions ; making tho loss in one year, respectively,
) and SOO millions; while wages, calculated at an average of If. 25c.
lieni, will show a dead loss to tho working population of 312 J millious
uics.

iw far France may have recovered from the shock, cannot yet be
ascertained; but evidently — oven taking matters in their best light,
supposing an almost complete revival, of which some symptoms
t lead one to believe the cxiatenoo^the causes contimio to act which
produced those effects — anxiety, fear, apprehension of the morrow,
mpoveriahment.

Vase and two groups, in silvku. bi proment-medrice.

display of ornamental and sculptvu-ed silver by M. FromentMeurice was,
altogether, the handsomest on the foreign side of the Exhibition,
of the works displaying an amount of artistic feeling and executive
r worthy of the days of Cellini. The very handsome vase represented
r engraving is one presented bj' the city of Paris to M. Emmeny, an
eer of eminence, to whom the Parisians are largely indebted for their
ut water supply. The sculpture is by ICUv^mann, and is p.artly done
loimi; or by punching, and partly cast ; tho whole richly chaaed and
ved. Tho little groups on either side a.vc two out of twelve repre-
ig the months, or seasons — very elegant little work.s, about ten inches
and all done en repoussd.

constantin's artificial i-'lowers.

ot^he most attractive and beautiful objects in the French department
ii ease containing Constantin's artificial lUnvers. We wish we could,
n our limits, do justice to the exquisite titith and delicacy exhibited
Constantin in an art which ho may fairly be said, if not to have
3d, Bt least to have brought to a point of excellence which it had never
ed before. We may briefly observe, that these productions ai'e hardly
called ai'tificial flowers, in the cvery-day tense, being in beauty and
Host everytldng but smell, identical witii tiiuse of nature. Roses,
hot-house plants, ivies, and endless other varieties, are here before ns,
irtre, in prnpridpenoiiii, and not always iu full bloom, but occasionally
seated, with most truthful effect, in their way of declining and
ring, with the canker-worm at the core, ami blight upon the face. All
wonderful realisations are produced in one material — cambric ; and
jigh praise is due to the artist who has achieved what he has done
it.

FRONTISPIECE. — Bt CROUOHrT.

is a handsome piece of omamen ta-
in carved wood and carton-pierre ;
ibjects relating to field sports.

ICK AND CimiNET ORNAMENTS. — BV
LEROr AND SONS.

lecoratiou of this group of objects is
kivalrcsque chai-acter, and is worked
'ith an expressiveness of spirit, and
1 a delicate tinish in the details, for
Parisian -workmen are i\istly cele-

Iiidiau worjien dancing a faudiDgo on tljd gnwo, v.'hlle tlie lepcru in plaving
on the guitar ; and a scene in the court yai-il of a firm, with tho wealthy
f.irmir and hia lady about to Bcl out ou a journey. A beautiful grouj) of
" Mexican Fruits" (fifty in number, iiaiural size), fonricd an inlcrcitiiig fea-
ture. In the North Transept Uallei^, C'Ihus 2it, Cu«o 122, were a. rich diiiplaf
of model wax aud r«« dc Us, bv Mmiaim) Moutanttri. Tlich". plaything* are
indeed very beautifully modelled ; the hair inserted into the head, cyoUahen,
and eyebrows. They represent tho dilferenk stages of childhood, up to
womanhood, and were arranged in the oa-fo so as to form Interesting family
groupi. They include portroits of several of tho Koyal children. Thn
interior of the eiiso represents a model drawing mom, tho model furniture
being carved and gilt, and elaborately finished. The model nigdoUi, in an
adjoining small glass-case, wa.s a newly invented arti.de, by Madame
^[ontanari, peculiarly adapted for the nursery, for their softncii^ and dura-
bility, and are largely patronised by those who are conuoissours in doll's flesh.

SCULPTURE.
In our present sheet aro engravings of fo\ir works of sculpture of varioun
schools. .Mr. Lough's equestrian plaster group, entitled " The Mourneni,"
had numberlfss admirers amongst tho idlers who thronged the main avonuen
of the Palace of Industry ; and it spoke home to the feelings of many of
that extensive class whose hearts are always " open to a tale of distre-s."
If the heart, therefore, were the only guide to be conaulted in the con-
sideration of works of design, undoubtedly Mr. Lough might bo said to have
achieved a very great success. Iu point of sentiment, however, even of
cvory-day sentiment, there does appear to ns a little extravagance and
inconsistency in placing a horse and a Christian widow in a partnership of
sorrow. For even supposing the horse had a right to indulge his feelings
on the occasion of the loss of a good master, as well as the bereaved wife,
he might have been kept a little iu tho back-ground ; at le.ast, the woman
should not have been called upon to bestow any of her attentions upon the
dumb animal, when she should have been exclusively eugi-ossed with the
ajipalling sight of a husband, untimely slain. These are errors of poetic
judgment, which throw sentiment into ridicule, and reduce art to the level
of an Astley's melodrama. As for the idea of the group itself, it is obviously
taken from Horace Vernet's celebrated picture of " The Dead Trampetor."
In that work, however, the sentiment is more consistently curried out ; tho
mourners over the corpse of tho soldier who, h.as just been shot dead from
off' his saddle, are the horse and a favourite dog, who licks the yet bleeding
wound. Tho horse by his startled look and cautious tread, tells the whole
story, which is true to nature. But there is no arbitrary and artificial
blending of brute instinct aud human sorrow. Fmally, we must add, that
the subject, from the very form of the outliue of the objects introduced,
whilst very appropriate for a painting, is wholly improper for a work of
sculpture unless in the modified form of a has relief.

Foley's "Wanderer" tells a plaintive tab of the " winter's wind," which
blows and whistles about him, and threatens to tear his cloak from his back.
He casts an appealing look to heaven, and struegles on still, against its vigour.

The " Girl at the Stream," by Widdersfield, though a work of slight pre-
tensions, is di.4icatoly treated, and had a pleasing effect amongst the various
statuary groups in the transept.

M. Le Seigneur's colossal group, in plaster, of '•' St, Jlichael overthrowing
the Dragon." which stood iu the li.ist Nave, is a specimen of the more exag-
gerated school which prevails to an alarming extent amongst our French
neighbours. It is vicioua in composition, and disturbs the eye with innu-
merable angular projections. In line, it has all the vice of ill-studied and
incomplete action, whilst there is nothing in the chai-acter or expression of
the principal figure (whose costume is absurd) to redeem the more glaring
defects of the composition.

XrOAH FIGURES AND DOLLS. BT

MONTANARI.
beautiful groups of Mexican figures
ted by Moutauari, iu the Fine Art
, daily attracted a throng of admir-
izers. They were indeed very intcr-
r as illustrating town aud savage life
xioo in all their phases. Amongst

tho most remarkable were a gro-
I figure of n-a "Aguador" (water-

I; a " Remendor,'' or street cobbler,
ragged attire; "A Confessional,"

of three figm-es; a gi'oup of two

DOLLS. — MADASIE MONTANARI.

268

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

MISCELLANEOUS MANUFACTURES.

FRINGE, GIMP, etc.
TT appears thayhe'icustom of appending fiiuge as a decoration to costume
and furniture, of even the i-udest dwellings, is to be traced to the very
earliest ages of man. The graphic records of past times, either in sculpture
or otherwise, famish ample evidence of its adoption in those periods of
which we have the unquestionable vouchers. All nations have likewise
been accustomed to its use, however bai'bai-ous or uncivilised the state of

consequent necessity of stopping its extension by knots, the additic
small weights to keep down drapery at the entrance to tents, &c.

There are some splendid specimens of fringe of early English
Flemish manufacture to be found in various noble mansions throug
England, and which have been eagerly sought after and as eagerly cc
by the British manufacturer, who in this branch of trade closely com]
with, if he does not excel, every other. Indeed, the specimens of our
fringe in the Exhibition fairly outvie all that has been contributed fi'on:
foreign source (if we except colour) in the essential requisites of 1
material, and finish. Ere we commence om- detailed desci-iption, we
allude to a room at Dotesio's hotel, at Slough, entirely fitted up in ne

THE MOUR^■ERS. — lOUGH.

he people ; and the dresses of the savages and aborighies of Africa and
elsewhere testify to the existing fondness for such a moans of decoration
and display. Indeed, amidst the apparently confused jumble of parapher-
nalia worn by the Indians, arc mostly to be found portions of native
manufactured fringe, displa3-itig great ai-t and facility in design, and elabo-
rate neatness and order in tlicir execution. Few of these specimens of
embroidery arc to be met with of late unadorned mtli beads, these latter
introductions of European traffic taking the place of small pebbles, shells, &c.
In this respect there exists but little, if any difference, between these pro-
ductions of so-called savage life, and the results of our best manufactures,
with all the accessory aid and attributes of science and art. As a some-
what partial corroboration of this view, we would, en passant, instance an
apron of crochet work, remarkable for the beauty of the pattern and
execution, exhibited in avenue 1, area 30 (Ionian Islands), showing that
what lias but recently appeared in England as an accomplishment, has been
for ages the common needlework of the Ionian peasant girls. Doubtless
many of the first notions of fringe were obtained by the leaving uncut the
ends of the matei-ial used in making nets, the fraying of fabrics, and the

work .and embroidery of the time of Louis Quatorze, and in which is
found some of the most magnificent fringe of that gorgeous period,
beautiful little gossamer-like tassels which hang in clusters to tlie
the chairs, and the ottomans, are of the most pure and exquisite d
and, what is still more remarkable, there are, as we believe, no two
We were forcibly reminded of these elegant appendages while exaniin
No. 56, in Class 13, contributed by Elizabeth Onion, of Bu-mmi
Here were several facsimiles of the fairy-like tassels we alluded tc
they are not used as independent objects, but made to dangle attem
around some burly bell-handle, or attend in clusters upon their I
weighty, but less elegant, connexions. This display of Mrs. Omoni
a very handsome one ; vei-y elaborate work has been enlisted ; but
elaboration, as in the tassels made mention of, has been qualifie
breadth of parts and a sufficiency of repose insured to sustain a desi
harmony of composition. Most of the tassels embrace in portions the 1
of regal crowns, but the outlines are sufficiently dbguisod to removi
obvious mechanical effect, wliilc enough is evolved to induce the
uisconce of a preconceived notion of graudem'.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OP 1851.

269

. Ann Arthur, Mortimor-stroot,
next to tlio last-montionod, is
rtimovod from lior in reRnid
:t{\ Tho objects aro pnoranii

' ', llio iniitationH of Mmw.i
rililc. Some of t!io 1;ihsiIm
->r ilh- iitMi-o simple kiiul, mi)
\ lii'iiri, I nil attempt to iiii
\u:on iiiiuln, failure appears to

avo.l.

ii'oot and Son, Spital-squan'
lined by a combination nl

I brocade. Thi.s appears t
linppy mixtviro of material

II readily conceive, with mu 1
s, much more could be doni-

as been here effected. In Komr
spceiiiiens tho appearance ia dingy
nprepo.ssc3sing. Tlio silk fringe

centre of tho compartment of
md white, .and that of salmon

'n very neat and pretty.

71. lianby and Co., 43, Bond-
exhibited several imitations of

)wers and loaves, which are moi'o
than enticing. They have an
lidonish stamp. Tho cords and
are of considerable elegance, and
I lightness of appearance.

72. C. W. Bradbee and Son,
te-street, exposed a few of tho
harming silk tassels it is possible
ceivc. They are very simple in
"orm and construction, and are

copied from Oriental originals,
inges for sacred edifices are more
tlhiu tasteful.

THE GIRL AT A STREAM. — WIDDERSFIELD.

TASSELS AND FRINGE. — BURGH.

^ Evans and Co., Watliug-strcet, exhi-
bited cornice, silk, bullion, and orna-
mental fringe, of an exceedingly useful
and solid, but by no means recherche,
character. The bell-pulls and curtain-
holders were remarkable for an excel-
lent arrangement of parts : compara-
tively ancient examples have been care-
fully studied and judiciously made use
of, a correct balancing of the various
figures being obsei-vable. The silk cord
for the ornamentation of curtains was
likewise deserving of mention ; and the
whole of this selection had clearly been
placed under the supervision of an
ai'tistically educated eye.

No. 394. Bennoch, Twentyman, and
Rigg, 77, Wood-street, had two cases
containing a greater variety of produce
than any of those adjoining. While
under one number we fouud specimens
of sewing silk and twist, in another the
same articles with .«hoe ribbons added,
and in others excellent specimens of
upholstery fringes, gimps, or dress
trimmings, here we found a concentra-
tion of them all. There were a few
skeins of pm-se silk, or netting twist, re-
presenting a production of three or four
hundred poimds weight per week ; a few-
balls of twist used for button hole.s, of
which a like quantity is made, and a
few skeins of sewing silk of a peculiar
dye called raven, or it may be jet, stand-
mg for a business of 2000 lb. weight
per month, or equal to 26,000 lb. weight
per annum. Here, too, were boot-laces,
Irom Sd. to 9d. per gross of 144 laces,
tagged with tin or brass at each end ;
one would imagine, that, to cut the
cords, tag them, and afterwards tie them
m bundles, would be barelv paid by the
money. The little boys' of seven to
twelve years of age employed in this
trade (and there are hundreds) wUl, in
the rooms where such goods are made
trot fi-om twenty to thirty miles per

THE WANDERER.— FOLEY.

270

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

day, or equal to lialf tUe circumference of the globe every year. Here was
a box with a few rings of wire enveloped in cotton, or covared with eilU,
used to stiffen or keep in sbape tlie boiiuota of the ladies; and wlien we
leai-n that at least thirty tons of iron, with a proportionafca quantity of
cotton and Bilk, ai-a consumed in tbe fabrication of tliis apparently simple
article, how it seems to enlarge our views in relation to commcroe ! Lot
no man pronounce this insignificant, or tliat trifling. Tliere is no euoh
thing as insignificance in the arrau;^ements of natiu'e, and as little in tho
hai-monie.s of commerce. Things which at first sight appear unworthy a
moment's thoug)it, on being explained, expand before our vision, and we
picture to ourselves the tens of tliousauds of pulsating hearts and humble
homes rendered happy and eonifortaiile from tiie enterprise of the manu-
faetm-er who points a pin, as well as from the titanic pu\ver tliat forges the
;mchor. Here, also, were reels of twist, looking like silk, but in reality
two-thirds cotton— the cotton being plated with a tiiin coating of silk.
This material is used for embroidering lace at Nottingliam. or woven into
fringes for mantles at Coventry. AVe believe it was mainly through the
encouragement of the head of this firm, that a principle was discovered by
whieli such articles couhl be produced by maeliiuery, instead of by hand,
as formerly. Many months of study had been devoted to the subject, and
it was about to be given up in despair, when Mr. W. Unsworth, of Derby,
liit upon the process. The effect was instantly felt; goods that were
usually sold at a shilling were reduced to threepence. Articles confined
to the compar.itiveIy wealthy, were brought within the reach of the
comparatively poor. Germany, Holland, and Belgium were supplied by
our mauufaotnrers ^■. ith goods they liad previously produced for us ; while
America and tho uities ou the shores of the Mediterranean became important
customers. Several tliouaarid<i of persons were occupied iu /\Varwick.shira
and Derbyshiroia fabricating gim|>B, fringes, and other fancy articles. The
trade was established, aucl a new branch of manufacture added to the
industiy of England : we may add, that along with the articles already
enumerated were excellent ppeclmena of coloured ribbons from Coventry ;
blond libbons, braiiU. cords, and fancy silks from Derby; handkerchiefs
and feri'ets from Macclesfield ; sewing silks from Leek ; various galloons,
&c., from Manchester : and numerous combinations of lace with ribbon
gimp, &c. from Nottingham, all worthy of inspection. As these notices are
for tl:e encouragement of those whose labour and capital are embarked iu
commerce, as well as for the information of those who wonderingly look ou,
it is cheering to learn that sucli firms as these whose productions are now
imder notice give direct employment to two or three thousand persons, and
incidentally provide for three or four times that number. Who can calculate
the amount of good they do ? To all such we would say, go ou and prosper,
reaping the reward your enterprise so justly merits.

Robert Burgh, whose house has been long in this business, made a very
rich and varied display, some articles from which we have engraved.

No. T6. Barrett and Corney. A rich collection of gold and silver cord
and fringe : some of the cord made with either gold or silver is interlaced
with coloured silk, and is peculiarly chaste in style. In this case was a
i-uby jewel hole through which the gold wire is drawn, and which is sup-
posed to be the finest hole ever pierced, " The wire drawn by its means
runs 2820 yards per ounce troy, and the gold used iu gilding it actually
measures at the ratio of 338,400 yards, or 192^ miles per ounce troy ! "

No. 57. Burke, 6 Bull's Head-court, Kewgate-street, exhibited several
examples of embossed trunmings of great beauty and design. This emboss-
ing is done very readily on any kind of silk, linen, paper, &c., and although
in regard to dresses it will, of course, wash or iron out, we can readily conceive
that at the co=t of a little time and expense the best examples of decoration
might be renewed with much success. Tiie cut-through patterns have not
this objection, and are equally remarkable for their quiet, lady-like appeai--
ance. We think this an application which is within the reach of most
persons, and capable, in gifted hands, of being carried into a very wide
field of decorate usefulness.

No. 80. "\V. and H. Browett, Coventry. The trimmings of these gentlemen
enlist attention, from their great beauty and tlie variety of the a.ssortment.

No. 200. T. AVlieeler and Co., of Abbey Mills, Leicester, had an endless
variety of fringe, all more or less creditable to the capabilities of Leicester.

In the Austrian department C. F. Muchlenderlen exhibited gimps, fringes,
&c., all of a very common, not to say inferior, description : and Oelimig and
.Schmidt, fringe in worsted of a heavy character and tawdry effect.

Posamenter, of Breslau, at the entrance to the South Gallery, exhibited
pieces of carriage and furniture fringe of a superior description : next to
which was Heindrioli Zeisig, of Breslau, whose carriage fringe was likewise
commendable, but whose bell-handles are conceived in the worst notions of
that requirement.

In the French department wo had nothing that approaches to the British
groups, if we except some very broad and elabor.itely wrouglit fringe made
for Messrs. Jay, in which a cut jet bead (not the common bugle) is introduced
with admirable effect. This fringe, in some instances, is ten or twelve
inches broad, and iu the closer portions arabesque and other patterns are
introduced with great correctness of outline and exquisite finish. It is of
a most expensive description, being intended for mantles for our English
aristocracy and more wealthy cla.sses. For brilliancy and richness of
colour tliere is no one in this department can vie with Guillemot Brothers,
who have contrived, by the simple aid in each specimen of two or three
shades, to produce a most striking and gorgeous effect of chromatic har-
mony ; and they have been equally fortunate in this essential requisite iu
their carriage and furniture fringe, in the latter of which they have made a
bold and successful attempt to imitate precious stones set in gold.

No. 1414. Pugin, Paris, contributed carriage and furniture fringes, up]
while they do not approach the last mentioned for the exalted gift of oo:
are good froui a certain cara an.l attention to arrangement and f
Jidlieu, of Tours ; J. Mormiaux, of Paris ; Repiquet, of Lyons ; and M. B
of St. diamond, show severally specimens of fringes which may a]
placed under the same category of tolerably well manufactured.

No, 50. Bohr and Schubert, of Frankenberg, Saxony, had a flag of dc
satin with fruige.

No. 153. Haenol Brothers, 155, Uhligo (Annaberg), 158, Bach and
and 160, Hillman, all of Saxony, exhibited various fringes, tassels for
tains, sewing and ball fringes, half silk IjuUion, which were priuci
exhibited for cheapness and execution, but which, whUe they possess i
merit, are almost destitute of novelty.

The only other example? of fringe which we could find were ii
Poi'tugal aud Madeira department, 1155 to 1157, bell-ropes and ta
which did not repay us for the search.

G. R. SMITH'S COMIC ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.

Among the telegi'aphs exhibited iu that portion of the middle gallery i
of the British side of the nave, which was appropriated to philosophical in
ments, one was always sure to attract the attention of those who ch(
pause to examine the numsrous examples of the application of electric
tlie transmission of signals between distant places. Surely, the inv
of this contrivance — called a Comic Electric Telegi-aph — must have i
mined in his own mind to produce an instrument, at any rate, in exi
appearance, wholly different from anything of the kind which had
viously appeared. In this he has certainly succeeded; but we ar
at present prepared to say to what extent a commxmication by th

COMIO ELECTRIC TELEOBAPH.— G. H. SMITU

strnment 'may be transmitted. As the inventor truly says, the instr
would, no doubt, prove an amusing and instructive addition t
ornaments of the drawiugii-oom, as it might be used to illustrai
principle of magnetic induction.

The action on the eyes and mouth of a comic face is produced by
bent iron bars within the figure, which are rendered magnetic by indi
and attract either of the features as above, by means of armatures at
thereto In addition to these novel signals, there are also the si(
+ , \, by which not only all the letters of the alphabet are repres
but also'thn end of each word and sentence respectively properly ind
These signals are shown by the elevation of shutters above the fac-
each of the bars is capable of being separately magnetised, either
si-nals can be sho\vn at the will of the manipulator, by touchii
corresponding key in front of the figure. The telegraphic alphabet
Smith is made up of combinations of lines and crosses, and is the
rather of a retrograding character a.s regards this important brai
telegraphy, which has been sadly neglected by most of the inven;
telegraphs. A bell, used to call attention, is placed inside the figure

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THK GREAT EXHIHITION OF 1851.

271

MACHINERY AND MECHANICAL CONTRIVANCES.

'' DICK'S ANTIFRICTION PRESSES.

a tho contributions from tlio United States, wuio bIx auti-frictiou
iresses, tlio invi'utiou of David Dick; a baling or packing priise, a
ir jilato puuc'li for hanil work, a maoUino for bundinj; or struigli toning
oad iron, a largo boiler plato shears, and an embossing press. The two
with several other Aniurican machines, were placed in tho western
on of tho English mucliinery department, for tlie purpose of being
cd by stcanj power. , Tlte novelty and simplicity of thedo nnachinea,
iued with tlioir great power, are certainly most remarkable. Tba
:iplo upon which they are constructed consists in the introduction of
xcoutric roller between two sectors, or discs, resting on edges above
below, and in a true Hue with the centre roller, or with a circular shaft
een two exceutric sectors, or discs, resting on their edges. They are
,ed by putting the centre roller in motion in the proper direction by a

Wo havo neon nuiriorgiw tcHtimoni.ils from persouN using these prc8»cH
in tho States, and from editors of mechanical journal.s— luf well as diplomax,
medals, ftc, all speaking in the highest terms of the utility of tho invention ;
anil the results produced by the maoUlncs exhibited, certainly warrant a
reliance on the testimony adduced in their fiv,,,,, M,- lijckhaa been
awarded a Council Medal for Lii Inventions.

Fig. 1.

crank, or pinion, or other arrangement, moved by h.and or other
By the movement of this centre roller, motion is communicated

piston, equal to the sum of tlie two excentricities, and with a multi-
ion of power equal to the greater space through which the applied

passes, aa compared with tho weiglit moved. There were several

atious shown of this friction-relieving combination of the lever and

1 plane, by means of which they may be adapted to all purposes of
plyiug powei'. The proprietors contend that these machines have
■iction than any other known combination of mechanism — not except-
e hydraulic press — that they ara more simple in their construction,
iss liable to get out of order, and are thus applicable in a great variety
stances wtiere the introduction of the hydraulic press would be
ly impracticable.

slight modification of the shape of the excentrics, the power of the
nes may be varied to suit the nature of the substance to be pressed ;
.ey may thus be made available for packing or pressing goods, paper,
;c., iu one-third the time usually taken by the hydraulic press, and in
nth of the time required by the ordinary screw press. The machines
3 also the great recommendation that, for all ordinary work they
be constructed much cheaper than any other mechanism that can
ly be made to accomplish the same results in the same time by the
pplled power.

. proof of the power obtained by this simple arrangement, we may
hat, by means of it, a boy can punch cold plates of iron an inch in
en with the most perfect ease. A machine, consti-uctcd upon the
mnciple, for hoisting the piles of the cofier-dam at the Navy-yai-d,
tork, thougli weighing only 35 cwt., exerted the force of 680 tons

power, when worked by four men. A modification of the principle
30 been most successfully applied in a shearing machine for the
• g of I inch cold iron plates.

Figures 1 and 2 represent front and side views of a Boiler Plate Shears.
The same letters in each cut refer to the same parts.

A A represent the side framework of the shear, or pre-is ; B B and C C,
the blades of the shear, three feet in length ; D D, the base, or lower beam ;
E E E E, four sectors, resting on attenuated scale beam edges ; F, the
centre excentric roller : G G, a cam crank, working the lever wheel L,
through the spear wheel O, and pinion wheel shaft H. The back space of
the blades M is large enough to allow long sheets to be split in their centre ;
while sheets of any length may be cut in any dii-ection, if not exceeding
three feet wide. Motion being communicated to the centre wheel F, the
sectors are carried in opposite directions, and the gate, or slide, to which
the blade C is attached, is moved upwai-ds the sum of the increasing
diameter of the centre wheel. A suitable feeding table may be attached,
and sheets of any length cut with the greatest accuracy.

JUDKINS'S HEALD MACHINE.

Mr. Judkims, the inventor and patentee of this useful machine, formerly
lived at Lowell, Massachusetts, U. g. but has now taken up his I'asidence
at Manchester, in which important town his machine will no doubt be duly
appreciated. By this machine, the yarn is doubled and twisted from
single of itself, and at certain intervals is braided or plaited, so that the
eye or loop of the heddle is formed without knots of any dosci-iption, the
whole forming one continuous line or cord.

The bed-phite is placed horizontally between the ends of the light-iron
frame ; on each side of the bedplate, and let in flush with its upper surface,
are ten revolving tables, each table having six slots, the use of which is to
receive the spindles carn'ing the flyers and bobbins. The tables work
together in pairs, and each carries three spindles, which ai-e so set in relation
to each other, that each spindle, at proper intervals, comes opposite to the
vacant slot in the other table. After being twisted the yarn is taken up
from the bobbins, after undergoing the process of twisting so as to be
converted into a heddle, by two cylinders, one on either side of tiie machine.
The working shaft of the machine is connected with tho revolving tables
by means of bevelled wheels working imderneath thebed-platc.

The machine acts as a doubling and twisting machine, except at the time
when the eye or loop of the heddle is formed, when at the top and bottom
of each loop it becomes a braiding machine. The bobbins, during the
operation, pass fi-om one table to another throughout the whole series in a
most ingenious manner. In order to show the advantage of this machine
over the or-linaiy mode of making hcalds, it is only necessary to state, that
from 25 to 30 gets may be produced by it in one working day, vrlth the
attendance of one girl, who, by hand, could only make a single set iu the
same time.

272

THE CRYSTAL PALACE /AND ITS CONTENTS.

DIAMOND AND RUBY STOMACHER— BY MOREL.

DIAMOND AND BUBT STOMACHER. — M0EEL.1

The accompanying cugi-aving represents
one of the gems and glorie.? of the Exhibition,
which fairly rivals in attraction the Queen of
Spain's jewels and the " Koh-i-noor" itself;
a truly sumptuous production, upon which
the jewellery trade of England might be bold
to stake its reputation in the face of the
world. It was originally intended and de-
signed as a bouquet, but is equally, perhaps
more appropriately, available as a stomacher ;
moreover, it is so constructed as to separate
into several distinct pieces of jewellery,
according to requirement. The diamonds are
all of the finest water and the rubies are
described as " an unique collection." The
setting is contrived with springs, resulting
in a waving or slightly oscillating motion
when in use, which displays, to the fullest
extent, the brilliant colours of the stones.

W '^^ ^'

- . -.^,.. ^

CLOCKS. BY E. AND J. MOORE.

Messrs. Moobe exhibited two very sho
.;locks, elaborate in internal workmansl
and outwai'd decoration. One goes foi
month, chimes the quartei-s on eight be
strikes' the_houi-s on a cathedral-toned bi
and plays' twelve tunes, shifting, by
action of the clock, to a fresh tune ev
hour. The frames of the dial and
steel plate upon which the clock stands,
enamelled upon a new principle. The 1;
is carved in walnut wood. The design
ornamentation in' both is of rather a mi
character, and perhaps a little redundant ;
altogether, for general purposes, it may
pronounced rich and effective.

CLOCK. — R. A^■D .J. .MOORE.

CLOCK. — R. AND J. MOOBE.^

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

,OKOnr OF SCULPTOEBD VASES,^FROM MALTA.

_— iltese stoue is of a rioli cream white culour, and, being soft, is ' a yery handsome show. The lui ms v ere in various styles, chiefly aftfr the

carved. It is, however, not susceptible of polish, and would soon antique, and the ornaments comprised satyrs' heads, vine leaves, flowers,

to the influence of moisture. It is, therefore, not availal le for &c., all admirably executed. The objects which we engrave are severally

al decoration ; but for hall ornaments, such as vases, jugs, pedestals, ; by F. Testa, S. Testa, and De Cesare, evincing elegance and variety of

is extremely well adapted. The carvers of Valetta have long been I design, and softness and delicacy of finish. ^ .
ated for their works in this line, and in the i-ecent Exhibition made

To. 18, January 31, 1852. ^Pbice Oke Fenky.

274

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

HOROLOGICAL DEPARTMENT.

TURRET Am) OTHER LARGE CLOCKS.
AS our present article is not designed solely for the information of tliose

. who are already well acquainted mth the leading features of the con-
struction of horological instruments, we shall probabh- rendertUe subsequent
details mor-? generally intelligible to our readers if we briefly explain some
of the technical terms which must of necessity constantly rccm' in our
descriptions, such as escapement, compensaium, rcmontoire, &c.

By the term esctpemtnt is meant that portion of the mechanism of a
clock or watch, by which the teeth of the last revolving wheel of the train
of wheels, commonly called the " scape- wheel," communicate an alternating
motion to the balance or pendulum, as the case may be — and by which
also the teeth aa-e successively permitted to escape, after giving an impulse
to the balance or pendulum.

tht: alpha clock. — eobebts.

An escapement is called a dclaclied escapement when the piece or part
that pei-mits the escape of the teeth of the scape-wheel is not attached to
the balance or pendulum, but is moved or acted upon by either of these, at
some particular point of their swing t>r oeciUntion. The ordinary clock
escapements are the dead beat, and the common or recoil esoapciapnts,
neitlier of which is detached. The effect of the recoil escapement will be
most easily recognised, in any common clock that has a seconds hand, by
a backward jerking motion of that hand; and this is also visible in the
minute hand, previous to each advance. It is owing to the form of tlie
pallets and teeth of the ecape-wheel, which is necessaiy for rough
work. In the dead beat csciaijement, no such recoil is observed, biit the
hand remains stationary between its successive forward movements. This,
therefore, is a more delicate escapement, and much more easily dcijiuged
than the recoil. Another which is frojueptly met with in the clocks
exhibited, is known its the "pin escapement."

The principal kinds of timepieces which have a balance, and not ft
pendulum, are watches, carriage timepiece^, marine and pocket chronometers ;
all these arc required to keeji time under sudden and v.irious changes of
position — disturbing causes which are incompatible with the free motion of
a pendulum.

Tlio m )re usual ejeipemiati applied to this cla-ss of timepioce=! are (we
arrange them in the o;-der of merit) the chronotuetor, the duplex, the
oyliuJer, the lever, and the ver^e, orcomjion vertical escipsmjnt ; of these
the chronometer and the lever are the only detaohetl ones.

j A very neatly finished series of models of watch escapements ■
i exhibited by Bryson, of Edinburgh, and a series of skeleton timepie'
J exhibiting the various escapements, by Roskell, of Liverpool. Tliere
j another well executed series of models by .S Kralik, of Pesth, in
' Austrian department. This series comprised the chronometer cscapeme
I the duplex — in this the points of the teeth of a second and smaller sc;
1 wheel perform the oSce of the usual pins ; the lever — in this the te
are terminated by oblique surfaces, instead of being pointed as usual
arrangement which probablj- wears bettor, but the friction must be grea'
' the cylinder, and a modification of this — in which a curved tooth on
I balance axis perfonns the office of the cylinder.

1 There was also a model of the pin escapement applied to a balance,

of two unusual vertical escapements. In one, the scape-wheel is like 1

j of a common recoil escapement. There are two .circular plates on

balance axis, with a notch in each. A tooth of the seape-wheel, in pas:

I the notch in the first plate, gave'an impulse in one direction to the bala:

and fell on the second : on the recoil of the balance the tooth is rclej

from the botch in the second plate, and in passing gives .an impulse to

balance in a du-ection opposite to the former. In

other there are two scape-wheels, at a small disti

from each othei', on the same axis, the teeth of w!

are placed intermediately to each other. Ther

a cross bar on the balance axis which release

tooth of the two scape-wheels alteraately, am

passing receives an impulse from'cach.

By the term compensation is meant the actio
some mechanism by means of which the balanc
pendulum of a timepiece is made to oscillate in
nearly the same time, notwithstanding consider
cl^anges of temperature. As the physical causes w
influence the time of oscillation of a balance are in
esaetitially diflferent from those that aSect the
duluni, we shall leave the question of compens;
in balances until, in a subsequent article, we giv
account of the construction of the various marine
pocket chronometers which were presented to
notice in the Exhibition; and for the present we i
confine our attention to the compensation of pe
lums. The time of oscillation of a pendulurr
pends, not on its entire length, but on the distant
tvveen the point of suspension and a point called
centre of oscillation — the point at which, if the \\
weight of the pendulum were concentrated, it w
still oscillate in exactly the same time. The m;
niatical considerations of this point need not hei
entertained, as they may bo foimd in any stan
work on dynamics : we need only further ron
that the greater the distance between these poir
the centres of suspension and oscillation — the s
will be the oscillation of the pendulum, and vice i
If a pendulum be not compensated, the least ^
ble material of which it can be made is a rod .if :
tolerably light and porous wood, as deal or llnuc
mahogiuiy, t!ie length of which is very sligiitly affi
by changes of temperature and moisture ; but
small changes produced by these agents cannot
readily be distinguished from each other. If,
ever, as is more frequently the case, the rod of a
dulum ia of metal (usually iron or steel), it is evi
that the weight at the end of the pendulum wi
carried further from the centre of suspension b
pansion of the rod when the temperature rises-
again brought nearer when the temperature fall
all metals expand hy heat, and contract by cold, though in very di£f(
degrees.

If, then, to the lower end of the pendulum is attached a certain po
of some metal that expands by heat much more rapidly than steel
centre of gravity of the added or comprnsafiu^/ metal may be carried upfl
by its own expansion, sufficiently to counteract the descent of the cent
gravity of the remaining portion of the pendulum by the expansion ol
steel rod; and thus an invariable distance may be maintained betvveei
centres of sn.spension and oscillation imder all ordinary variation
temperatni'e.

One of the oldest forms of compensation consists of a scries of brasi-
steel rods placed alternately, and the adjacent rods connected altcrn;
at the top and bottom, the weiglit being attached to the outer pair c^f
rods. In this arrangement, to which, on account of its shape, the nan
" gridiron )iendulum" was given, the excess of expan.sion of the brass
is sufficient to compensate tlie expansion of the whole length of the pendu
In clocks of the best description, such as astronomical clocks
" regulators," the compensation is usually effected by means of a glaj
iron cistern of mercury, attached to the bottom of a steel rod, w
supplies the place of the ordinary weight. Owing to the \cry 1
expansion of mnrcury, which is much greater than that of any other in
I a column of about eight or nine inches high is sufficient to compensaC
its expansion for the whole length of an ordinary seconds pendulum.
In the turret clock exhibited by Dent, the compensation is effia

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF I80I.

27'u

' How rylimlpr <»f* /.inr, wliicli Mtn'rnuinlH the roil ol' tlio poidiihiin >
I'vc'l'iil iif 111" I'Vi'iich ilorliH, l)y a bmsi rcicl |iliiccil botwocMi two
■i-ti. Tho brass rinl, by itrt t^xiiiiiiRion. raimin tint stoci iiiipw mul tlio
"r tho wc'i^iit only, tlirovi^li aKpnc«siifflii(mt to coinponsato for tbo
"ill oltlio sti^ol voils; this is olltutod by moaiifl of two Icvpiii, which
iluej either at tU» top or bottom of the rod, but more frequoutly
ittcv. ' ' ■

oiiie other .lyieoinl mojesof pomiicnsatioii must bo mentioned hereafter,
pOiiUiiix of til.) c'lnckn to whifh tlioy mt; iijiplied.

nt thiM'fl ia yet cmother iuiportniit Kotirco of oriMr in the rates of cloeks,
'0 particuliirly nH'orting thoao of larfje olookd. To obviate this, a mocha-
,1 arriin'^i'niiiUt has been dovinoit, which is known by tho term remmitoire.
locks (if large aiiio tho irrej;ular action of tho coarse teetli of lai'go
els, and the pvor-viu'ying weight of tho portion of tho ropo by which
clock weight is auspeiided, that is brought into action, as it is uncoiled
ti tho barrel, are perpetual source" of irregularity in the impulse given
,hc scapc-whoel to tlio pendulum. Tn the best description of turret
ks these sources of error are now obviated by disconnecting the .scape-
icl from the train, which, when released at slmrt intervals, (usually of
a luiuuto) raises a small weight or lever, which in its descent commu-
tes to the pendulum, througn the medium of the scape-wheel, either
oiiu impulses, or a scries of impulses varying very slightly, but recurring
'01 inly nt each descent of tlio weight or lever. This, from its being
odically raised up, linR beeu termed remontoire. The various mechanical
iiL'cments a]iplied to the clocks oxhibited will bo more appropriately
nlicd when we speak of them individually.

aviug thus briefly described the leading features that characterise tbe
itruction of first-class clocks, we will now proceed to notice the large
urrct clocks that were presented to Us in the Exhibition. The Knglish
rtment contained, it must bo eonfofised, but a small amount of variety.
tho right of the groat organ was a large turret clock, called the Alpha
•k, l>y Mr. l\. Hobei-ts of Matichostev. which unquestionably presents a
nger evidence of original genius than any other clock in the Exliibi-
thcre is, in fact, nothing about it at all that is commonplace. The
is of a quadrangular pyramidal form, which is admirably adapted
solidity ; tho largo wheels being placed near the base of the pyramid,
the smaller parts above them. Tho teeth of the wheels and jiinions
sll cast, except those of the scape-wheel ; this must, of course, iuBuciice
lidei-nbly the cheapness of construction. The escapement is detached,
of a novel construction ; there is a detent ^vith two arms, on an .axis
3h has .also a pinion in gear with a wheel on the same axis with the
.e-wheel, so that the detent axis makes half a turn to release each tooth
le scape-wheel. The detent is held by a tooth at the end of an arm
hangs from the point of suspension of the pendulum ; this arm is
cd by a pin projecting from tho pendulum near the end of its
llation, and releases the detent, when the pendulum receives an impulse

111 oblique surface of a tooth of the scape-wheel. Tho scape-wheel ;
apelled by a remontoire of perfectly uniform action ; this consists of a
;ht attached to an endless chain, which is Wound up every half minute,
he release of the train, by the arm of another two-armed detent. The ,
k Aveights themselves also form part of an endless chain; but this
IS to be an unnecess.iry refinement. The construction of the hammer !
vliich tho hell is struck is also quite new. The head of the hammer is j
11 of gutta percha by wliich the tone of the bell is at once brought out, I
npoded by the secondary vibrations that result from the blow of an '
nai y metallic hammer. Again, the lly is superseded, and the hammer '
lade to perform the office of a fly. It reVolves at right angles to an i
.and, in making one revoKitioil, acquires sufficient centrifugal force to !
\- the head out vards, and enable it to reach the bell ; after striking,
hammer remains quiescent.

ear the end of the south-west gallery, was exhibited an accessory to
et clocks that deserves notice. This was a simple and ingenious mode
ilf-regulatiug the sxipply of gas to illuminated dials, by Mr. J. Blaylock,
length of time being daily increased or decreased by the mechanism,
fequircd. The action requires to be reversed on the longest and
rtest days.

the western avenue was a turret cWfelt by Mr. Dent. Tn this the
a is released by a detent every half minute, and winds up a spring
fained in a box through which the scape-wheel axis passes. The end of
spring is attached to the axis, and consequently the spring acts as a
■Ontoire. As tho object of a remontoire is to obtain uniformity of
lulse on the pendulum, this, of all the contri\ances exhibited, appears
least calculated to attain the desired object, owing to the variation in
strength of the spring from change of temperatui-e ; especially when
remember that turret clocks are, froln their situation, exposed to gi-eat
ssitudes of temperature.

a the French department, M. Gourdin exhibited a beautifiilly finished
:e of workmanship, but greatly wanting in solidity. Two ornamented
n-work girders, on which the -whole weight of the clock rests, was
lently bent by the weight that they were unduly called on to sustain,
remontoire consists of a weight hanging by a thread from an arc at
end of a lever ; this renders the action of the weight constant, but the
on is not entirely constant, as the short arm of the lever carries an
1 on which are two wheels — one in gear with the train, the other with
scape- wheel pinion ; the escapement is a dead beat, the teeth of the seape-
;el being obUquely truncated.
I. Bailly-Compte showed a Tven-finiiihed clock, with a pin escapement.

Tho romontoiro gear is ono of wliich there were neveral cx,^mplo« amontnit
the Kreuch clocks. IMio In-^t uxIk in the train, and thf) Hf^po-wheol axiii
are in a lino willi taeh other, and have two bovtlh-d whceJH of cqunt dizfl
at their adjacent cntl«, which iiro separated by an intorral equal to tho
dianiotor of the whceln. Tho remontoire, which eonnlKtii of a lever with •
weight near the end of it, has n bovollud wherd attochod to it at right
angbd to, and in gear with, tho two former btvelbd wlicels. Thus the
truin, which is periodically rch/ased, raises tho weight that in its descent
imiiels the scape-whccl. Thi.^ appears to uh, on the whole, the beat
arrangement of the renioi>toir6. Some little irregularity would of courso
arise from tho variation gf tho lenglh of tho lever by temperature, but we
doubt whether this wouM bo senoible in the rate of the clock, and if
sensible, it might be vci-y M^Ify compensated.

CrOCK.— FRODSHAM.

The series of clocks by M. Wagner, of Paris, were entitled collectively to
more study than the works of any other exhibitor. No 3, a striking
clock, with pin escapement. No. 7 exhibited a novel detached escapement ;
two jewelled pallets at the ends of short-bal.anced levers are attached to
the pendulum, one above and another below the circumference of the
scape-wheel, the axis of which passes through a space cut out of the pen-
dulum. We should suppose the action to be very light, and to have little
friction. The next article was a clock with pin escapement, and pallets
attached to tho pendulum. Tho remontoire is a weighted lever, which
when down, releases a fly, that prevents the weight being raided by a jerk.
This, no doubt, would interfere with the sudden jumps of the minute
hand, as in Dent's clock ; but this advantage we think may vei-y well be sacri-
ficed to the steadiness and uniformity of the movement. An endless-
screw on the axis of the fly, ai:d a pinion with oblique leaves, are both in
gear with a wheel having oblique teeth on the barrel axis. This clock had
few wheels, and its construeticn appeared veiy simple. There was also
deserving of notice a clock with pin escapement and bevelled wheel
remontoire, kept wound up by the continuous motion of the train
regulated by a fly, to which a cap, suspended to the fhort arm of the
remontoire lever, acts as a governor. This is a very ingenious contrivance,
by which the continuous motion of the train is rendered isoehi-onous with

276

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

the alternate motion of the pendulum, and may thei-etbre be used to carry
an equatorial movement, or a heliostat, or for any other purpo.se for wliich
a perfectly uniform continuous motion is required.

A hi^;hly finished clock, mth detached pin escapement, compensated
pendulum,' and bevelled wheel remontoire also deserved notice. The im-
pulw here is given to the pendulum by a detached bar, the ends of which
are alternately raised liy two arms iixed on tho axis which uxrries the

pallets. Any sudden motion of the remontoire is prevented by a fl
The pendulum is compensated by the brass bar between two of steel, an
levei-s as previously described. There was lastly a clock with a pin escap
ment — the remontoire and the pendulum the same as the preceding. Tl i
pallets are attached to the pendulum, but the friction of the pins on til
horizontal surfaces of the pallets is very ingeniously prevented by the!
being received on pieces projecting from two arms moving on the sanl
centre as the pendulum, and on which they res I
imtil they are delivered on to the inclined sur&c
of the pallets. This appears to be a great improv
ment on the ordinary pin escapement, and w<
worthy the attention of our clock-makers.

TEXTILE MANUFACTURES.

BECREIAIBE. — SSELL,

The Sicrkaii-e exhibited by Suell is a very liandMomo work of art. The
form is well proportioned, and all the decorations in good taste. The chief
material is walnut-wood, the inner pillars being gilt, and tho basement of
green stamped leather, lu the do'ir is a handsome mirror.

COTTON, DYEING, AND CALICO PRINTIN

No, I.

rjN entering the noble transept of the Exhibit!

for the first time, the visitor was struck w:

admiration at the gorgeous spectacle presented

him. The groups of statuary, tho crystal foi

tain with its many-hued refractions, the brilUa

coloured objects projected upon the delicat

tinted back-ground produced by the blending

the three primary colours so judiciously emplo;

by Mr. Owen Jones for the decoration of

building — all contributed to form the most 1

monious combination of colour that art has e

realised. The articles displayed seemed at f

only subsidiary, and were merely regarded a;

many masses of colour which together formed

single picture. It was only when the eye beci

familiar with the scene, that it perceived that e

of the colom-ed spots which aid in the formal

of the whole was itself a noble work of art,

collection of such works— it may be the represe

tive of one entire branch of manufactures. 1

the brilliant mass upon which the eye had re:

for a moment after leaving the sparkling foun

of Osier, was a trophy of silks, the produc

tlie looms of Spitalfields. It contained many b

tiful specimens of manufacture, each in itst

triumph of art. The speck of colour m the gal

above was a superb carpet, the loyal homage oi

ladies. An examination of the more distant (

brought us acquainted with the gay-coloi

woollen cloths produced by Leeds and the ^

of England for the Chinese and Russian tvi

and the more sombre, but equally rich, hues w

the same manufacturers offer to their English

tomers. In the same direction we saw the \

and brocaded poplins of Dublin, and the i

merable tints of the printed goods of Manche

On the opposite side of the transept we had

gay printed cottons of Alsace, tlie printed woe

Paris, the silks of China, the velvets of Genoa

From a general examination of these group

may pass to a consideration of the individual

cles which compose them. We may admire

texture of the fabric— the finish— how the '

of the designer contributes to render the ar

beautiful — and how brilliant are the colours w

embody the design. That oxamiuatiou is, how.

a very superficial one which rests here. With

a slight acquaintance with the processes of m

facture, what a host of reflections crowd upc

in the contemplation of a single work of

Wiat an amount of knowledge, of skill, of hi;

toil is embodied iu each separate production.^

say nothing of the material, and of the machi

employed in its jireparation, spinumg and we;

— what labour has been spent upon the tin

the pattern alone. The deep blue is prod

from indigo, a substance manufactured from

leaves of a plant cultivated iu Hindostan. V

out reference to the skill and capital reqi

for the culture of the plant, or to the diffici

and dangers of the manufacture, its transit i

has required a voyage of nearly six month

bring it within reach of the dyer. The more brilliant but less stable

by its side is obtained from animal oflfal, cuttings of hoof aud horn,|

refuse of the slaughter-house and the shoeing forge. The gi-eens are a ,

1 binatiou of the blues with a yellow wood from Cuba, or a bark from M

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOIM':J)L\ 01'' THE GHKAT KXIIIBITION OK 1851.

277

Amorica, or, it iimy bo, with the juico
of ben'ios from tho sliores of the JIc-
fliterraiic.'in. 'IMio crimson is from tho
bniiscil boily ol' ii littlo iimcet from
Mexico, or purhuiiB it hi furnished by
tho petals of flowers froiii Bungul ; or,
if tho fftbric bo cotton, a root from
Turkey or Provonco Uaa yielded the

But what iU'o tholprocessea by which
these siu'prising results huvo been
obtiiiued ! How can the blue earthy-
lijolciug substance, indigo, be made to
unito with the fibre, and to prtjdnce
HO rich a staiu ! What relation has a
piece of horn or lioof to tho blooming
colour upon tho petals uf tho convol-
vulus in the pattern ! How is the little
down-covered Mexican insect con-
verted into the brilliant crimson dye !
How is it that the countries which
yield us these dyes are yet so far be-
hind us in their use? To whom are
wo indebted for our superiority ?
What is tlie condition of the artisans
eniployeil in muiistering to our grati-
fication l)y the production of these
brilliant hues? These questions will
suggest themselves to thousands of
inquu'iug minds, who have visited the
Exhibition for instruction, and not
for more amusement. Then- solution
cannot fail to prove interesting as
well a.s instructive ; while, to many
of those who merely look upon the
surface of things, the information so
conveyed must prove useful, since
even a slight knowledge of the pro-
cesses by which the colours have been
produced will frequently enable us to
distinguish between true and false
dyes — a problem which our f lir readers
are daily called upon to solve.

We therefore propose, in devoting
a series of articles to the dyeing and
printing of the textile fabrics, to give
a description of the interesting pro-
cesses employed for the production of
the more striking articles exhibited—
of the steps by which we have attained
our present excellence — and of the
comparative progress of om- rivals as
shown by their productions.

There never existed such an oppor-
tunity as during the E.xhibition for
studying this interesting branch of
art. Under the same roof we had innu-

CAI>'. — JEHOTTE.

exghavixcs on this page.

The statue of a " Youth at a Stream " is an original
and not ungi'aceful design, and was admirably exe-
cuted in bronze by the Colebro^k Dale Company.

The " Cain," by Jehotte, is a spirited attempt, in
plaster, after the school of Michelangelo. — but crudely
wrouglit out. The Catalogue states that the first
murderer is supposed to be exclaiming, '* My punish-
ment is greater thau I can bear;" but for this, the
attitude is inappropriate. It would suit better for the
first impulse of horror on seeing the dead body of his
brother.

The original of tlie " Railing for a Tomb," by tlie
Colebrook Dale Company, was designed and erected
for that of the celebrated Beckford, author of " Va-
thek," at Bath. It is of a simple and elegant character,
standing about two feet and a half high. This casting
affords one of many gratifying examples of the progress
made by this country within the last few years in
this important and elegant branch of decorative art.

278

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

merable specimens of the dyes employed, showing the diiferenoe of their
appeai'ance and quality when produced from different sources. We had
all the chemicals which the dyer employs for fixing or brightening his
colours, and in many cases models of the apparatus, or illustrative specimens,
to show the processes by which these important articles have been produced.
Tn the south-west gallery we had a series of dyes prepared for use, and by
their side a series of porcelain slabs to show the re-action of these dyes with
the more important chemicals. The Messrs. Black, of Glasgow, in addition
to their very beautiful coUeetion of printed goods, had prepared an elaborate
series of specimens for illustrating nearly every style of calico printing. AVe
were first shown the grey or unbleached cloth — next the cloth bleached and
prepared for printing — and subsequently a specimen of the same fabric in
each stage of the many processes through which it has to pass before the
design is fixed in the perfect colours. Mr. Hammersley, of the Mancliester
Sohool of Design, exhibited a valuable collection of patterns of Manchester
prints, which illustrated in a striking manner the progress of calico-printing
iu England from an early period of the art. To render the history of the
art complete, we had also the printed goods from India and the Indian
Archipelago, where it had its origin. The Malays, after having advanced
to a certam point, appear to have remained there for many centuries, for it
is certain that the processes now in use are identical with those described
by t^e elder Pliny. AVe can thus contemplate the art iu its cradle ; and
p.wsing from this point to the study of the finished productions of the
Hargreavcs, the Roechlins, and the Godefroys, «o may embrace at a
glance the progress which the genius Mid skill of the European manufac-
turers have effected.

Calico-printing by blocks is an early invention, aa we find it regulated by
act of Parliament in 1720, and again in 173S. The art of printing by
cylinder machine was introduced in the year ITS 5 by Mr. Bell. The pattern
is engraved by etching or any other process on the surface of the cjdinder,
and, a certain amount of colour being applied to the surface, the redundant
quantity is scraped off by the " ductor" — a blade made of sheet steel. Tiie
colour remaining is brought in contact %vith the fabric to be printed as the
rollers revolve rapidly, and imparts the desired pattern. A sejiai-ate roller
is required for each colour, and five or six, or even more, rollers may be
used in the same machine ; the piece of calico to be dyed passing consecu-
tively over each roller, and being then dried by steam boxes placed so as
to impart their heat to the fabric. The process of engraving copper rollers
for the purpose of oalioo printing was still further improved about the year
1808, by Mr. Joseph Lookett and others. Small steel cylinders are engraved
with the pattern desired, and are then hai'dened, and the pattern is
transferred by i)re33ing the steel and copper rollers firmly together whilst
they both revolve.

MACKENZIE'S PATENT JACQUARD READING-FR.UIE.

The " reading-machine for frames and Jacquard looms," invented by

Mr. Duncan Mackenzie, is an ingenious and valuable invention. Those of

our readers who are conversant with the Jacquard loom, and with the means

by which patterns are read, are aware of the intricate aud cumbrous

character of the apparatus at present employed, and which requires a Ion
period of training to enable a person to understand it. By means of tli
machine, however, a boy, or any other person of ordinary capacity an
attention, may learn to "read," "cut," or "repeat" the desigu, in a fe
hours ; wliilo one boy can accomplish more iu the same space of time tha
is now performed by a man and a boy — the operation being siuular to thi
of playing the pianoforte, or any other keyed instrument. The machii
itself consists of an upright frame, with perforated plates at the upper pa
of the front, which contain the punches for perforating the cards,
niunber of bell crank level's, working upon axes, are fitted at one end I
keys placed in the lower pai-t of the machine, similar to those upon
piano. These keys are numbered to correspond with a graduated scale i
" sight plate," immediately above them, representing the squares or " cords
to be read in from the desigu or pattern. The other end of the levers ac
upon needles at ths back of the plates in the upper part of the machin
wijich force the "punches" from the stock plate into the "receiving"!
centre plate, in the exact position required for forming the patterns. A
therefore, tb.at is required, in order to read iu any pattern, is for tlic persj
working the machine to press down such keys as will force out the punch
corresponding to the squares or cords indicated on the pattern by the grad
ated scale before him. When the whole of tlie punches corresponding to t!
squares have been placed in the receiving plate — wliioh may be a iSO,
600, or any other number — the perforation of the " lash cards " is perform,
by means of an exceutric shaft or rod, by which the punches in the receivi
plate are forced back, aud produce the required perforation. The machi
is also provided with cutting knives for cutting the cards to any requir
size ; aud from its value in facilitatiug labour, economising expense, ai
reducing to mathematical exactness operations which have hitherto be
matter of uncertainty, it ia well worthy the consideration of all perso
interested in those branches of manufacture in which the Jacquard
employed.

WORKS IN OR-MOLT].— BY POTTS.
The little clock-case aud flower-stand in ormolu engraved at page 284, i
agreeable specimens of the taste and workmanlike finish displayed in
the exhibits in this department by our native manufacturer.?, amoni
whom Mr. Potts of Bu-mingham deservedly hokU the highest rank. .
has nobly struggled to compete with the best foreign producers, and
think successfully.

asfbet's dressino-oases, ink-stands, eto.
The first is an elegant stand, of original design, in richly chased or-nii
si-U'mounted by an ink-glass in the form of an elaborately-executed vase
or-molu, with two figures blowing horns, forming a pen-rest. The w
article is an ebony casket, of superior workmanship and unique desi
artistically arranged, with serpents upholding antique corals. The fi
handles, key, &c., are all elegantly aud artistically wrought. Tlie las
a jewelled casket or eibinet, also of origmal design, richly furnished, in
molu, set with malachite, arranged with drawers aud folding-doors, pien
aud chased iu relief, of superior worknwiship.

HORXSBT's rOETABLE STEAM-ENGISE AND THBESHIKG MACHINE,

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPyEDIA OF THE (illlU'l' KXIIIBI'I'ION OV 1851.

S479

AGRICUI.TURAL IMPLEMENTS.

II ::^fSI)y■H I'OllTAliLR STKAM KNQINE .\N]) THRESHING
J1 A CHINK

Im.s bucjoinu tho iinitllcu of lunny ngricultiual iuiijlomeut inakcr.s to
to thuii' wliolu oiiurgy iiiul skill to tUo jierl'colliig of one or two jmrti-

iiii|ili)iiioiit8 or iiwuriiintia; lieuce, wo now lliicl ono finii cclebnitcj iiur
liH, another for eliaff-oiittei'S, another for drills, &c. ; ami tho excellent
ts of this practice are especially observable iu tho caao.of the portable
lenyino of Measra. Ilornsby.

is omineiit firm have paiJ grant attuntiou to tho construction of poi't-
team-engiueg, and havo boon tho winuoi-s of many prizes in oontssts
poriority with otiier makers. Last year, and wo believe on a previous
on, they gained the first prize from the Koyal A^ricvUtural Society
i,!,'l;ind; and tliey moreover again carried off a Coiiuwl Modal at tho

lOxhibitioa of 1S61.

s most reuiarkahla feature iu this ongine is the pliiciug the cylinder
t Btoam-chi'.st, where it is kept hot, and all waste of heat prevented;
,t llu) same time, it is so arranged that llie cyli(ider may be got at
jasu when noce-iSiu'y, for I'cpair, So.

) workmanship of this machiue is liighly creditable to the Messra.
iby, tlioru liavinf; been nothing. porhiii>s, in this department superior

and tho dotail.s exhibit the result of study to produce tho best
-lie result iu tho best possible uiauner.

have engraved tho engine as it is used iu threshing in the open
witli one of tlie excellent threshing-machines made by the same

lUDDRLEY'S FARMER'S FIRE-ENGINE,
frequent occurrence of fires iu the sgricultural districts has led
iddeley (whose name is well known in connexion with a variety of
rs CDUuected with the means of extinguishing and escaping from fires)
ign ft cheap aud efficient engine adapted to the requirements of tlie
•. It is exceedingly portable, as one man may move it from place to

n^'i^^^v?%

iVU the working parts ai'e couBtruotcd to bear the roughest usiige
meet with on a farm, and any farm labourer may be taught in a few
s how to use it. The valves are of metal, and not liable to derange-
but should any obstruction occur, it can be removed instantly
t ilistiirbing any of the working parts of tho engine. Tlie branch-
furnished with a spreader, by means of wliicli the water can bo
0 act over a large surface, which is specially important in the event
in coru or liay-ricks, or weather-boarded buildings, &c. Worked by
acn, the engine will throw a jet of water between 50 and 60 feet iu
aud, from the great rapidity with which it can be brought up .and
j?ork, it will bo found more etEcieut iu arresting the progress of the
an one of more powerful cliaracter at an advanced stage of the
ration. Not the least part of the aiivautnge to be derived from the
e, is the fact, that it will be equally xiseful as a liquid manure foroiug-
and for a variety of agricultural purposes, as for the special object
nguishing flame. They are constructed for the iuventor, by Mr.
sther, of Long-acvc, which is a guarantee for their excellent work-
p aud genei-al efficiency.

THE ART* 6P pESIGN AND DECORATION.

STALLED ANU PAINTED OI.ASS.
A I/I'HOUCIH tlio iiri, of stuiniiiu ghwl i« lott in antiquity, its aJaptution
to iiicturial purpoHus is cumpiti'Utivvly rauimt \)ii\\\A\am tho mo.nuicH
of tho Egyptians and lUnnHua originally nugg'sted the idea of trandparent
glas3 pictures ; for, indeed, tlia earlitut attvrnpts wore entirely composed
uf auiall pieces of glass of various colqiirs, united by thin utrips of lead, an
may ctill be aeeu in old cliurchta aud catliudralij. The first rccordu of
pictorial glass work extout date from about tho year bOO, iq -(he Jays of
Pope Leo III., when so many magnificent ecclesiautical edifices were
erected, comimuced, and designed.

Venice was chiefly fainous for the manufacture of btaiucd gl>u«, ^o use
of which waa brought to high perfection with the pointed style of artUitec-
ture in Engl.ind. Fine siiccimens of the art may bo i<een in York Mingler
the collegiate halls and chapels, and especially in the chapel of lying'n
College, Cambridge. It ia evident that the art of painting on glass may b?
divided into two perfectly distinct operations : firstly, the artistic <1eaign
with reference to the capacities of the materials ; secondly, the moohanicid
or rather chemical preparation aud applicalioa of the materials thcmselvus.
Unlike most other desorijitions of painting, in which vegetable as well as
mineral colours aro freely used, glas.s requires the exclusive use of mineral
colours. The oxides of metals, such as gold, silver, cobalt, &c., ore chiefly
employed. These colours are, as it were, burnt into the glaiji. Somo of
them stain the whole substance, and are quite transparent ; others mix
with a substance called flux, and vitrify on tho surface. Theso last are
more or less opaipio or semi transparent, according to tho mode in which
they are applied.

Now, the ancients being more moderate in their demands ou such a
' means, were more primitive, and perhaps, mora successful iu their effects,
I whilst the moderns havo progressed in an artistic point of view, but at the
I expense of the transparency, breadth aud simplicity, of IheU' ancestors. A.s
i a general rule, tho modern paintings on glass are too much paintings in tho
strict sense of the word, too opaque iu their shadows, and, in fact, too niucli
shaded altogether. Whereas p.uutiug on glass, to bo really effective, should
be almost entirely outline .and colour, and as ft-ee from non-transparent,
that is, 6/ui7.:, shading as possible, for it must be remembered that all uon-
transparent colour becomes mere neutral tint when opposed to light iu a
window, and that the depth of the tint is mainly regulated by its trans-
parency ; hence the somewhat muddy character of the majority of modern
paintings on glass. Where, however, the nature of the material is sacrificed
to rc.^l excellence iu the de.'ign, wo are inclined to make great allowances ;
but, unfortunately, cither most manufacturers of stained glass grudge tho
expense of employing cpinpetent artists to draw for them, or artists of
merit consider it beneath their dignity, or, lastly, tho patrons of the art
themselves regard it in too mean a light, aud do not ofler an adequate
remuneration for the production of such painting ou glass in their churches,
&c., as we should desire to see, and, seeing, to admire.

Yet there are plenty of young artists who would be glad to make colourei!
designs for glass windows for a very moderate remuneration, and who ai'o
perfectly capable of good composition, correct drawing, and judgment iu
the arrangement and distribution of the colours. Upon those more
especially, who. from the spur given to the art by the late Exhibition, may
speedily be called on to fulfil the above requirements, we would impress
the following suggestions, which we venture, with all humility, to advance
for the guidimce of adventurers in a new or revived domain of pictorial
creation. In the first place, it must be borne iu mind that a stained glass
window is not a mere painting, but a uit^ans of admitting light, modified
and tempered, it is true, but still light, into the building to which it pertains.
I, Hence .an additional reason for the all-importance of transparency in glass
window-pictures. Secondly, it must be remembered that these pictures
are generally seen at a considei'able distance : therefore, the boldness,
breadth, and, above all, the harmony of the effect, is far more vital to its
success than any miuuteness of detail. Thirdly, it must be invariably
present to the mind of the artist, that he is not producing a work for
isolated exhibition, but is l.ibouriug in combination with the architect of
the edifice which his design is to adorn, and with which it is expected to fill
in and harmonise — not to jar aud contrast by painful and violent uses of
light and shadow, such as. we are sorry to say, the late collection very
plentifully offered. Actual white aud black (that is, opaque shadow) ought
to be almost entirely excluded from works of this kind. In a word, the
window ought never to lose for an instant its character as a window, that
is, an admittcr of .light, which is its absolute and .-esthetic relation to the
walls, columns, and domes of the building it illuminates.

It is certain th.it the practical art of staining glass, which flourished iu
such peifection duriusr the thirteenth century, has beeu iu a great measure
lost, and, notwithstanding all the eftbrts of modern chemistry to equal and
surpass it iu purity aud brilliance of colour, it lemains unrivalled. Ou tiie
other hand, paintiny on glass, when carried out by artists such as form the
exceptions to the strictures above made, is decidedly pushed much further
than iu former times, as far as mere pictorial excellence is concerned.
■\"\Tiothcr it has advanced in its legitiaiato mission, that of an harmonious

280

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

adjunct to architectural effect, we doubt,
new era has, however, commenced in the
and we must take it as we find it, merely
sidering ita merits with reference to the ol
intended to be attained, and not criticisu
according to any abstract causes of glass
dow-painting, which, right or wrong, may 1
a part of om- artistic conscience.

In proceeding to notice the works in thii
partment displayed in the Great Exhibition
would premise that we are not amongst
devotees to this mode of decoration as avel
for high .\rt ; and consequently, must be
pared to view the various candidates as cop;
of the art as developed at the early pt
when it was in vogue. The following obsc
tious therefore, will bo considered to be ■■
ten with a feehag for " medifevalism."

As a general fact, we have to admit, th»
English glass-stainers do not take the first
in this branch of national competition,
taking a first and ciu'soi'y view of the
range of stained glass windows and meda]
in the northern galleries of the Exhibi
our attention was forcibly arrested by
striking woi'ks of MM. Marechal and Gu(
of Metz, which, in almost every requisite'
lity, artistic composition, harmony of oo
,ind mechanical execution, excelled all th«
ductious of their competitors. In the '
trait of a Bourgemestre " the richness o)
dark yet transparent drapery was very ret'
able. Perhaps the head was a little too b
a contrast to the deep backgi'ound and (
But in the large painting at its side no
defect was visible. " St. Charles Borr
giving the Sacr.iment to the Victims o
Plague," was remarkable as a restorati(
media?val life and sentiment. The drawi
the figures, rude and unsatisfactoiy, per «
combined with a devotional sincerity ii
expression and attitudes, and a local hist
truth in the peculiar cast of feature, whic
noted the revival of an obsolete art, iu a ki)
spirit. The blue sky in the background
rably relieved the warm group of earnest fi
in front, and the colouring was of a b'
which reminded one of the eai'ly Italian pai
Nor is it in pictorial effect and drawing
tliat Marechal of Metz excels. His med:
of the thirteenth century style was an i
lent specimen of colour and design. It
mouised with the rest of bis paintings,
though simple in its outlines and its co!
it is rich both in chromatic harmony and
ral effect. Marechal is, in fact, the one
glass painter and stainer of the present d
Europe. His works have long been k
and appreciated in France as the first in
line of art. His paintings in the windo
the church of St. Paul, at Paris, which
fui'niihed some years ago, raised him at
above all his competitoi's in France, botl
glass-stamer and an artist. Without dwi
on the minute gradations of merit in
glass-stainers and painters, we now pass '
a general examination of the works most w<
of attention in the late collection.

Messrs. Chance Brothers, of Birminghai
hibited a variety of paintings, amongst whi(
noticed a Virgin in a green robe, well
trasted with some rich crimson drapery. 1
is much breadth and simplicity about
figure. We also observed a landscape, ?
would be very well, but for the excess of ^
in the arrangement of its colour. And he:
may pause to mention a vei-y curious fa
to the glass paintings exhibited, viz., that
manufacturer or artist seems to have a pec
love for one particular colour, in the pn
tion of which he succeeds better tha
others. Thus, Messrs. Chance's greens are
eminent for brightness and transparei
whilst, as we shall presently have occasii-
remark, other glass-stainers excel in (
colours, and affect them more exclusively.

Ml'. Edward Baillie exhibited a paintiJ

srAI.NLD TMf'DOW. — MAETIK, of TEOTE.S.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOP/EDLi OF THK OllKAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

281

Vuoan Klizaboth listening to tlie rending of SliakBpcai'o,"
, liirli surpasBod nil liis rivals in tho violont cuntnut "f it.4
fights and HhadowH, a!id in tlie impenotriiblo opacity of tho
ijittcr. Wo cannot nay nuich for tlio facoH or drawing in tliin
;roup. Howovor, tho (Jiioon's white Katin robo was very
rilliant; ami tlm carpet was roally so well cxccntud, that
0 co\dd liavo wished tlio remainder of tho pieLuro up to tho
,me level.

Ml'. W. Wailfs is enterprising in design, and ilispl.iyed
insidemblo brilliance of colonr and transparency, but there
us a rudencis and harshness about tho paintings which was
Ot pleasing.

Tho St. Ib'lcn's Crown, Sheet, and Plateghiss Company
int a large painting of " St. Michael and Satan," in which
16 tail of the arch-enemy is prolonged to an indefinite degree,
hero is some spirit in tho drawing, but tho e.\ccution is
.montable in every respect.

Somo lions and unicorns by Tobay, tho former yellow,
id the Latter white, were not very wonderful production.^,
or in any respect likely to outshine the ordinary lions and
licorus of every-day life.

Messrs. Hotley and Co., of Soho-squaro. sent a very line
linting of tho " Ascension." In this work the rich colour
tho foreground contrasts well with the lightly managed
mosphere, against which the figure of the Saviour is seen
a glory very siiiritually conceived and e.\ecuted.
M. P. Lafnyo was do\ibly imfortunate in being placed by
16 side of Marochal, to whose works his specimens served as
foil. They are muddy in colour, and very inferior in design.
Henri Fougue, sent some curious specimens of mezzotinto
anspareucies, produced by gla^s or china, carved or modelled
as toproducethedifferentgradationsof light. shade, and tone,
a manner remarkable for its softness and purity of effect.
M. Thibaut Dallct had a very brown monk, effectively
'awn, but deficient in transparency. His " Judith and
olofernes " is a fierce piece, of strong expression, and some-
htit crude but rich effect. Red is evidently the predomi-
iting and favourite colour with this artist. The *' Lord's
ipper" is more transparent, but with little merit either in
sign or colour.

Herr Geyling, of Vienna, had a female figure leaning on
window-sill, which resembled an oil-painting in effect. The
>sh of the face and h.ands, and the white chemise, as well as
e dress, are very well executed ; but we object to the opaque
ckground. As a work of art it reminds one, on the whole,
Jullieu's coloured lithographs. We consider this a strong
ample of success in a line which ought never to be at-
mpti>d by a glass-stainer.

M. Thevenot was chiefly noticeable for a blue turn of mind
his colouring. He had, however, some very tolerable
ints on pedestals, which were edged with gold, most effect-
ly rendered by transparent yellow glazing. His "Rade-
na" is a severe figure, with much depth and richness in the
louring, which is yet too opaque for real brilliancy of effect.
The small Gothic window, by M. Martin of Troyes, was
mai'kable as a quaint imitation of the old style of glass
;ture, as regards iu-tistio treatment and brilliancy of colour,
pon these grounds, it was one of the most curious specimens
the Exhibition to lovers of the ancient glass-stainers and
eir peculiar characteristics.

The painted window by Mr. Gibson, of Newcastle, which we
grave, contains subjects illustrative of various passages m
e life of St. Peter. It is in the Norman style, and consists
six geometrical forms upon a richly ornamented ruby
ckground, embodying the principal events from the life of
Peter. The centre medallion is Christ's charge to Peter ;
others respectively contain the Angel delivering _Peter
imprison: Peter denying Christ ; Christ calling Peter from
3 ship ; Peter's want of faith ; and in a small quatrefoil is
martyrdom of St. Peter, the whole surroimded by an
iborately worked and richly coloured border. The colours
the glass are rich ,ind full-toned, aud <ire judiciously corn-
ed in the work before us. It is a subject for regret,
wever, that, in reviving this ancient art, as a medium, it
Duld be considered necessary to imitate the barbarous style
drawing of the Gothic ages.

We have thus glanced at a few of the most meritorious,
rather, to speak conscientiously, of the least sinning,
longst the exhibitors in the Stained Glass Gallery. On a
;ure occasion we shall return to the subject, when we shall
e some account of Eertini's famous Dante window.
Before taking leave of this subject, we would draw this gene-
conclusion from the examples we have been examining. We
uld once more impress upon the improver and enterpriser
this branch of decoration, that simplicity, transparency, aiid
deration in light and shade are the three great requisites
er harmony of colour.

KOIiilAX I'AINTliD \VI>'DOW. — J. CIBSOX,

.osa

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAU EXHIBITIONS.

A'lII. — The EiHiBirioss of England.
THE late Great E.xbibition of the Industry of all Nations was the first
attempt made ou a natioual scale to gather together for popular and
scientific instruction the products of the skill and ingenuity of the greatest
commercial nation ou the face of the earth. It is strange that the country
of Wedgwood, of Arkwvight, and of Watt — the scat of the most advanced
manufacturing processes, the focus of unlimited capital, the spot whence
laden vessels radiate in every direction, the country whose flag floats above
moi-e Wraith than any rival state can boast, whose scientific men have led
the way in the pursuit of wealth, whose legislators have stood in the van
of political proijress— it seems strange that such a people should have failed
to see tbe advantages which have accrued long since to other nations from
national Exhibitions of Industry. The reception with which various
endeavours on the part nf private imlividuals to accomplish a national
exhibition of the products of English manufacture met repeatedly, confirms
the position, that, if this institution has not been befoi-e introduced into
this country, our native manufacturers are to blame. Opportunities have
not been wanting for many years past to carry out native exhibitions with
conspicuous success — nothing save the co-operation of manufacturers has
been deficient.

London — The Society of Arts. — In a history of industrial exhibitions the
efforts of the enligliteued men who have succossivelj' conducted the opera-
tions of the London Society of Arts must find a oonspicuons plac>=. This
society, it may be pertinent to renjark, was founded in the year 1753, for
the special object of encouraging the development of arts and manufactures
in this country. That it has. throughout the century during which it has
fitfully flourished, done much to further the object for which it was
founded, not even the most prejudiced political owl can reasonably deny.
It has had its seasons of brightness and its days of gloom. It has grown
and dwai-fed with the progress and retrogression of popular enlightenment.
It is unquestionably an institution the success of whicli is a guarantee of
commercial enlightenment; and the anomaly which the co-existence of
this society with that of manufacturers' indifference in the matter of a
national industrial exhibition, forms a difficult problem for logical dissec-
tion. The difficulty is, liowever, h.alf set aside by a glimpse at the pro-
tracted discussions which have marked the foundation of the magnificent
bazaar to which the world recently flocked. In the course of these dis-
cussions, we find not a few of the eminent manufacturing men of England
arrayed against an institution which would draw the veil from the mysteries
of their establi-shments. and make the processes from which their several
excellences result patent to the world. They still reverted with pleasure
to the dark times of old, when men hoarded their improvements in
machinery as the miserable miser hoai'ds his gold ; they were unwilling
that the foreigner should learn the ingenuity by which they excelled. So
pitiful is this narrow view of the commercial aspect of the present time,
that the chronicler is inclined to pass by those dissentient voices from the
greiit liberality of spirit which is the boast of Englishmen ; but their
eminence as manufacturers gives their opinion a weight the more dangerous
.and to be guarded against, from the animus with which it has been given.
The names of a few of these gentlemen have been printed m a i-cport made
to Prince Albert, in 1840, of the opinions of English mauirfacturcrs on the
subject of a great international exhibition ; and wo axe content to lot this
document lie in the library of the Society of Arts for the edification of
future generations, without giving the trivial and vexatious opposition
".vhich it describes the currency of these columns.

Having referred to the oper.ations of the London Society of Arts, and
premised, tliat, although the Society annually exhibited these specimens
of the competitors for its prizes, it did nut succeed before a very recent
date in gathering together a complete exhibition of any branch of English
industry, it is necessary, chronologically, to direct the reader's attention
to the career of tlie Cornwall Polytechnic Society, which appears to have
beon the first institution in England that system.atically gathered together
specimens of local industry for periodical exhibitions within its walls.
Eighteen of these cxhinitions have already taken place. The latest of these
was opened in September, 1S50.

Cornwall. — Cornish ingenuity has been keenly excited by the prizes
amiually offered at these exhibitions ; and, accordingly, we find several
inventions of some importance ranged within the Cornwall Polytechnic walls
on the last occasion. Among these figures was a large model by Mr. T. Ward,
of Falmouth, shelving a method of building under water without the use
of the diving-bell, &c. The construction of this model was rewarded witli
the first silver medal. The f econd silver medal was awarded to Mr. John
Pool, jun., of Copperhouso Foundry, for a model of an iminoved padille-
wheel for steamers. In this wheel the floats are only half the usual size,
the deficiency being made up by an additional number. The inventor
asserted that by the adoption of his plan the concussion on entering the
water would be much Xam than with a full-sized float, and on leaving it the
backwater would be much diminished. " The method of shifting the floats
and contracting the wheel's diameter is so simple that it can scarcely ever
get out of order, and then- division into two series will admit of each
portion being reefed separately. The advantages of tliis will be felt in a

heavy sea, when, to secure a proper resistance for the wheel, the iunei
series of floats may lie left of the full diameter, and the outer ones may be
close reefed. By these means the wheel will seldom be entirely out of the
water, or so deeply immersed as to check the speed of the engines. Tlie
reefing is effected by means of a toothed wheel and pinion movement."

The first bronze medal was adjudged to the inventor of a plan for pro-
ducing sharp casts of plaster by means of a vacuum. The jury of the
mechanical dejiartment report the progress of county ingenuity with justi- i
fiable pride. The following paragraph of suggestions is extracted from the
jury's report: — "Plans for improvements in iorraing cogged-wheels foi
mining machinery have, for the last two meetings, been submitted to this
society, for which the judges have awarded premiums ; and the judges f
the J>re3ent year have with pleasure awarded a first bronze medal to ano.li
plan for that purpose, which, in accordance with the opinions of pari J
most interested in the improvement of f;earmg, promises to be of extenli
utility. The judges conceive that this most desirable object can be bu
effected in each locality by schemes suited to their respective wants •
state of progress, gradually developed, rather than by the adoption of form
specially suited to other purposes : and they have viewed with satisfaction
the uuceasing efforts at local improvement, and trust that as high a standard
of excellence in mining macliiuei'y will be eventually established as 1|
admitted to exist in the cotton-manufacturing districts.

" The judges have likewise awarded a first bronze medal to a series d
elaborate tables especially adapted for the daily calculations of a miner
Their value has been tested for several years in a mine in the eastern par
of this county, where they have been found of great assistance to the agei."
A first class prize has been awarded to a pocket surveying compass, -hIi;,,.
promises to be a useful instrument under certain circumstances. A lira
prize has been given to a model for striking a helix, which shows oond
derable ingenuity in the contrivances for separating the lines made by tw
pencils employed. A book on mechanics, of the value of a fourth prize
has lieeu awarded to a boy of fifteen, whose attention has beeu directed ti
the improvement of a Savory's engine, of which he has submitted a plan t
the judges : they deem they have acted in accordance with the views of th
society in this award. The judges have awai'ded a first bronze medal t
the workmanship of a dividing engine, and of a slide rest. As these insti
ments are of the greatest value in the execution of good work, such as ; -
specially required for the local interests of this county, the judges hav f
since heard with great pleasure that the premium has been adjudged to '■
person who has been an apprentice to a well-known exhibitor of minin I
instruments of superior workmanship. A first bronze medal has likewis I
been adjudged to a skeleton clock, the parts of which were cast, made, an I
cut by a elockmaker of this county, in rivalry of the work of those distrid •
in which clockmaking is a special trade. A second prize has been adjudge
to a set of small knives, for the skill and ingenuity exhibited in the
workmanship. The judges do not consider such ingenuity enthely wastei
since its exertion confei-s a power on individuals that may eventually I
applied to objects of utility ; and the same remark is applicable to a prii
of the value of 2s. &d. adjudged to a lad for a puzzle-box that he hi
exhibited. The judges have further awarded the society's second silvi
medal (not convertible into money) to an extremely well-executed diawic
of a balance apparatus used in the coal mines ot Wales, and applicabl
under some conditions, to the Cornish mines. Tliey are satisfied that th
society is extremely desirous of encouraging a full and accurate knowledj
of the practice and plans of other mining districts, with a view 'to the
adoption, or the eniployment of such modifications as may bo deeme
advisable. The judges, with the consent of the committee, have awartlc
an extra prize of 2.1. to a small model of a steam-engine, loade by au engin
man in his leisure hours, which is well executed under circumstances ■
obvious diflticulty, and which must have required a study of the form an
proportions of every part of an engine, which must be a very useful exercv
to a person to whom is entrusted the constant care of an engine."

The Cornwall exhibitions, like all others (except the last three at tl
house of the London Society of Arts), have partaken of the character >
bazaars, since they have included curiosities in natural history from a
parts of the world, as well as amateur oil and water-colour paintings. Te
even under the general head of natural history, we find that the jiu'y pai
particular attention to county exhibitors. Thus, the second silver mcdi
was given to ^\'illiam Loughren, of the coast guard, for ninety species i
fishes procured from the Cornish coast, and preserved by himself " Of I
less value is the collection of Alga; by Hiss Wai-ren, to whom we also awai
a second silver medal. The specimens are named systematically ; and,
they do not form a perfect marine herbarium of Falmouth harbour, thf i
leave but little to desire." Even the Cornwall boys contributed illustr. ■■
tions of the natural history of their county, in the shape of collections >
bird's e™s. The exhibition consisted of 612 distinct articles; and tl
presence of a remai-kable number of boys and men of the working classe
attests the spirit of emulation which the institution has evoked throughQ\
the country. The rich resources of Cornwall are by its agency subjccte
to a thorough mechanical aud scientific examination. Cornwall naturalis
are encouraged to class the living creatures indigenous to their countj
miners are exhorted to improve the machinery of their mines ; amatei
artists are offered a public wall for the display of their local .sketches ; tl
young ladies of Cornwall, as they pace the shore of tiieir southern count'
are reminded that they will receive honour and thanks from their neigl'
hours if they will learn to class the weeds which cluster about their feet
and the coast guard, as he w.anders moodily along the sea-side solitudes e

AN ILLUSTRATEn CYCLOPyKDlA OF THK GREAT KXHIHITfON OF ]8r>l.

'MW

\',nd, Ih ntimulutoil to pluy hix pHi't at UiQ liical uxliiliitlon. Tho
, tliu Hciouoo, iiiul tlio natural liiBtiii'y of tho uoimty liiid thuir
'■|)i*OHiMitiitiv(iH ; iuiil tlio ]ii'occHHu« wUiuli tontl to choapeii tno ]iro-
ijf its ouibowclleil woaltU, recolvo diiiiy now mul iuijiruvud
iiiiontH.
«in7i -KJir.— Next hi order of suooessioii, Mnnclio«fccr claims populur
I'lir iu oTiil^avoui'ti after an indu-itriul uxliibitioii. Tlio idea of
ilisiiiii); IV colloctioii iif ■< apeuiiosiiH "f natural iiJKtory, workis of art,
nieclianieal cnutrivaueas " witldn thd walls of a Mucluuiios' Itutitution
triliuliMli iu tilt) ropurt of thi.s institution for 1838, to its l^rodidont,
!oiij;uniu Hoywood ; and it waa at tins guntloinau'.s auggiistion, that, in
, a rii'cidar was i^suod to thu luanufactiiring and Hoieatilic men of tUa
ty, which, as it indicator tho CDnipi-ulionsivoness of the Itrtit jMan-
;c'r schoMio, douorvoa a '{/erbatim iiiscrtiun in a History of induiitiiul
bitiuns : —

-I Imvr tin) pleasure of iiiformiiijj you, Unit tlio (Ul'Cictors of tills llistitlltinn intGllil,
till) Clii-istmils vacation, to upcii llm various class .iiul lecture-rooms tor tho exliibi-
oliji-cts iltiii^trative of Koicnce, art, luaiuifacturos, and nalurul lilstory, to afford ttiB
i-s of the itistltutioii anii the luihlic generatly an upportimity of liluiiticting, at tliuir
e, the present Htato of ^ho arts mid iiisinufactures of tlic town; to bring togotiier
T'uis iustiuic.es of the practical iipplication of tlioso scientific principles so frcnuentlv
niledinoiirleeturc-l'ooui; aTldtliiis,bybleiuiiuginstructlon witliamuseiliont, tofuruish
f,'reat coiiimimity in wliicli we live a source of iiUellectiuil improvoinent iliul rational
tion. Tlic foUoiviiiK outline will display the principal t'catures of tlie intended
1, iind it will, at tho aanio time, bo useful as :l Kuide to those friends of the insti-
' may ho disposed to promote this object by tho donation or loan of phiiosopliioal
Its, models of iiiacliinery used in tlie various important braucbea of liritish
iires, and siieciiueiis illustrative of the several departments of iiatill-al history.
ciMi:\-iAl, I'lMLofiorilY — SUiCics and Dynaviics: Instruments to ilhihtriitc the
f erpiilibrinm and motix)ns of s.ilid bodies ; elements of maehinery, vanons kinds of
, wheel and axle, pulleys, inclined planes, screw, and the wedKe, their application
idify motion ; illiistration of centrifugal force, lliidi-initiuami'-^: Instrnmonts to
ate tlio laws of pressure, equilibrium, cohesion, and motions of liuids ; hydrostatic
X, press, bellows, balance, &c.; bydranlie niaclilnery, ivater-wlicels, machines
by llio reaction of water; clepsydriv, hydraulic ram, Arclnuiedes' screw, blowing
lies, &c. Vntumatlcs: Instruments for exhibitinfj the mechanical proportiea of air
lior elastic bodies; air-pumps, condensers, baroineters, machiiios for ruising water,
IS liiiids of pumps, syplions, fire-engines, .Sic. Jfeal: Instruments for illustrating
eory of heat, sueli as thermometers, pyrometers, parabolic reMector.s, &c. Light:
nal and other models of various optical instrnments, such as telescopes, microscopes,
a-ohseura, camera-lncida, &c. ; instruments for exhibttint,' the polarization of light,
1 delusions, machines for grinding lenses and specula. EUciricU;i : Comprehending
inents tor illustrating the phenomena of electricity derived from 'friction, galvanism,
tisin, oloctro-magnotisin.and tiieruio-eleotricity. Aslrnnn-my: Models of iiistriiments
puiposeof obsenations and eomputn tion, such as mural circles, trausit iiistriiiiient.s,
ontrivances for illustrating the motions and pheiioiueiia of the heavenly bodies, such
letariums, orreries, armillary spheres, ,£-e. 6', c./, ,sv/,- lustrunienfsinnse for .surveying
vision of land, theodolites, levels, eircuniferenters. perambulators, pentagraphs, &c.
ir.y; In addition to tlie apparatus usually employed in chemical demonstrations, it
desirable to obtain saiiiidos of the various drugs used in the arts, particularly in
messes of hleachiiig, dyeing, and printing. TiiK Fine Aets— -•l/vii'(«c(;j/-e ; Models
'an-ings of public Imildings, specimens of materials used in tlieir construction,
leiis of sculpture, modelling, carving, painting, engraving, &e. This Ushful Arts
ktn'/rk, M'taoiiri;, and Carpf^htvy : Specimens of building materials, auoli as atone,
'. briei:, lime, cement, &c. ; models of roofs, centres tor bridges, specimens of various
jfwood,&o. MiU-Work: Models ta illustrate the elementary jiarls of mill-work,
eront methods of engaging and disengaging inacliinery ; contrivances for equalising^
litting, andconverting motion from one species to another; models of various kinds
is, ivheels, itc. Sttmu-Enffine^: Sectional models and drawings to exhibit the
s i>arts of the modern ste.im-engine, under various forms, and tlieir application in
igle and double-acting engine, high-pressni-e engine, vibrating engine, &c. ; models
istrating the application of steara power to mining, to navigation, to locomotive
s on railroads and common roiids. Ch'il Eii;/i/i''iTiiif/ : Models and drawings of
of public and domestic utility, such as sea, river, canal, railway, and common road-
gas-works, water-works, mining, &c. Mauii/octurfs : Models for illustrating
manufactures from fibrous materials, witli specimens in cotton, silk, flax, wool^
(1, &c. ; models to illustrate the art of bleaching, dyeing, and calico printing-
connected with the production and mannfactnre of cast and wrought iron, and
aetals: modelsconnected with the manufacture of artificial substances, as porcelain
icids, salt.s, pigments, &c.; models to illustrate the arts of letterpress printing, bi'
b and machines, copperplate and lithographic printing. Knfui-al Ilistory : Speci-
fcrjstals, minerals, geological charts, fos.sils ; specimens in botany ; specimens in
logy, ornitliology, ichthyology, zoology, &c.

he united and zealous exertions of the members and friends of the institution, the
rs feel assured that a source of rational and agreeable relaxation may be estaldished
made the means of difi'nsing a great amount of useful and interesting information.
aft'ord our ingenious mechanics and artisans a convenient opportiitiily of inspect-^
e practical application of seientifio principles in the construction of maeliinery ; of
the present state of perfection of our manufactures, and it is hoped it will be the
of stimulating them to scientilic research in the improvement of their respective
nd assist them to contribute beneficial results to this great metropolis of
ictnres.

lake this exhibition useful, attractive, and interesting, great I.lbour will be required
1 as considerable expense. Every exertion will be made to remove the first
■ ; and, with respect to the second, an appeal to our liberal townsmen, who are
willing to support works of public utility, will not be made in vain.

Samuel E. Cottam, Secretary,

i circular had the effect of oonoentratiug within the walla of tho
lestcr Mechanics' Institution a very iuterestiuj collection of models,
actures, paintings, and curiosities in natural history, from 150 coll-
ars, for the amusement and instruction of the Christmas holiday folk
The exhibition remained open from the '2iitli of December till
'f February, and was within that space of time visited by 50,000
AX the annual meeting, held a few weeks after the "close of
xperimental exhibition, IVfr. Benjamin Hcywood referred to it in
of great gratification :— '• For my own parti'' said this goutlemau. '' I
e to confess I had no anticipation of the degree of success which has
ed it; and I believe I am not very far v.roug when I say that its
have not a little surprised my excellent friends near me who have
1 so zealously in its preparation. How delightful is the contemplation
rytliing connected with it. AVhere shall I begin in the mumeratiou
happy infiuences i Shall I speak of tho .spirit which animated those

who undertook ltd proparnliou iind urranjitcment I of tho dayu »ud uij;ht» of
labour they devoted to it? of tho roadiiioM and kiadncHH witii vfhiuU
eoiitnbutioiw of all kind were offered ? Hhall I spoak of the gr4tifiullion
all'ordod by it to thousands and tuns of thounandu who lia.i Uever aonu
anything of thu kind before I of the uow uud nobler touts which it \\x-,
awakened in the uiindH of many of them ? or ahull I Mpuuk of it« valu- iw
an exatiipio to other institutions. po«so.-«ing rich and beautiful collections,
from which the public have hitherto been excluded ! It \vas delightful to
seo the countenance.^ beaming with pleasure, of the working men, their
wives luid their children, as they thronijcd through tho rooms, and g.-«/,ed
upon the dillercnt objects ; and I could not help feeling in how m.-iny of their
breasts a chord must have been touched, the vibration of which will Ijavo
given life and pennaiienco to now uud happier feelings within them ....
Let mo beg your attention to tha poraonal appoftpinco of your directora
imd your president this evening : we ;irii all iu the livery of the institution ;
we are all in waistcoats woven at the exhibition by the silk weaver whoso
loom and whoso work excited so much interest." On turning to the
accounts of tho institution, we find that the exhibition realised uo leas a
sum than 1078/.

The second Exhibition of Manchester industries, arts, and curiosities, wa-s
opened on the 'ifith of Deoeinbi-r, 1838, and showed a list of contributors
380 strong, and a list of articles amounting in number to 20,300. Amongst
these articles tlieio wcro 21 models of steam-engines, Til models of useful
machines and ingenious mechanical contrivances, 20 models of ships,
packets, boats, &c.. 400 specimens of manufactures, 12 models of public
buildings, 40 specimens of papier mAch6 and cabinet-work, ('0 philo-
sophical instruments, 100 ancient and modern curiosities, 1060 medals,
coins, and plaster casts of medallions, 171 paintings, 290 en-graviags,
10,000 insects, 1120 birds, 7000 miucr,alogical and geological specimens,
.and 4000 shells. Not less than 100,000 visitors flocked to this Exhibition)
and left in the treasury of the institution ,ahout '2320/. This sum, tof'elh-r
with that realised by tlie first exhibition, were devoted to the long-clierished
object of paying off tiie debt duo upon the building of the institution. At
the amiual meeting held while the second exhibition was open, Mr. Isaac
Newton (who ajipears, with Mr. Belshaw and others, to have taken an active
interest in these exhibitions) threw out some suggestions for future
guidance. He said, "It has now been practically demonstrated that the
most valuable depositories may be thrown open, at a small charge (that to
the Manchester exhibitions was sixpence), to the public indiscriminately ;
and th.at the owner of works of art. of specimen.s of the productions of
nature, and of curiosities in general, may rely with confidence on the
honour and good sense of the poorer class of his fellow-countrymen ; that
he may trust his most rare and valuable articles to their general examina-
tion, and have them safely returned, accompanied by the warmest thanks

1 of a gratified public Excellent as is our present exhibition, I think

thiit it is yet capable of improvement. I should like to see it descend more
into our commoner manufactures for some of its articles. One department
of it might be appropriated to wiiat should be termed a sample .and
pattern-room, in which should be placed specimens or samples of manu-
factures in general. The dift'erent trades might be solicited to exhibit
in this room the most improved specimens of their various productions.
I am aware timt this is now can-iod out in a nousiderablo degree, but I
would still further extend it. i<'or example, why should wo not exhibit
samples of dyeing, of calico-printing, of the "cotton m.anufacture in
general, oi paper for hou.sc decor.ating, improved specimens of boot ainl
shoe-milking, of hat-making, of book-binding, or of any other trade, tlie
articles of ^Yhich are not too largo or inconvenient for exhibition ? Wo
have already articles, and most beautiful ones too, of the more showv
species of trades and manufactures, such as clock and watch-making,
of papier m.'ichc mauufaotiires, mathematical instruments, philosophical
apparatus, &c. ; and why not exhibit also improved articles of some of the
rnore humble but more general and useful trades I These are nierelv
hints for next year's exhibition, which may or may not be adopted, as
circumstances determine. But I certainly should like to see our exhibitions
possess, in addition to the general interest which they must and will
always have, a depository iu which as many as possible of our artisans
might view aud exhibit the most imjiroved articles on which they are dailv
employed." These suggestions are worth recording in a history of th'e
development of EngUsh hidustrial exhibitions. In their repoi-t "for 1S3S,
the directors of the Manchester Mechanics' Institution describe deputations'
as having waited upon them from severiil towns for information on the
details of the Manchester exhibitions.

The Exiiibition of 1840 w.as a comparative failure, having attracted only
43,450 visitors, aud realised 833?. It consisted principally of pictures, .and
is remarkable chiefly for the reappeartmce of au E.eli.ibition Gazette, started
for the special purpose of giving critical descriptions of objects exhibited
on this occasion. This Gazelle is a curious periodical to refer to.

The fourth Manchester exhibition was not opened till the 26th of
December, 1842. It occupied four rooms, and included some attractive
specimens of improved manufactures. Passing by the collection of Chinese
curiosities and the picture gallery, we m.iy at once notice the specimens
exhibited by various manufacturers as the results of the Jacquard loom.
Fu-st of these was a tabliuii of tho will of Frederick III. of Pi-ussi.a, sur-
rounded by a classical design, manufactured by Messrs. Meyer and Co., of
Berlin, and presented by them to the Manchester Mechanics' Institution.
The tableau is woven in what is termed a 3000 set reed. It requires in
the working the power of eight machines, each machine coutaiuing 000 ends

284

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

of silk, or 4800 ends in the whole. There are about 3750 cai-ds on each
machine, or 30,000 cards in the whole. The size of the paper on which
the design is given would be 18 feet by 21 feet, whereas the woven silk is
not more than some -16 to 20 inches.

A second specimen of Jacquard weaving was a 'portrait of Jacquard
himself, contributed by Mr. Henry Hilton, of Mosley-street, Manchester ;

* OR-MOLU CLOCK-STAND. — POTTS.

another specimen was the "French Conscript," contributed by the Man-
chester School of Design ; and the last specimen represented the will of
Louis X^'I., and was contributed by Messrs. H. and E. Tootal, of York-street,
Manchester.

The Fine Art department included a contribution from the late Sir
Robert Peel. Specimens of raw and s| mn cotton yarn from No. 1 to No. 460 ;
inlaid work, plants, and engravings. The mechanical room, as described
in the Exhibition Gazette, was particularly interesting. " Here we have a
glass-blower, a stocking-knitter, a seal engraver, and a likeness-cutter ; two
kinds of weighing machines, at which, for the small charge of one-penny,
the curious in corporeal gravity, absolute and speciBc, can have their own
proper ponderosity determined to a fraction ; divers hydrostatic machines
and pumps ; some" beautiful railway models, of bridges and stations ; a glass
in which long faces may be pulled any moment ; and an antidote thereto, in
one which gives an enormous breadth to the countenance. There is a turret
clock, contributed by Messrs. Sharp, Roberts and Co., which is admirable
for its simplicity and strength and some beautiful working models of

calico printing machinery, and of other machines connected with this branc
of industry, contributed by Messrs. Thomas Hoyle and Co."

The Fine Arts room included a self-acting pianoforte, exhibited 1
Messrs. Marsden and Son. It played a number of tunes by the agency
revolving barrels. In this room a specimen of French ingenuity figxired.
the shape of a ship cai"ved in ivory, executed at Dieppe. It is possib
only to mention a few other in-
teresting evidences of ingenious
industry. Among them were
— a hydr.aulic machine for
drawing lead piping ; a clock on
the principle of the inclined
plane, having dials to indicate
the progress of time, by the se-
cond, the minute, the hour, and
longer periods, also the hours
and degrees at the various im-
portant positions on the earth ;
specimens of reeds made by pa-
tent machinery ; pods of cotton
from Egypt ; 3}iecimens of silk
spun by wild worms in Assam ;
"the mechanical paradox ; '" pa-
tent machine (Edmonson's) for
printing railway tickets; a ma-
chine for testing thread, " which
enables the ojierator to ascer-
tain the strength of the thread,
from one grain to a thousand
grains ;" specimens of cut, co-
loured, and stained glass ; din-
ner plates of the time of William
and Mary, near the latest pro-
ductions of Staffordshire skill ;
.specimens of the various stages
of the flax manufacture ; anato-
mical cast of a horse ; a marriage veil worked in Morocco by a Jewe
a series of the Poniatowski gems ; " and a flower-basket composed of (
hair of about eighty family friends at Hamburg."

Nearly four hundred persons contributed to this exhibition. It i
open for nearly thi'ee months ; was visited by about 100,000 people ; ;
realised about 1800Z.

The fifth Manchester Exhibition, which was opened at Christmas, in 18
partook of the characteristics which distinguished the previous exhibitii
An over-anxiety to introduce all kinds of attractive, but uninstruci
entertainment, such as profile-cutting. &c., has somewhat detracted fr
the high character which these periodical displays might otherwise h.
held ; and too evident a regard for the pecuniary proceeds, rather than
moral improvement, has lessened the estimate which liberal minds wo'
have formed of the endeavours of those gentlemen who have mainly c
tributed to the success of these exhibitions. No prizes have been awan
at these Manchester exhibitions.

OR-MOLU FLOWER-STAND. — POTTS.

■ k

DBESSING-CASE, INKSTAND, CASKETS, ETC. — C. ASPKEV.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851,

38S

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

KOHLER'S IMPROVEMENTS IN BRASS INSTRUMENTS.
E great perfection of tone to which brass munical instnmionts havo boon
rougbt of late years, rondem their effect in tlio orchostni bo charming,

no band is now consideieil complete witliout several of thorn. Indeed,

Fig. 1. — INTERIOR OF LOWER OR FIXED VALVE PL.1TE.

lornopeon is now considered as an essential element of even a small
, and is also highly prized in solo parts. When it is recollected that
>riginal form of the cornopean was that of the keyed bugle, it cannot

iiiHpection of tho I'"ionch and Km-lish cohch, nufficcd to give us ii full initight
into .ill tho variouM iiicjiiificationg und improvemenU which huvo beou
introduced, and proved that much ingenuity h.vl b'en bcntowed upon the
various dotaila of the manufacture of these instruments. The most im-

Fici. 0. — PATENT LEVrn TnCMPET.

portaut which presented itself to our notice, were some recent ones
introduced by llr. Kbhler, who was also the largest exhibitor of this class
of instruments in the English department of the Great Exhibition. It is
only just to the high reputation which this maker has attained in this

Fig. 2. — top view of upplk valve plate.

)e interesting to contrast the perfection to which it has now attained
me of our leading makers' hands. The Sax-horus, which havo become

Fig. 3. Fici. 4.

CROSS SECTION OF WINDWAYS OF VALVE PLATE.

ipular through the very excellent playing in concerts of numerous
isors, who have made this class of instruments their study, ai'e also
ler modification of the cornopean. The Great Exhibition offered
pi jar facilities for comparmg the present state of perfection to which
tls instruments have been brought by various manufactui-ers. An

Fig. 6. — patent lever corxopeax.

country, and in India, that we should note his endeavours to worthily
represent them, in competition with the rival makers on the other side of
the channel. Mr. Kohler's contributions to the Exhibition embraced nearly
evei-y form of approved brass instruments, viz :— trumpets, cornopeans,
cla%'icord, French horns, trombones, sax-horns in alto, sopi-ano, tenor, tuba
bass, &c., ophicleid, clavicor, and a new instrument which he has named
the " Patent Lever Bombadone," the largest brass instrument made. It

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

appears that these beautiful instruments, which have now been, for some
time, in use by her Majesty's band.?, are constructed with an entirely new
system of Talves, which act «ith the gi-eatest ease and precision ; and they
atFoi-d a facility of esecutiou which surpasses the most laborious study of
the old piston-Talvc. Another most important advantage in these instru-
ments is", that the tones produced by the complementary windways are all

JOjij. 7. — PATEST LEVKB TROMBONE.

insured of equal quality, as the new valve allows a perfectly 'free and
circular passage throughout the whoUi wimlway of the instrument— a
de3id.:ratum never before attained.

It will be seen on comparing the engravings of the windways and the

forations in which A, E, C, D, (fig. 1.) form the communication between tl ,
supplementary windways, which form the whole tone, half tone, a.nr\ tm,,-
ajtd half t(me. The structm-e of these plates may be seen from till
diagram's. Fig. 1 is a represenlion of the under plate, which is fixed to tl
mam and complementary windways, A. B, C. D. Fig. 2, is thoupperrftM-
of the vnlve-plate, which is kept in its place by means of a screw coUa|;:
which is fitted to tlic under or fixed plate. The surfaces of the plates aijj.
kept close together by means of a delicate spring, fixed in a box, aud hci ;,
down by a screw-pin, passed through the centre of the two plates. TH"*
plates thus held together form perfectly air.-tiglit valves ; and the constai '''■''
use of them can in no way damage them, SS is the case with piston-valve i "
It must be obvious that two Irit surfaces acting upon each otlier wil ,
ail equal bearing ufion every portion of their superficies, can in no w
deteriorate each other. Tliis is the reason why the tone of the pat.
instruments never varies under any climate of the world, even after ma;
yeai-s' use, as certified by the bandmasters of her Maje-ty's .service, wlf
have had them in use in different parts of the world. The modes in whii (-
the valves are worked has recently been much improved : the v.atc i
spring formerly used is now entirely superseded by a spiral bra-i- sprir
placed under tlie shoulder of the lever, and inside the guide box of ;
rod or lever, which acts on the valve. The spring is thus entirely remo^
from all danger of corrosion, besides being much more lasting than the u
watch spring; neither is any skill required, to replace it with anothij
The valves are all now easily accessible for the purpose of cleaning, jj | i
their structure is such that they will never wear out.

Having shown the peculiar foiTQ of the valves, we will now pi ...id
describe the manner in which the windways are made throughout,
instrument entirely free from all irregularity. Fig. 3 and 4 is a cross se:
of the plate-valve, representing its attachment to the patent lever tmi
and trombone (figs. 5 and 7). A. and B. shows the windway of the
tone opeii in fig. 4, and shows the direction of the wind froin the
windway; D ahd C. Fig. 3 shows the complementary windway for
whole tone closed, which is effected by the unperforated part of the va!
plate (fig. 2) being pushed over it by tlic action of the lever E.

It will he observed that the windways of the valve are in realit;
continuation of the tube of the windway, and that it is of an equal cui t
or bow to the curves of the main windways. The outside appearance f
the valve is that of a bulb on the valve-plate (fig. 2). as the valve and
plate are made in one piece. "We have no doubt, however, but that
diagrams and engravings of the instruments will suffice to convey a . .
and correct notion of the means by whioli a direct, free, and circi
passage for the wind throughout the whole iustrament is secured, with
formin" any acute angles, aud, consequently, a fulness, clearness, i
brilliancy of tone which surpasses that of all other valve instruments
permanently secured.

It must be obvious to every professor of music or scientific person,
contrasting the constniction of other instruments with these, that the ac
angles connected with the old valve instruments must evidently be a gi
obstruction to the free passage of the wind, aud, as a consequence, m
materially deaden their tone ; whereas an instrument which preserves
entirely unobstiiicted circular passage for the wind, must nccessa
preserve its clearness and fulness of tone in all its notes. Tlie unobstrar
action of the wind, moreover, removes much of that difficulty and exei
in the production of notes required by other valve instruments ; wL
also, the improvements which have lately been added gives to theperfon
the additional advantage of shortening or lengthening the tubes t
greater facility aud quickness than can be done on any other instrumen

Fig.

-PATENT LEVER FUEN'CH IIORX.

valve.s of these instruments with the old ones, that their structure and
arrangement are radically dift'erent frmi any others. The .angularity both
in tbe complementary and main windways is entirdy obviated : — See cngra-
viD"^!, 3, 4. This is accomplished by the substitution of a peculiar valve
■*iiich may be thus described : —

.The valve is formed r.f twoplatef, or discs, with perforations in them of
the same diameter as the wirdwaj-s of the instrument. These two plates
are.fonfied with Irtie fcea, which move freely upon each other ; the per-

India-rubber Air-gun. — Among the newly invented ai-ticles which
Exhibition has enabled inventors to bring before the public — altho'
they are not so numerous as they would have been, had a system of ]
tection for inventions been a.ssured at an earlier period — there are BC
which display a considerable amount of ingenuity. As an instance,
may mention the new india-mbber air-gun exhibited in class 8, aud bea"
the catalogue number 254. It is the invention of Mr. John Shaw, mn
instrument maker of Glossop, favourably known as the author of oni
two important improvements in wind instruments. The great singula
of the now air-gun consists in the entire absence of air-pump, reservoir,
valves, which in the common air-gun are attended by no small amoun
trouble, and some personal danger. The air which expels the ball is poi
fully compressed at the moment of discharge, by a pi-fton acting withl
cylinder, and moved with great foice and rapidity by the sudden c
traction of a spring, composed of a number of vulcanised india-inil
rings previously extended by hand in a very simple and easy manner;
the ball is propelled with a force quite equal to that exerted in the comi
air-gun. It has this advantage, also, that its discharges are always unif
in strength, and can be made with great precision, facility, aud sai-
Specimens of flattened bullets were exhibited in the case, which sho»
power to be fully equal to the average shots of the ordiuai-y air-gun,
invention is certainly a most ingenious application of the elastic fore
vulcanised india-rubber, an article which possesses so many useful quali'
and tlie application of which to a vast variety of purposes is now so g*tt
aud progressive.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF IS";].

287

' IIKMI", IIOI'ES, AND C0KDA(1K,

M|i|insod that Hio nncients wcro unacquainted witli Uio proaont

111' hemp, Hiiic'i', Uioui;li Pliny, in tho 2l)rd cliaptci- of tlio "iOtli

i las " Natul'nl }li»)toi'y," duscribos tins plant, ho does not alltido to

I. inipoi'tahl of its ujo"). Tho homp-plant, Cammhis (the Kunaliis of

113). linD a tall, atmight stem, about six or eight foot high, haii-y and

JraiiKuhu-, witli lurcfB serratod loaves. It will gi'ow in almost any Hoil

popovly manured ; and as many as seventy crops of hemp have been

lyti in Miffoseidn on the same land. Tho ncgloet of its cultivation hoi-o

in Ireland lias been often deplored. The Indian holnp {Cunnithk

Icus of tho "Materia Jlediea") possesses very strong uarobtic Btimulant

lerties. It (s called majeh in India. xxuAhushish in tho Levant. Lamar-

in liis " A'ision of tho Future," and Alexandre Duma-i, in his "Monte

isto," have introduced dciicriptioiis of its singularly intoxicatiug effeuta.

;olour tho extract of Indian hemp is a bright green. Its virtues ai'o

ognns to those of opium and henbane. Wo should not have alluded

le-c facts, were It not to support our own conviction that the coiiltnon

ip contains similar properties, though in a less powerfiil degree. And

; we are convinced by a curious incident which came to our knowledge

10 sailora, who, having on a voyage exhausted their tobacco, took to

vinssm.-tll piooBS of rope, which they found a very excellent substitute

the !;en«ine pigtail. Of course, but for our knowledge of the properties

uliaii hemp, \re should have .^ttributed tliis entirely to tho effect of

;in;ition, tliat easy refuge from an investigation of natural causes.

IS considol-ed that the bost hemp is grown in the southern provinces

e Russian empire. Riga hemp is held most in esteem. The other

cipal variety of Russian growth is called St. Petersburgh hemp. In

cases the name is derived from tho port at which the article is

ped. Rasfc Indiaii and Manilla hemp are tho two other chief varieties.

ai-o whiter in colour than the Russian. Of the two, Mandla is

3n-ed. The latter is also now extensively used in matting, especially

>mbinatiou with cocoa-nut fibre.

le way in which a rope is made is this :— First, the hemp is hatchelled
imbed, to clear it of the short ends, which would otherwise ruu in
the long," Traiu oil is used in this process, for the purpose of
ucing evenness, and causing cohesion of the fibres. Too much oil,
2ver, must not be used, as it woidd prevent the hemp from taking the
fterwards to be applied to it.

,e second process consists in spinning the yarn, that is, forming the
) into sepai-ate and continuous threads. After beintt warped, or
ohed, and slightly twisted, the yarn is then tarred with boiling' tar.
ral yarjis are then twisted together, to form what is called a strand ;
the twisting of the strand toirether forms the rope. Of course, this
5SS of twisting and re-twisting m.-iy be pursued to almost any extent ;
m proportion to tho nmount of labour bestowed upon a rope in its
■ate combinations, will be its strength when finished. To illustiate
rinciple, which must guide us in our criticism of the cordaee exhibited,
puld be called to mind that the more the points of resistance are
iplied in auy mechanical construction, and the more perfectly thevare
ht into unison, tlie less will be the strain or pressure on one point iu
iular. Now, the more elaborately a rope is twisted and combined, the
er will be the number of points of resistance— the gi-eater, conse- |
tly, the strength of the rope. Indeed, there would be scarcely any '
anson possible between the strength of a good cable-laid rope and of '
-e union, without twisting of the yarns which form it. j

e French ropes iu the Exposition wcro remarkable for laborious I
One specimen, especially, of white or Manilla hemp, nearly free ■
tar, especially excited the admiration of our nautical friends. The
y of the French ropes exhibitcfl consisted in the cai-e with which the i
and strands were prepared. Either more work had been bestowed
tliem, or the French machinery is more perfect than others. Perhaps, !
fer, tliis finish may be, to a certain degree, superficial, and the '
euce in strength, which is the great point between these and similar
sh specimens, is very immaterial.

! English cordage was interspersed amongst the hardw.are and
llanecuis articles on the south-west side of the Central Avenue,
tson, of Limehouse Hole, exhibited specimens of largo rope fol-
ds, &c., and smaller cordage for topmast rigging, of very excellent
facture. Some 11 -inch rope, applied as stop-rope to a cannon (to
eraot the recoil after a discharge), was particularly strong and well-
Haggle Brotliers, besides some very fine specimens of ordmary
laid r.jpe, exhibited flat ropes for the winches by which baskets are
from coal-pits, of great strength aud finish. Nor, thousjh not strictly
ling to our subject, should we omit to mentiou, incidentally some
and flat whx rope, by R. S. Newall and Co.. of Gateshead on Tyne
ed for the standing rigging of vessels and the support of suspenkion
S. to which they appear eminently adapted. For on the same
lie that a Damascus blade, hammered out of an infinity of mres is
er and more trenchant than an ordinary sword, these ' '

must bo superior in siisfiinin'? power to tho link-chalnii in ordinary use
mado of soli'l mosseR of iiiet;il.

Tho patitit rope iiiiinufietiircd from Manilla hemp, by .Spyveo and
Coopers, of Hull, was well worthv of nttentif>ii, nn were also the (l«t ropcH
mado under ths^nproved patent of H. H. Hawke. of Truro. Wo cannot
say much in comnaendation of tho Oourock Rope-work Comiiany, of
(Ireenock; though, perhaps, want of cxtnrniil Cniih i.s the only fault
of their manufactures. Kir Joseph Hud.lart and Co., of Limohotuio,
exiubited a very ingenious machine for twisting tlie yam and strand. Wo
presume Sir .Insoph is cithei' tho original i.atentce or' the son of tho Joseph

"' '"'■ ^~ ' noma fifty years ago took out one of tho carlioct

The specimens of this firm were
Joseph Crawhall's (of Newcastle)

Hudiliut. of Islingkon, w!

patents for a ropomaking hiachine.

amongst tho finest in the Exhibition

improved pntent rope-mRkiii!!; machine, oxliibit«d in the Machinery in

Motion dciiartment, wn«, however, tho most perfect thing of tho kind ret

invented. It twists tho yarn, tho Strand, and tho rope, bv one and the

same proc"S", RoVcml amaU'cr whoBls turning round the principal spindle.

It IS beautifully simple in its construction.

In tho Rnssiau <li| artmpnl w: found only tvro exhibitors of ropes,
Michnol Jliliiikoff Glouskoft", of the gOTernmenl of Tuertown RyeflT, and
Cazalet, of St. Petcrliurgh. whose specimen'", though not equal to the
French or English ropes, were by nu means of striking inferiority. Wo
.shoidd have expected, however, something more from the land of hemp
par excellcnci: But it is not always the case that a country excels in
tho manufacture of tho raw material which it produces.

The ropes of Felten and Guillaumc, of Cologne^ were much better;
indeed, to all outward .appearance, quite equal to those of our own manu-
laeture. Blenkenburg, of Lippstadt, chiefly excels in small cord and string ;
but H. J. Hoerkens, of Lubeck, sustains the reputation of that Hanseatic
seat of commeree by specimens of unexceptionable texture.

In the East cordage is made of the fibrous matter found in variouB other
vegetable products, as pine-apples, the aloe, tho idaintain, the cocoa-nut
husk, and even nettles.

wire ropes

SPECIMENS OP Bl.NDIXn; — THK PILGRIM'S rBOGRESS, BV LEIOHTOK AND CO.

fancy

The above is one of MfS.srs. Leighton's numerous specimens of
binding noticed iu our article on "Bookbinding," No. 16, p. 242.

288

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS

THREE SPECIMENS OF WALL DECORATIONS IN CANNABIC— BY ALBANO.

" Cannabic" is the name of a new prepai-ation from hemp, ' intended to supply the place of
papier miche and cartcm pierre, invented and patented by M. Albano. "Whilst, perhaps, it has not

quite the softness of surface of the foi-mer named materials, it has the advantage of gi-eat dvn-a-
bility, and of quickly drying. , The material is strong, light, and impervious ; it neither shrinks nor

PANEL DECORATION. — BT HASELD)

swells, and even the most intrii
designs possess perfect sharpr
and evenness : it is i^erfectly I
absorbent, and capable of the higl
finish in colour or graining ; and
were told that its mellowness pen
it to be gilt and burnished equa
the refulgence of solid metal.
r' It is equal]}' applicable to extei
as to internal purposes. It was I
used by M. Albano in the decoral
of Covent-Garden Theatre.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPJJDIA OF THE GUEAT EXHIBITION OF 185L

KO. 19f I'lSBKUAHY 7, 1862.

'.'. .l-novf TjriM

latour OF uiAMo;sDs, tic. — hunt and koskell.

3i.T

,,' fo Jnomoonamuioo ad} liinu
'■Jicf 'rabni; fi ■';>n)rrir:><x..'t-;.u;ll(>e

Peiob Ohe PfiMinr.

290

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

MINING AND METALLURGY.

DIAMONDS AND MINERALS EMPLOYED FOR ORNAMENTAL
PURPOSES.— No. III.

AMONG the minerals employed for personal decoration, the diamond
evidently occupies the most prominent position, both on account of the
beauty of the gem itself, and also because of its immense commercial value.
The diamond, like charcoal, is composed of carbon ; and, in a chemical
point of view, differs from it only in bemg perfectly free from all traces of
the earthy and other impurities with which the latter substance, eveu when
most carefully prepai'ed, is to a considerable extent contaminated. This
mineral, although principally used in ornamental jewellery, is likewise
applicable to many other purposes ; in consequence of its extreme hard-
ness It is now extensively employed for making the pivot-holes of the better
description of watches ; it has also been used iu the formation of holes
through which very fine metallic wires are drawn, besides furnishing the
only convenient tool which can hi employed for cutting glass.

The countries in whi(ih this gem has been yet discovered are far from
numerous, the only localities in which it is found being the Indian peninsula,

-;^

Bi-azil, the island of Borneo, and Siberia, on the western side of the Vvai
mountains. Its geological position appears to be among diluvial gravel and
conglomerate rocks or pudding-stone, consisting chiefly of rolled flint pebbles
and ferniginous sand. India has from the most remote ages been celebrated
for the beauty and magnitude of its diamonds, the largest and most valu-
able of which are obtained from the mines in the provinces of Golconda and
Visapoor. The tract of country producing these gems extends from Cape
Comorin to Bengal, and lies at the foot of a chain of mountains called the
Orixa, which appear to belong to the trap-rock formation. Tlie diamonds
obtained from even the richest locaUties are rarely procured by directly
searching the strata in which they are found, since they are commonly so
coated with an earthy crust on the outside, a-s not to be i-eadily distinguish-
able from the various other substances with which they are associated.
For this reason the stony matter is first broken into fragments, and then
washed in basins for the purpose of separating the loose earth ; after which
the residual gi"avel is spread out on a level piece of gi'ound, where it is
allowed to dry, and wlicre the diamonds are recognised from their sparkling
in the sun — thus enabling the miners readily to discriminate between them
and the stony matters with which they are associated.

The chief diamond mines of Brazil were discovered in the year 1728.
The ground in which they are imbedded exactly resembles that of the
diamond districts of India, and, besides containing fragments of coloured
quartz and fermginoas sand, it produces small quantities of gold in connec-
tion with oligist iron ore. This conglomerate, or pudding-stone, which is
seldom of any great thickness, occurs at considerable heights in the moun-
tainous table-lands, and is entirely different from all the other mineral
productions which are to be found in the vicinity. The principal mine of
this part, of the world is that of Mandagi-a, on the river Jigitonhouhra, to
the north of Rio Janeiro, where the gems arc obtained from the sand taken
from the bed of the stream, after laying it nearly dry by drawing off the
water during the dry season into large reservoirs prepared for that purpose.
The " c;uscalho," or diamond gravel, which is then removed, is afterwards
formed into little heaps or mounds of 15 or 16 tons each, where it remains
until the commencement of the rainy season, wlien it is carefully washed in
square boxes arranged vmder large oblong wooden sheds. A negro washer

works at each of these boxes, and numerous inspectors are placed at regular i
distances among the workmen to prevent any abstraction of the diamonds 1
by those who may chance to find them. When a negi-o finds a diamond,
he immediately shows it to the inspector, and if its weight amounts to 17i
carats, or 70 grains, he receives his liberty.

The diamond is found ciystallised in the octahedrons form, or in some
other immediately derived from it. Its specific gravity varies from 3'4 to
3'6. It is not acted upon by ,any solvent, but, when strongly heated in air
or oxygen gas, is consumed with the formation of carbonic acid.

The fracture of this mineral is foliated — its lamina} being parallel to the
faces of the regular octahedron. When broken it divides in the direction of
these lines ; and this property of the gem is taken advantage of by the lapi-
dary when reducing it to the forms best adapted for ornamental purposes.

Diamonds are usually colourless and transparent, but when colom'ed are
frequently of a yellowi.sh tint. Green diamonds are, next to yellow, the
most common ; blue specimens are also occasionally found, and although
they seldom possess much lustre, are, in many countries, highly valued.
Of all the coloured vai'ieties the rose or pink diamonds are, however, by
far the most esteemed, and sometimes eveu exceed in value those whioh
are perfectly colourless — although, in general, the most limpid gems will
be found to bear the highest price.

The art of cutting and polishing the diamond, although probably known
in Asia in remote antiquity, was first introduced into EuroiJe by Louis
Bergher of Bruges, in the year 145G. The object is effected in two different
ways— either by taking advantage of the natural lamina) of the gem, and
splitting it in directions parallel to the faces of the octahedron, or by sawing
it with a very delicate wire covered with diamond powder. By thes{
processes, and more especially by the former, the diamond is so cut awaj
that the weight of the finished gem is rarely more than one-half that of the
rough stone from which it was made ; and consequently the value of i
bi'illiantrcut diamond is considered equal to that of a similar rough one o
twice the weight, exclusive of the cost of labour expended in the workman
ship. The weight and value of diamonds are estimated in carats, of whic!
150 are equal to one ounce troy, or 480 grains.

The difl'erence between the exchangeable value of two diamonds of equa
merit is generally estimated in the ratio of the squares of their weights ; si
that the value of three diamonds weighing respectively one, two, and thre.
carats, will be as one, four, and nine. The average price of rough diamond
is estimated at 21. per carat ; and consequently, when cut, the cost of th
first carat, exclusive of workmanship, will bo SI., which is the price of a'
uncut diamond of two carats.

The rapidly increasing value of diamonds iu proportion to their weigh

in carats, will be readily seen by a glance at the following tabidai- statement :-

A wrought diamond of

3 carats is worth

72/

126

B 1.

200

10 „

800

20 „

3,200

7,200

12,800

20,000

28.000

100

80,000

Beyond this weight such a method of calculation is not, howevei
applicable, in consequence of the difficulty of finding pm'chasers for th#'
more valuable gems.

Of the mmierous diamonds exhibited, by fiu' the largest and mof'
valuable is the Koh-i-noor, formerly the property of Ruujcet Singh, whicl
together with two other specimens of the first water, were exhibited uude
a strong cage of gilt iron in the main avenue.* This jewel, which is th
property of her Majesty, is one of the largest in the world, ami is value
at 2,000,000/. sterling. Besides this magnificent di:i.mond, the Exhibitio
contained a vast collection of jewels of inferior weight aud value— amon
which may be mentioned a unique blue diamond, weighing 177 grains, th
property of Mr. Hope, which was exhibited in the central gallery, near th
great lump of gold from California, belonging to the bank of England.

Of the other large diamonds in the world the following are the moE
remarkable. That mentioned by Tavernier as belonging to the Empero
of Mogid, a now extinct kingdom, is said to have weighed in the roug
state 900 carats ; it w,as found in the Golconda mine about the year 155(
and is of the size of a hen's egg divided through the middle m the directio
of its smallest diameter. Among the crown jewels of Russia is a diamoU'
weighing 195 carats ; it is of the size of a pigeon's egg, and was formerl
the eye of the Brahminical idol Sheriugham. Tlience it was stolen by
French soldier who deserted into the Malabar service, and who found th
means of purloining the gem ; he escaped with it to Madras, where he dii
posed of it for 2,0002. to the captain of a ship, who afterwards sold it to
Jew for just six times that amount. The Jew subsequently disposed of i
to a Greek merchant, who afterwards sold it to the Empress Catharine fo
90,000/. iu ready money and an annuity 'of 4,000/. The most perfec
and beautiful diamond hitherto found is, however, probably that brougk
from India by an English gentleman of the name of Pitt, who sold it to thi
Duke of Orleans, by wliom it was placed among the crown jewels of France
This jewel weighs rather more than 136 carats, and was sold for the sun
of 100,000/. A model of a portion of the Nizam diamond — the remainda
having unfortunately been chipped off — was shown in the Indian department
Tlie manner in which the diamond was foimd, about twenty years since, il
tlie Nizam's territory, is interesting. It was first seen in the hands of i
native child, who w.t,s playing with it in ignorance of its value. The sum o
* For ft full .iccniint of thp Koh-i-nonr, spo No. 1. p. 6 : and for engraviners. sno No. 5. p. 69

31,

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OE 1851.

291

;ht annas hiiving boon offerod for it excited tho^uHpicion of the piireiitH

the uliild, and led ultimately to tlio discovery tliiit tliii bri^lit stoiio vviw

■cal diaiiioiKl. Tlio dianinnd. after having pa-sacd through many hnndw,

I urehawMl by a native banker for 70,000 rupeeH, and it is now in

■ I'm of Ills Highness the Nizam. The stone is of an iiTcgular oval

■i|" : the lpnf,'th is 'J-48, its greatest breadth 1 ■.'!,'), and its average tliick-

1 '. II li'J inches. Tlu^ aetual weight of the Nizam diamond is 1,108 gi'ains,

I t! ('i|ual to 1177 carats of weight for the rough diamond; and as the

I I ■!' stones n\v naiially taken to give but one-half of their weight when
' 111 polished, we should have KiSj carats, or a weight between the

Itegent diamond (ISOJ carats), and that of the Grand I)uke of

1 (ISU carats) as the weight of the Nizam diamond. Had the

il iriiiained entire, its weight when cut and polished would have

' I iiuats, which would Ijave placed it between the Tuscan and the

. Ml liuBsian diamond of 195 carats. From the circumstance of the Nizam

dmond not being polished, it is not known whether it is likely to prove

of pui-e water ; but there is every probability that it is so, as the uatives
idia are too good judges of diamonds to mistake a topaz for one;
an additional proof of its value may be learned from the fact that a
'e gave for the broken fragment a sum of not less than 70,000 rupees,
le diamonds coming from Brazil ai'e usually smaller than those pro-
d from India; but the mines of the former country annually furnish

101b. to 131b. weight of this precious mineral, of which from 800 to
cai'ats only are fit for jewellery — the remainder, under the name of
t," being used for other purposes, such as the cutting of glass and the
ling and polishing of precious stones.

noug the other minerals much prized by the jeweller may be mentioned
apphii'e, which, when perfectly transparent and of a good colour, is as
ly esteemed as the diamond. This gem is almost entirely composed of
ina, the various colours of different individual specimens beiuo- occa-
id by extremely minute admixtures of the metallic oxides. Those
ig a blue colour are known as Oriental sapphires, whilst others not
ig the same oxides in combination arc differently coloured, .-ind cou-
intly receive various distinctive names. ^^Tien red, they are called

tal i-ubies ; when yellow, Oriental topazes ; when violet, Oriental
hysts ; iuid when they are hair brown, adamantine spar.
e finest blue specimens of this gem have been procuced from Ceylon,
most esteemed red varieties come from the Capelan mountains, in the
lom of Ava ; and smaller stones of the same kind are occasionally
irith in Saxony, Bohemia, and Auvergne. Amethysts ai-e principally
;ht from the Carnatic, on the Malabar coast, and elsewhere in the
Indies. The adamantine spar is chiefly obtained ii-om the Malabar

but is less used than the other varieties for ornamental jjurposes. Of

several kinds the red is by far the most valuable ; a ruby of .3^ carats
lerfect in form and colour, having been valued at the same price as
ants having an equal weight.

e emerald is a precious stone of a beautifully green colour, valued next
5 diamond, and in the same rank as the Oriental niby and sapphire.
iUiB crystallised m regular six-sidod prisma, and has a specific gravity

0. In composition this gem may be considered as a double silicate of

Jia and glucina, mixed with variable BUiall portions of iron and a little

The most beautiful emeralds are obtained from Peru, where they

in a kind of gi-ey schist, mixed w^ith greater or less quantities of
nate of lime. A good stone of this kind, weighing four grains, is
d at from J Z. to 5?. ; and one of twenty -four grains realised, at the sale

de Dree's cabinet, 2,400f., or nearly,100?. Some beautiful specimens

s stone, both in the rough state and also after having passed through

]---- — ——-

Kxliibition; inoro particularly in the collection of ProfcMor Tennant, and
in the case belonging to I(. P. Thintletliwayte, Knq., whicli containcda very
complete colh^otion of gems and stones ailaptcd for ornamental purposes.

The garnet is a vitreous mineral belonging to the cubic Hystom, and of
which the preilominating form is the rhoinboidal dodccaliodron. Its con-
stituents are silica, alumiu.a, lime, and protoxide of iron. It is uHiially found
di-suminated in tlio primitive fonnations, and frequently occum in gnciiu
and clay slate. Garnets are abundantly met with in in;iny parts of Europe,
particularly in Germany ; but those of Peru arc the most eMteoiucd.

The chrysolite, called "peridot," by Haiiy and the French mineralogiatb,
is probably the topaz of tho ancients. It is the softest of the precious
stones, being scratched by the file or a fragment of quartz.

Quartz, or silicic acid in a cr)'8t.illine form, is also frequently cut foroma-
mental purposes, and, when limpid, and entirely free from flaws. Is a very
beautiful stone. When existing in tlio form of calcedony, and varioualy
coloured by metallic oxides, the substance receives the name of cat's eye,
I'lasma, chrysoprase, onyx, sardonyx, &e. It has a ^-itrcous luetre, a con-
choidal fracture, and a specific gravity of 2t)i>.

Among the numerous examples of this mineral, as adapted for ornamental
purposes, may be mentioned various vei-y beautiful stones from Cairngorm,
in Aberdeenshire, both cut and in the natural state. A case containing
some specimens of peculiar brilliancy was exhibited by Mr. Jainieson, of
Aberdeen, and was placed near the western extremity of the space allotted
to mineral production*. Some fine specimens in theii- natural state were

to be teuu in the Highland stall of Mr. M'Dougall, in the gallery on the
south side of the transept.

Opal, or uncleavable cjuartz, has a conchoidal fracture, with a resinous
or vitreous lustre, accompanied by a strong play of coloui-s. It occui-s in
kidney-shaped or stalactitic concretions, and has a specific gi-avity of 2"001.
Hungary was long the only locality of precious opal, where it occurs in
connection with common opal, in a sort of porphyritic formation. Lately
however, some very fine specimens of this substance have been discovered
in the Faroe islands ; and most beautiful ones, sometimes quite transparent,
are obtained near Gracias-a-Dias, in the province of Honduras, in America.
The red, yellow, and other coloured varieties of opal are chiefly found near
Limapau, in Mexico. In modern times, fine opals of moderate dimensions
have fi-equently been sold at prices nearly equal to those obtained for
diamonds of the same bulk. They are especially esteemed by the Tm'ks,
and are usually cut into a convex shape. A remarkably fine specimen was
exhibited in the Kussian depai-tment.

The value set on this stone by the ancients appeai-s to have been veiy
extraordinary, as Nonius, the Roman senator, preferred banishment to
parting with his favourite opal, which was coveted by Mark Antony.

The turqiioise, or calaite, is a massive mineral found only in the neigh-
boui-hood of Nichabour, in Persia, and is highly prized as an ornamental
stone iu that country. Its colour is a greenish-blue, but those varieties ai'e
most esteemed in which the blue predominates. It is composed of alumina,
oxide of copper, oxide of iron, and phosphoric acid, and has a specific gravity
varying from 2'S3 to 3'00. There is also another totally different variety
of this substance, known by the name of bone turquoise, which appears to
be a phosphate of lime more or less coloured ^vith phosphate of copper.

Malachite, or green carbonate of copper, is also frequently used for
pei-sonal decoration. Russia, where it aboimds, exhibited several magnificent
specimens of its application to objects of furniture and room decorations.
(See p. 304.)

292

THE CRYSTAL PALACE

CONTENTS;

MISCELLANEOUf^

MANUFACTURES.

STATIONERY.

•

QN tlie north side of &
western nave, near th
Fine Ai-ts Court, was tli
modest space occupied b
this important group (
manufactures, which, hn
for the attractive folding
machine of Messi'S. De ]
Rue and Co., placed at i'
portal, mighthaveescape
the scrutiny of all but tl
systematic visitor. Bool
binding occupied tl
lion's shai'e of the aliotte
ground, and paper but
very small portion. It 'r
to be regretted that oi
paper manufacturers d T
not contribute more gen T
i-ally, for. uudoubtedl '
in many descriptions t
paper we stand unrivallc J'
The number of contrit J-
tors was in reality so sma *
that, had it not been f f :
the energy of Messrs. '\ *"
nables in collecting pap( fr
ofmanyvarietiesandfrc *"'
all sources, Great Brit! J;!
would have made I: ", "
little show in comparis *'
with the productions ^'
our continental neij I'"'
boui-s. Whilst on thi-s SI ' :
ject.we must advert tol *"

^'4 advantage which woi

have resulted from ■ -•
diaplayofapapermach I ',
in operation, with all M ^
modern improvemei | :'
instead of the model I :•
hibited by the Mesi ' "
Donkin — a name, hi '
ever, which must alwi ' -
be mentioned in bono | '■'
able connection with i ' '-'
paper-making automat
Here our French breth
had the start of us, I
instead of a model, tl ![■
exhibited the paper-m - ■
ing machine of Varr !'
Middleton, and Elwel >*
a small one, it is true,* "'
not at work. Had • ''■
Messrs. Donkin avai *
themselves of the opf ' '-
tunity of showing 0D« [ ~
their paper machines * '■
full work, the pul ' - :
would have better apj' "-
ciated the importance' i'i
that art which transfoi
lugs and refuse iut'
tablet on which all
results of human kn
ledge are stored, and
for which the depend
art of printing would
useless.

In Great Britain a!(
about one hundred i
thirty million poui
weiglit of paper are an
ally manufactured — e
mated as worth upwa
of three million pom
sterling, and yielding
the, revenue 870,0i

AN ILl.USTUA'rEJ) GVCIA)l'yl-;j)lA OF Tlli; (jKKAT KXII 11:11 K)X OF 1851.

5203

. liio-tentliH of HiiH qiiuutity ai'o consiMiiuiI in tliis uoiiiitiy, tlio oxporU nut
Bfjuuting to more tlian 300,000/. ; yet tliis nolilu art waK ropruHented by
' VMijio Imlf down BntiKlt cxhibitoiM. Mr. Joynson of St. Mary Cray,
iiu McHsi-s. Spiccr exhibited a roll of paper 2,500 yards in
U ; thus proving tho perfection of the machinery which
I I tb tho wator-miHpendod pulp, flowing continuously atone

I 'f the machiuo, into an unbroken sheet of well sized writing

which comes out dried and ready fur Uoe at the other

They aluo displayed a sheet of brown paper, 93 inchf^s in

, and 420 feet in length, besides mill-boards of a now kind,

I'l'cimen reams of writing paper. Mr. Fiurdrinior exhibited

t of pottery paper, two miles and a half in length. This

1^ employed in tho potteries as a vehicle to receive tho im-

• na from the engraved plates, to bo transferred therefrom by

riiislier.s to tlio unglazed ware. Thi.s class of paper is of

Iri'M^th, and, in illustration of this, wo may mention an

U' which occurs to ue. With this paper, twisted mto a rope,

"l>rietor of one of our potteries repaired, rapidly and ciii-

\, tho broken traces of a carriage which luid conveyed a

i \ ol" friends over tho rough road leading to his works.

I I I'ourdrinicr's name must not bo pa.ssed without paying a
■ to tho memory of his spirited and energetic relatives, to
is mainly duo the perfecting of tho first crude thought of

iitinuous paper-making machine. There were likewise spe-
of pottery paper exhibited by Mr. Lamb, in connection
!ic rope used in its manufacture, and the pottery ware with
lusferred designs; and some were also contributed by Mr.
IS, of Dartford, who illustrated tho strength before alluded
suspending four half-hundred weights to a sheet only 20
ill width. We here found Dewdney's well-known blue
,. w . which is used by the starch maker to wrap up his goods,
;u « liich must sustain the ordeal of a good baking in contact
.V 1 the moist starch without losing its colour. Glazed boards,
■ 11 pressing cloths, were exhibited by Mr. Hamer, of Horse-
. :dso by Messrs. Hastings and Miller, who likewise display
wadding and brown papers. There were also brown papers
n E. Smith, of Felliugshore. We have now enumerated the
icipal objects in the plain paper section, with tho exception
;hosc sent by Messrs. Cowan of Edinburgh, and the excellent
well-arranged selection of Messrs. Venables — wliich corn-
ed, besides papers of their own make, most of the varieties
lufactured in Great Britain, with the name of each maker
minently stated. Amongst them we noticed the universally
brated drawing papers of Mr. J. Whatman and those of Mr.
irge Wilmot. There were also brown papers, in which the most
ily polished steel goods may be safely packed without fear of
t; together with tho tinrivalled plate papers of Mr. Charles
ables, and the hand papers by his relative George Venables.
)f highly-glazed and tastefully packeted writing papers, Mes.-rs.
La Rue and Co. wei'e the principal exhibitora. Some of the
el papere with water marks, invented by Mr. Oldham, and
ufaetured by Mr. Saundei-s, were placed against the glass par-
un which divides off the machinery, and they produce effects
y similar to the celebrated porcelain pictures, and will, we
diet, receive ample patronage fi-om the public. Among the
;er marks shown in the paper were some illustrations of sculp-
e from Nineveh, some Roman heads, tho Madonna and Child,
al scenery, a medallion of her Majesty, the Exhibition building,
h portraits of her Majesty and Prince Albert, a view of York
ister, and various others. The invention appears to be admir-
adapted for paper for biUik notes, and other descriptions in
ich security from fraud or forgery is desired.
Iwitzerland contributed well-made music papers, wTiting papers
;olerable quality, and white and tinted tissues, which are very
irior to those made in England. Rome sent remarkably good
wing papers, made by M. Millani ; aud Tuscany, good machine
ting papers, pelure of good quality, and laid papers, iu which
re is still room for improvement. France came out well in
in papers. The well-known Mongolfier sent excellent tinted
wing papera, tinted and white printed papers, and a very
larkable description, called " parchcmin animal" possessing
prising tenacity — so much so. that it is diifievdt to believe in
being only ordinary paper. Some of the specimens of this
ificial skin are prepared with a kind of oil varnish, which adapts
or the presei-vation of artillery cartridges, especially during the
g period of peace which it is our happiness to live in. The
:i^t^ Anonyme dii Marais (Seine et Marne) sent -specimens of
ting and printing papers, coarse papers used for the manufac-
e of paste-board, and likewise a fine sort of millboard employed
a substitute for pasted cardboard, but not possessing its
ingth and firmness. The Socidt^ Anonyme Soucle (Vosges)
t tinted writing papers, and tinted tissues, which would bear com-
iisou with the best of our English manufactures — especially the pink,
ich surpassed in beauty of colour any other that we had seen. The
inch have always been famoiLs for their tracing papers, especially those
de transparent without the use of varnishes, aud the samples here
iWted maintained their reputation. We now pause to examine more

closely the i-jilcn<lid wrililia paperM of i.acruix, wiioi-c thin p<«t miiiaii»<-K
uvuiything which wi: have Keen. The iuQiienc* which \im\ eircuiuitauccii
— Chliccially tho ppfctiil arraiigcmuut* of diOsrcut com,' • on il,i,

c'.'Uvf.d o.vbixet .^nd ql.vss. — hamsox axd. .soy-.

branch of ai't cannot be more forcibly exemplified tliau in the paper pro-
ductions of France as compared with our own. In England the aim is
generally to produce a stout paper, that the writing may not show through
on the opposite side. We certainly surpass all other countries in the
be.iutiful laid or ribbed pajiers, which the French are only now att«mpt-
iiiL,' ; whilst, on the contrary, we are far behind them in their writing

294

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

papers, as esempliSed in M. Lacroix's beautiful and almost spotless pelure
adapted to the postal laws of France.

Belgium sustained her reputation in this manufaetm-e by a single, yet
excellent, contribution from Godin and Son, exhibited in the northern
gallei-y. It was most extensive, containing rolls of packing and printing
papere, machine-made di'awing papers, and polm-e writing papers, which are
very excellent, but which do not equal the specimens of M. Lacroix.

In the northern gallery Russia exhibited some packing, printing, and
writing papers contributed by two miUs, which show that that country is
advancing, although their manufacture is still behind the Western States
of Europe. Holland sent laid papers well adapted for account books,
and likewise ^vriting papers made by Honig and Son, all good of their
various kinds ; and Van Gelder and Sons exhibit paper, blue on one side
nnd white on the other, for the use of sugar refiners.

There were several exhibitors from the different States of the ZoUverein.
We particularly notice the productions of the Mill of Dilligen, in Prussia.
They contained, among other matters, specimens of the papers produced
at these works from 1760 to 1S50, ahowiugat a glance the various improve-
ments which have taken place ; likewise a well-ai-rauged group of raw
materials, and the papers produced from them. We noticed particularlj-
straw paper of excellent quality. A short time back a mill was started in
England for manufacturing paper from straw, but the speculation does not
appear to have answered commercially.

In the section of Sweden and Norway we searched in vain for the
filtering paper so valuable to the experimental chemist, which is made
with the water resulting from the melting of the mountain snows, and is
said to be the purest of all papers. Denmark sent some vellum post of
good quality, and Ukewise machine dra'ftdng papers. India exhibited some
curious specimens of native manufacture ; that conti-ibuted fi'om Nepaul
being remai'kable for its extreme thinness and lightness.

and airiness, and an obvious endeavour to do away with all superabuudanc
of weight.

In a bay, in the main aisle, upon the south side of the building, wer
two chandeliers and several lamps, from the manufactoi-y of ilessn
Cornelius and Co., in Philadelphia. The gi-eat use of oil in the Unite
States has led to mauy improvements in lamps — especially in those upo
the solar principle, as it is called (where increased draught is made to hea

FOREIGN AND COLONIAL DEPARTMENTS.

THE UNITED STATES.
'J^'HE number of ai'ticles sent from the United States to the Exhibition was
neither what was expected of them nor, we believe, did it adequately
represent their capabilities. There were, nevertheless, many things in
their collection which presented features of peculiar interest, and which do
credit to theii- industry, ingenuity, and skUl.

Foremost anjong the articles displayed in this division of the Exhibition
were a coach, three or, four waggons, "a buggy," technically so called, and
a trotting " sulkey." We 'call these " foremost," because, both by the
prominent place they occupied, and on account of the real merit of the
vehicles themselves, they were really so. The coach — styled by the
exhibitor a "carriola" — was a very creditable piece of workmanship, of
t;ood design, apparently most thoroughly well built, and finished with groat
regard to good taste. There was nothing of the gewgaw style about it. The
colour, decorations, mountings, finish, and ornaments were all rich and neat.
The cai-vings upon it were admirably well executed, and for symmetry and
^ood keeping Lu every part, from the step of the footman to the board of tho
driver, it deserved high commendation. The wheels were much lighter than
in carriages of a similar kind in England. This is claimed as a
decided improvement. Cei-tainly the appearance of the vehicle is
improved by the absence of that bulkiness which gives a lumbering
aspect to many an English carnage ; and if the roads of our transat-
lantic brethren are not too rough to deal fairly with such wheels,
we know not why they should be considered unsafe upon English
turnpike ruads.

The other vehicles exhibited were respectively entitled a York
waggon, a Prince Albert waggon, a slide-top buggy, and a trotting
sulkey. The chief characteristic of all of these was their extreme light-
ness of weight, when compared with their size. They were richly
finished within and without, and beautifully carved; the upholstery being done
in exceedingly good taste, with constant regard to the comfort of the°rider.
.and exhibiting very considerable artistic merit in design. The wheels were
made from carefully chosen material, the joints exactly fitted, the felloes (two
in number, instead of the usual five or six, for gi-eater strength), con-
fined by a steel insertion and bolts, and the a3etrees exceedingly neat
.and .strong. It is claimed for these axletrees (an American invention)
that, in loss of friction, strength, freedom from all noise in motion, and
cleanliness, they are superior to any in England. Several of those lighter
carria'^'es are now in use in this country, and give great satisfaction ; and
several^ more of a similar manufacture have been recently ordered from
New York. Indeed, it is not difficult to understand why they should
become favourites out of London ; nor how reluctantly a lover of quick
driving would return to the heavier vehicles of city manufacture.

There were several sets of harness, both single and double, among the
articles exhibited, which deserve notice. That exhibited by Messrs. Lacey
and PhiUips, was a rich and elegant specimen of manufacture. It was made
from leather of tho first quality, and with perfect thoroughness of work.
The mountings were of solid silver, with appropriate and graceful designs.
In this, as ia all the other harness shown, there was remaikable lightness

CIIANDELIER. — SOENfiLIU.^, OF PHIL ADELPHIA.

upon the combustion) which are unknown among us. Unpretending a:
these lamps appear, it is stated that they will give an amount of light
greater by one-half than any others in u.^o. The chandeliers hanging above
them struck us as graceful specimens of workmanship, designed in "OOf
taste, and showing a crystal purity of glass. The casting was remark
able for its fineness, sharpness, and uniformity. The branches, formed h\
arabesque scrolls, profusely ornamented with birds and flowers, delicatefi
sculptured or in bold relief, with centres of richly cut glass, claim particujai
approval forthcir elegance and lightness of dt'sign. This is amongthoyoungegt
branches of manufacture in the United St.ates, it being scarcely fifteen years
since every chandelier, girandole, mantel lamp, and candelabra used in that
country was imported from Europe ; and it argues considerable enterprise
and perseverance, on the part of the manufacturers, that they have attained

AN ILLUSTllATKD GYChUI'TEDlA UF TllK (iKEAT liXlllHITKJN ()!•' 1851.

295

Hu much excellciico ns to bo willing to vio in tliu Exhibition with the oldcut
unci most celebratid lionsc.i in the world.

On till! Koulli Bido of their porticu of the building, the contributorn iVoin
th« States uxhibitod, undur tho general cliWhilication of raw material, many
very exeolh'nt spueiniens. There wore among tluro a large variety of
articles, sneh as Indian corn, ground, hulled, and in the ear; rye, oats,
bni'loy, wheat, rice, cotton, tobacco, mincrala, chomicalu, woods, brooms,
li.'.f, pork, lard, hams, and almost everything else identified with the
I'l Miluctioua of tliat country. Next in order were to bo seen daguerreotypes,
1 11 ill tings, hcrbariii, and jirints, with some samples of stainod glass suspendeil
liMiu the galleries, and cottons, carpetings, wrought quilts, ealicoos, and
iireiUework, tiiHtefuUy displayed around. C'onsidering the distance from
uliieh these had to be conveyed, not only across aOOO miles of ocean, but
ill, II from little short of that distance inland — and considering, too, that it
1 iLot in her manufactures that America makes her chief impression upon
iIm^ world —wc regard this portion of her exhibition with great interest.
In pianofortes there was a show lughly creditable to the manufacture of
musical instruments in the United .States. Pierson exhibited a seven-octave
:r;iud pianoforte; Chickoring a semi-grand, and other instruments of lesa
I ivteusion but of much merit. There wore two from the manufectory of
( Miirad Meyer, of IMiiladolphia, in neat and very unpretending casea,
I niliiuing all tho ).)est qualities of the highest rank of piiuioa. In bre.idth,
1 -I'dora, and cvi-nuess of tone, in promptness and elasticity of action, and
111 a combination of everything that is rich and sweet in this description of
nstrument, he claims to bo unsurpassed.
Among cordage, boats, oare, and models of favourite ships, wore exhibited
- " ship-ventilators, by Frederick Emerson, of Boston. These arc intended
uperscde the ordinary wind-sail now in use for sending pure air into the
• jics of ships. The inventor has given much attention to tho subject of >
■ iitilation, and his success has been honoured by several gold medals in j
Ih.' United States. How far this application of his invention may bo superior
" llie metliods nowiuu.se for the same purpose i.s uncertain. In the minds
jf sailors tiiere is always an objection to fixtures above deck, which would
)G likely to impede their general introduction.

Together with daguerreotypes, before alluded to, there were exhibited
iamera obscuras by C. C Harrison, of New York, the results of which, in
ihe pictures that hung above tliem, were exceedingly favourable. There
vere shawls from the Bay State mills, of beautiful colour and a high
)erfection of manufiicturo ; white cotton goods, which, in ble.ichiug,
inishing, and putting up, appeared equ-al to Manchester products ; some
?ery beautiful flannels, single milled doe-skins and wool-black eassimeres
)f thorough fabric ; tweeds, well mixed and of good colours ; a salamander
lafo, well made ; Newell's improved bank lock, ingenious and well executed,
which will be noticed under the head of " Locks ; ") a patent paying
nachine for pitching the seams of vessels, the box being provided with a
entricle wheel, which receives the hot melted material, and applies it
leatly, economically, ,and directly to the seam to be covered; an air
sxhausted cotEii, with glazed aperture at top ; car wheels for railroads,
rood and cork legs, clocks, watches, dentists' tools and works, India-rubber
50ods of various forms, mathematical and solar instruments, a self-deter-
nining vaiiation compass, trunks, boots and shoes, hats, specimens of
printing and bmding, together with pistols, rifles, and other weapons of
ifience and defence. Of these rifles, manufactured by Robbins and
[jawreuce, it is but just to say that they are among the best, if not the best,
)f any rifles manufactured in the world, the Americans claiming to excel
u this species of manufacture. They are made from the best selected
^opake cold blast forge iron, and are of an unpretending style, but remai'k-
,ble for a plain, substantial, and perfect finish ; tliey are strong, simple,
ind thorough in their workmanship, and eminently adapted for real service.
Holt's revolvers will be noticed in our article on " Arms and Armour."

Two bell telegi-aphs, exhibited in the central avenue, very deservedly
.ttracted much attention. The bell telegraph, otherwise called an
'annunciator," is an invention made to supersede tho awkward array of
ells in houses and hotels. It is an extremely neat and beautiful article,
md indicates whence the bell wa.s rung, by uncovering a number corre-
iponding to the number of the room ; and this, too, for any length of time
l£terwards, until, by tho touch of a spring, the number is re-covered. In
be large hotels in the United States, and in many private residences, it is
nuch used.

In the moving machinoiy department, among other objects of interest
"rom the United States, w.is a machine exhibited by Mr. Charles More}',
:alled a stone dressing machine. A machine for dressing stone by power
has long been regarded as a great desideratum, and has been the object of
many expensive, though unsuccessful experiments. One great difficulty
has been found in making the cutting tools of a quality to stand the action
of stone, unless at such cost as to render their use unprofitable. This
HlRculty is overcome by the present invention, which cousists in the
■iiiployment of chilled cast-iron burrs, or rolling cutters. Iron, as is now-
known, may, by a peculiar process of chilling in casting, be converted to a
diamond hardness, that perfectly fits it for reducing, with great facility and
economy, the surface of stone. Tho burrs made in this way retain a
sufficient degree of sharpness for a long time, .ind can be maintained at a
small cost, being wholly formed and finished in castimc. lu dressing
circular forms, the stones .are made to revolve, when the burrs, which are
mounted in sliding rests, are brought into action. For straight surfaces,
however, the stones are laid upon a transverse bed, and the cutters,
mounted upon a revolving cylinder, are placed above them. Tho burrs or

euttera itro so arranged an to turn freely on their axiu when brouKlit in
contact with tho stone, and an they roll over it, they cniuli it away in tho
form of scales and dunt. By varying tho shapo and arrangcmeut of tho
burrs, ornamental surfaces may be produced.

Aiiiong the agricultural iinplemoiitH exhibited which claim the attention
of iigrieulturiHts particularly, aro reaping nmchincii, plougliB, cultivator*,
fan mills, and Hiiiut machines. Tho American reapers are worked by a
single span of horses abreast, with a driver and a man to rako olT the grain
as it is cut down by movoable knives. On land frco from obstructionH,
tliese reapers will cut from twelve to twenty acres of wheat in a day,
ilepending soiuewliut upon the speed of tho horses and tho stato of the
giain. Tho grain is left in a proper condition for the binders, who follow
after tho maehine, and the grain is cut quite as clean as by any other
method, either by the sickle or the cradle. M'Connick's Virginia reaper
(already described by us), is in very general use, 1,800 machines having,
wo Relieve, boon sold in tho United States iu I80O. Hussy's reaper (also
already described by usi, is in general u-ic, and operates remarkably
well. These implements will enable the farmer to gather his crop
in a very short time, securing the wheat and other grain at the very
time it is iu proper condition for harvesting, thus avoiding the alternative
to which ho is now obliged to resort, of harvesting a portion of his field
before fully ripe, and a portion after it is too ripe to make the best flour.
In point of economy they aro very important, reducing tho expense very
much from that of tho ordinary methods. In a climate as variable as that
of Great Britain, the importance of these reaping machines must be
appai'ent — enaliling the farmer often in a single day to secure a crop which
otherwise might be materially injured by the unfavourable state of the
weather.

The ploughs exhibited are of various sizes, and adapted to various
purposes, but have been already described. The cultivators exhibited
appeared to be convenient and useful implements, at very moderate prices.
The fan mills for cleaning grain aro believed to possess some properties
which are not found in those generally used — cleaning grain which is damp
most perfectly. The smut machines exhibited were made of iron, very
compact, very durable, easily repaired, and warranted to clean from l.'i
bushels to 150 bushels per hour, according to tho size of the machine.
These implements arc in very general use in the United States and iu
Canada, and are worthy tho attention of all wlio are engaged in milling
grain.

ARCUrrECTURAL liEDALS. — BV WIENER.

M. Wiener, of Brussels, exhibited a very interesting collection of medals,
with views of cathedrals and other public buildings in Belgium. That
which we engrave (p. 300) is of the Exchange at Li^ge, formei-ly the bishop's
palace.

CARVED CABINET AND GLASS. — BY HANSON AND SONS.

Amongst the choice and beautiful specimens of carving produced by British
skill, we noticed, as especially calling for praise, a very elegant commode
or cabinet, by Hanson and Sons. In form it is well adapted both for utility
and ornameut, with considerable originality of outline. The carvings on the
cabinet represent a wild boar hunt, which reminds one of the fire and
energy of Sny ders. On the frame of the glass .are a number of birds, very
naturally designed : the wary hawk securing his prey, the chattering jay.
the cunning magpie, the twittering ^vren, the swift m.ortin, the welcome
cuckoo, the warbling blackbird, the lonely bittern, and the light and graceful
egret, are all wrought with gi-eat accuracy of character and most delicate
detail. (See p. 293.)

JEWELS. — BT HUNT AND HOSKELL.

In a former number we gave an engraving of the magnificent diamond and
ruby stomacher exhibited by Messi-s. Morel in the Crystal Palace ; and in
the present sheet we give several specimens from the costly and elegant
assortment exhibited by Messrs. Hunt and Roskell. Tlie principal and
all-attractive object in the group is a magnificent diamond bouquet, exhibited
as a specimen of the art of diamond setting. The flowers (comprising the
anemone, rose, carnation, &c.) are modelled from nature. This brilliant
structure divides into seven different sprigs, each perfect m design ; and
the complicated flowers, by mechanical contrivances, sepai'ate for the
pm-pose of effectual cleaning. In the production of this costly work nearly
6000 diamonds have been employed, the largest of which weighs upwards
of ten carats, whilst some of the smallest, in the stamens of the flowers,
would not exceed the thousandth part of a eaiat. (See p. 289.)

The next object of importance is an ornament for the head, composed
of branch coral, ornamented by leaves of enamel and gold, enriched \vitli
diamonds — a very elegant production, of chaste effect.

At the sides were several brooches, bracelets, and other ornament-s,
eni'iched with diamonds and other precious stones ; not tho least curious
amongst them being some specimens of ear-rings in emeralds, diamonds,
carliuncles, &c., after the sculptui'es from Nineveh. ' (See p. 291.)

296

THE CRYSTAL PAXACli.AND ITS CONTENTS;

THE EHENBOBOUOH
PLATE.

Amongst the magnifi
cent works in silve
exhibited, by thehousi
of Hunt and Roskell
the service of plate (o;
portions of one) pre
sented to the Earl o
Ellenborough, by hi
Lordship's friends ii
India, occupied a pro
minent position, ant
commanded attention
on account not onl;
of the beauty of thi
compo.^itions them
selves, but the histo
ricial events which the;
commemorate. Th^
principal object is ai
ornament for the centr
of the table, of massiv.
monumental charactei
surmounted by twi
tigurps, typifying Asi:
crowning Britannia
The basid velieTi presen 1 1
four subjects — the ra
tification of the treat;
of Nankin, and view
of Calcutta, Cabul, ani
Canton. On the basi
are figures of Affghai
and Chinese captives
and of a British sepoj
The ai'chitecture is o '
Indian character, em
beUished with palmF i
and supported by re i
cumbent elephants.

! NEW PATTERN' FOK DIN I
i NER PLATE. — FBL'

' AMD CO.

; On the opposite page i
I a patteni of a ne^
; dinner plate of commoi
[ earthenware, oontri
': buted by Mes.srs, Fel
and Co., St. Peter
Pottery, Newcastle
upon - Tyne. It wa:
devised at the New
castle School of Design
and is called " th«
cinque-cento Queen anc
Prince Albert pattern.'
The ornament.ition is
very beautiful per se
Italian in style, the
scroll-work of the rim '
being extremely light i
and gi-acefuL The de-
corations of the centre
arc highly ambitious,
and are finished with
care, but we doubt if
they will ever become
so popular as many
old patterns. The eye
should not be tasked
to a too critical obser-
vation of details, in a
vessel of daily require-
ment, more particu-
larly when its use is to
minister to the craving
of .nnother organ of
sense, whose claims for
the moment should lie
paramount. Neverthe-
les-s, we would by no
means discourage the
enterprising spirit

which has led to the
production of this ver^.

AN ILLUSTRATE) CYCLOI'.KDIA OF Till'; ORKAT KX IIIIHTION OK Ih:,

VOBK, AND SPOON.

te_ piece of ooraposition ; the sime industry and expense applied

simpler subject may be happier in its results. It remains to

p. 3d of the colouring, that the ground of the circular parts is ver-

and painted by hand ; in other respects it would not be a co.^tly

i'ltW PATTERN FOR DINNEU PLATE. — FELL AND CO.
11'

KNIFE. PORK, AND SPOON. — BT L-iMBERT AND RAWLINGS.

i Whilst Messrs. Fell and Co. try to improve our appetite for dinner by the
introduction of a new plate. Messrs. Lambert and Rawlings present us with
aknife, fork, .and spoon, of novel and fanciful device, emblematic respectively
offish, flesh, and fowl, three out of the "four elements" (vegetable alone
being unrepresented) of which the humblest repast and the most rcciierche
combinations of the rnisine consist. They will bear and repay inspection—
between the course.=i. Messrs. Lias also exhibit a specimen of table pl.ate
of a simpler fashion, ornamented with a handsome scroll, and which thev
consider may form au acceptable substitute for the old " fiddle " pattern. "

DAMASK COMMUNIOS CLOTH— PEGLER.

298

THE CRYSTAL i-ALAOE AND ITS CONTENTS

TEXTILE MANUFACTURES.

FLAX.
r)Pthe various maaufactures illustrative of tlie industry aud resources of this
country which were collected in the Great Exhibition, there were none-
cotton not excepted— which deserve a large amount of attention, or which
were more interesting as connected with our national prosperity, than the
display of oui- linen manufactm-es. The deficient supply of the raw
material for our textile manufactures has tended at the present time to
cause a deeper interest than formerly to be felt m the progress of this im-
portant staple branch of our mdustry ; and this feeling has led to a closer and
more minute inquiry into the structure of the flax plant, and its capability
for adapting itself, either alone or iu combination with other fibres, to the
production of new and improved fabrics. The results of these inquiries
;md researches have been to give a greatly increased importance to every-
thing relating to the gi-owth, preparation, and manufacture of flax.

One of the most impq;-tant points in connection with the linen mauufac-
tui-e of this country is tliat the raw material may be produced with profit
and advantage by our own agriculturists ; indeed, from first to last, it is
one which may be carried on quite independently of the precarious
supplies of foreign countries. The objections which were formeriy en-
tertained to the gro^vth of flax, for its supposed deteriorative or exhaustive
properties, have, in consequence of the discussions which have recently taken
place on the subject at the meetings of the council of the Royal Agricultural
Society, together with the published results of the experience of many of
our most enterprising agriculturists, been completely removed. There is
also every prospect that, with the removal of the difficulties hitherto
attendant on its preparation for sale— by means of processes which will be
hereafter alluded to— the remaining objections to the cultivation of the
flax crop will be shortly added to that formidable list of prejudices and
objections which have been made to disappear before the progress of
linowledge and science. The effect of these objections, however, as shown
in the n°egleet or refusal of our agriculturists to devote any considerable
oortion of their land to flax culture, has not been without its .serious
effects alike upon the producer and consumer of the article. In the one
case, the farmer has lost the profits and advantages which he would other-
wise have derived from its culture, and he has become dependent upon the
■supply of foreign countries for one of the most indispensable articles of his
cattle food, which he might have obtained from his own soil ; while, upon
the other hand, the manufacturer has been cramped for the want of raw
material, and has been compelled to purchase it of foreign countries at
higher prices, and m a condition which, in many cases, has been unsuitable
for his purposes. . . ,

The consumption of flax in this country for manufacturing and agrieul-
rural purposes has been for the last twenty years rapidly increasing ; and
almost in the same proportion in which the skill and enterprise of the
manufacturer have augmented the demand, the supply from home sources
has dimmished. The quantity imported in 1S31 was 936,411 cwts. ; iu
13-11, 11,310,84.3 c\vt3.; in 1S4.5, 1,418,323 c%vts. ; and iu 184!) it amounted
to 1,806,783 cwts., or nearly double that of 1831. Official returns show
that a sum of not less than nine millions is at present annually paid to the
importers of foreign flax, and of oil-cake formed from it.

For a long period the linen trade of Ireland was fostered by consider-
able bounties, which but a few years smce were entirely removed ; and,
although subjected to severe competition with other countries, and havmg
a duty°of 40 per cent, imposed upon their productions by their former
largest consumer— France— the Irish manufacturers have not only kept
their ground, but have made a progress proportionably equal to any which
had been made in the cotton trade. If we compare tlie prices of hnen in
1832, when the home market was secured to the manufacturer, and m
which year the bounty system ceased, with the prices iu 1849, they will
show a reduction of neai-ly 60 per cent. The same quality which in 1832,
sold for Is. id. per yard, sold for &\d. in 1849, and that which had
brought 2s. 5d. was sold for Is. 3irf. Passing from the manufactm-e of
linens to cambric handkerchiefs — a branch of industi-y which has made
the most rapid progi-ess in Ireland— we shall find upon comparing the
prices of the same periods, a reduction during the fifteen years from J 833
to 1848, of about 60 per cent. ; and in the ten year.9, 1838—48, of 47 per
cent. Thus, cambric liandkerchiefs which sold in 1833 for 8s. Zd. per
dozen, and for 7.s\ in 1838, sold for 2s. lOd. in 1848; while, in the best
qualities, we find that those which sold for 353. per dozen iu 1833, sold for
28s. in 1838, and for 18s. in 1848.

This reduction in price has been mamly effected in the spinning process
—the old mode of liand spinning havmg been very generally superseded
by steam power. The reduction iu price of linen yarns during this period,
as compared with cotton, has been nearly 40 per cent, iu favour of the
former ; and it would appear that the time is not for distant when the
linen manufacturer will be enabled to produce from flax a fabric cheaper
and more durable than can be obtained from cotton. Notwithstanding,
liowever, the great decrease in price which has taken place in linen, still
tlie consumers of this country are benefited by it to a comparatively small
extent, for by far the greater proportion of the linen manufactured is ex-
ported to foreign coiiutries. That which was formerly a

domestic

branch of industry, the material of which was grown, spun, and wo ||
the people of this country, has now, to a great extent, become a f( i,
one relying upon the raw produce of, and exporting the finished fabr
foreign countries. The reason of this is to be found iu the dimiuishe( i
at which cotton fabrics can be suppUed to the consumer.

The anomalous position m which the linen manufacturer is placed— en
ill", as he does, a raw material which can be produced at less than f-:
oi"the price at which cotton can be profitably imported, and yet . .i
the home consumer to pay more than double the price of cotton for tli.
produced from it— is a subject to which we are happy to see that c.v
able attention has lately been .paid. This great mcrease of pn
iuiurioua to the extended employment of linen, is m.ainly to be tr.n
tlie employment of inefficient and expensive processes in its prepai
stages of manufacture, to which we shall have occasion more partn
to refer when noticing the specimens of the flax in its various .^ti'
manipulation. All that appears to be wanted, in order to iucrc:i
consumption of linen to an almost inconceivable extent, and to in
a most valuable auxiliary to our cotton manufactures, is some efficin
economical mode of preparmg the fibre. Mr. G. R. Porter, of the Bu
Trade iu au excellent paper, read before the British Association at i
meeting in Edinburgh, on the statistics of the cotton trade, refer,
the advantages of increased flax culture and manufacture, said—" It
not be for a moment imagined that tliis subject is brought forwar
any desire of fostering or encouraging one branch of manufacture
expense of any other. The object in view is, in fact, the very opp
such a desire, and springs from the msh to preserve m its condition ol
perity and progi-ess one of the chief sources of employment fo
continually-gi-owing numbers, without in auy way interfering wit
other branch of industry. It is hoped that the means here indicate
be found efficacious for meeting the difficulties that now tlireat .
obstruct the course of the cotton manufacture, without interfenii( I
or creating difficulties for the linen mauufacture, by transfemug u 1
the labour now bestowed upon one material to the conversion of the I
This could not be accomplished, if tlie production of flax were, hk I.
of cotton, iu any great degree dependent upon the accidents of the sea; »
one particular country— a disadvantage from which the cultivation . t
has always been free, while, of late, the obstacle which, morally, at 1
stood iu the way of its extensive production in the United Kmgdo i
been made to disappear from our statute-book. The adoption of t
au auxiliary, by our cotton manufacturers could not work any injury i
Imen trade, smce it would only make good the deficiency, if and
should arise, in the production of cotton fabrics." | -

CAMBRICS. ^ \

The cambric trade of Ireland h.as improved from time to ti :
such an extent, that for some years past it has been questionable w ,
or not the largest amount of those productions sold at English mar
French cambrics are not produced in Ireland. In the article of ] . ■
handkerchiefs alone, it is quite certain that many tons' weight per
of unbleached Irish cambric finds its way to France for the pui i
bleaching ; but it is a singular fact, that it never appears to be re
when that operation is effected. It will, of course, be readily unde
that, in a delicate fabric like this, the peculiar atmospheric advantaf i
country like France would be invaluable in the bleaching process; bi
the operation constitutes the manufacture of the article, is a species (
we have never yet been able to comprehend. In short, it seems
clear, that French cambrics are generally made in the north of I
The exhibition of this article was confined to three or four exhibitor
J. Malcolm, Lurgan, Ireland, showed beautiful specimens of linen, c.<
and clear lawns, as also shirt frontings, and hem stitclied handkei
all being of a very superior quaUty. Messrs. J. and T. Richardson,
Lurgan, exhibited cambric handkerchiefs, printed and plain, the
being neat and elegant. Mr. John Henning, of Waringstown, Co.
exhibited lai-gely in cambrics, particularly laches' dresses, many f,
are tasteful and appropriate.

PLAIN IRISH LINENS.
Little need be said on the qualities of the examples of this
and beautiful article, since description as to these points is iinp(
We remarked a very beautiful selection of linens of all qualitiei
bited by Messrs. Sadler, Fenton, and Co., Belfast. These were
superior character, according to quality, and were tastefully dis]
both individually and as a whole ; nor should the specimens shown
Jonas Wilks, Watling-street, London, and Mr. Sadler, Ironmonge
London, be passed by. Each was complete in itself, and contamea
excellent examples of this staple mauufocture of the north of li
There were many other English exhibitors in this department, Di
cannot enumerate them all.

LINEN DAMASKS.
The manufacture of linen damasks has been eaiTied to a great eil
the north of Ireiaud, and its future development is likely to bell
by increased attention to design as applicable thereto. The mventiW
and genius of the Irish people in mattei-s of taste have never been^
tioned ; its direction to useful and profitable purposes may now be '
to account, if the past be taken as any basis for probabilities 0.9
future. With the patronage bestowed on the higher class of dama-
cau scarcely fail to be the case ; the great object, however, will >■

A\ iLI.USTKATEI) CYCLOl'^JUIA OF THK GRKAT KXlllHITlON OF 1851.

299

the talent and opportunity aro piopurly nscd, und tlmt tlie ancient
ution of tho district i.i suutainod in itu cumputitiuii with lUu produc-
ul" (itiicr counLrios.
' 'laiuualc linen trade was first introduced with lull and coniploto

tlio lato Mr. 'Williani Coulson, of Lisburu, about 1768, and. from
to tlio present time, tUe businoHS lias boon carried on by bis

I its at that phicc, and has spread itself to other places, and it jjow

■ of tho ."(taplo trades of Belfast.
—I I '.<ul-ou9, William and James, both of Lisbuni, but distinct houHe.s,
ited a very excellent selection of diimas!<s. Mr. James Coulaon's
oth extensive imd highly creditable to his skill and enterprise ; nor
we be too sevoro if tlio taste was not always imoxceptionable, since
fa^uc and indolinito notions cxlit as to tho proper decorations of
ilonrod fabrics of all kinds. Tho larger elotlm were bold :md efleetive
atmeut; but the drawing was by no means so good as it might bo.

bust of hor Majesty was tho ruin of the whole in an artistic Bcnsc. What
eartlily uso can it be to weave a portrait in the centre of a tablecloth, at
tho very point, too, where it is usual to place the lar«ciit disli or the ;;rcat
ornament of tlio table, apart from tlie consideration that «ueh portrait can
only pretend to bo n nicro shadow of a likeness. This mania for weaving
tlie human form divino is a mistaken notion derived from the French :
boeau.'ie they sometimes try their ,^kill in triumplu of art, as producible by
tho loom 08 specialties, and commit the error of introducing tl.c figure
whore it has no business to bo introduced, our manufaeturen pcizo upon
til'; exc('ption and proceed to make it the rule, because it leems somotbing
wonderful in tlieir eyes to bo able to do it.

Mr. William Ivinnis exhibited excellent bleached sampltm of diun»j<ks,
having none of these high pretensions. Vjut good in design, because they are
to the point. Mr. Kiunis also exhibited a beautiful speciDioa woven from
China grass, spun by Mc-srs. Marsh.iU, of Leeds. The silky texture and

s, too. a eon.sider.ablo amount of crowding together of all sorts 1 clear colour of this cxam|)lo were worthy of special notice.

ibloms, lieraUlie, national, aad nllegorieal. Several of tho smaller

iloths were of superior ehai-acter in this resjiect.

William Coulsou's tU.splay was also a satisfactoiy one in a monufiie-

point of view. The cloths were admirably made, and, ou tho whole,
isigus wcro executed witli greater skill than the taste in which they
nceived is legitimate. Tlie napkins woven on linen and silk wi-ro
iffectivc, but the napkin with the figure of Britamiia with tho gvuis
'umpets would liave becu better if tlicso had been left out.
Michael Andrews, of Ardoyno, near Belfast, sustained his reputation

not very extensive exposition ho made of the higher quality of

Messrs. William Hunt anil Son showed excellent examples, both of
damask table-liucu and table-covers. The bold and eifeotive character of
one example of the former is unquestionable, and we should be glad to see
similar jiatterns produced in tho various styles of ornament, or in the repro-
duction of natural types, ratlier than those very strangedooking examples
of arabesque decorations in which deer-stalking and castles form the pro-
minent patterns. Buildings in linen are absurd, and woven in linen .is
decorations are certainly to be avoided by every one having any pretension
to correct artistic taste. Tlie cloth with the Etrxiscan centre is very good,
-. - u i ., - except that the border does not agree in style. ^Vhy should it not do go,

ks, for which his house has been so long noted. His double damasks I if the designer knew wliat he w.is about?
■brics of great excellence, and in many respects the patterns ai-e '■ The display of Mr. Erskine Beveridge completed tho contributions from
elected. His cloth, which ha calls tlie "Exhibition patteni," is on 1 Dunfermline. Tho -vine pattern, exhibited by him, wa* e.specially noticeable
ole well and efi'eetively designed. It is not too much crowded with I for its true geometric and ornamental treatment. The napkin was quite a
and the ejfeet tolls well, being distinct and to the purpose. The .gem. There were two or three cloths of the classic school, very excellent a=

don pattern, a large and costly example, is a specimen of Irish
manufacture, prepared for tlie lloyal Flax Improvement Society
fast, as pai-t of a testimonial to the present Lord Lieutenant of
", a.i a mai'k of tho estimation in which his services ai-e held in the

in the promotion of flax cultivation and the general improvement
ustry. This example is a very excellent one of the heraldic school,
t running into the extremes of which we have complained, in the
ading of emblems and msignia ; the introduction of the ghamroek
e flax plant being remarkably jirctty and eii'ective.
John Heuning, of Waringstown, exhibited very largely. Some of
laller table damasks were especially noticeable for their elegance,
e taste in wliieli they are designed. There was no attempt at too
and that which has been aimed at has been realised. The drawing

patterns, too, is correct and artistic. In the lai-ger examples, we
ed tlie tault already complained of in others — biingins; together
ts which would have been better avoided. The " Portland vase"

is admirable as a specimen of weaving. The ornamental portion,
well arranged and appropriate ; but the vase is out of place, and so

bas-reliefs. These are not fittiug decorations for textile fabric.s,
ould be avoided. Tho Moresque or Alhambra design has some
ut points and is eSective as a whole, the border being especially

The Egyptian design is not Egyptian in style, since th.it is geome-
aper-work ; and the Gothic design is a mistake in principle ; the
icle-work of a cathedral is not the type to adapt to weaving. Mr.
ig should pay more attention to these points, since he ITSis shown
\y of his examples what he can do if his means are properly
d.

IS. J. N. Eichardson, Sons, and Owdiu, of Belfast, showed some very
r examples, but several were disfigured by these unmeaning irregu-

iu design. The bleached specimens were noticeable for their
I, which is remarkably glossy, and for the clearness of their colour,
masks of Messi-s. John Brown and Son, of Waringstown, Banbridge,
ticeable, in many points, for the character of the design, as being
onsistent with the artistic effects requii-ed by this mateiial.
rs. Crawford and Lindsay, of Banbridge. and Messrs. Corry, Blain,
,, may justly be reviewed at once, since it is quite evident that the
roportion of the articles they exhibited are the same, or nearly so.
ith exhibited by the former had some excellent points, the ce'ntre

uliai'ly effective in design, as, indeed, is the whole cloth, except
wer-baskets at the corners. In the other examples by these two
le weaving is very superior ; the drawing of the objects with which
e decorated is also very good, but then those objects are not the
■teones for textile decoration — vases and baskets being used for
aping of fruits and flowers. Still it is only right to say, that they

worse than their neighbours in this respect ; we only regret that
le else does not do better,
whole, there was much to be satisfied with in the display of talent
.ustry made from the North of Ireland.

SCOTCH DAMASKS.
liRMUNE is, of course, the great representatire of this department of
~ture as pursued in Scotland, and it worthily sustained its old
ibn, alike in the white as in coloured damasks.
)avid Bin-ell, Dunfermline and London, exhibited some admirable
IS pf table-linen. The bordei-s were well designed, and the whole
ily di-awn and woven ; but a mistake, in an attempt at a profile

specimens of inaimfacture, and admirable, too, for the skill di.s'played in the
drawing, and weaving, but, as already stated, figures and buildings are out
of place in these fabrics. The bust portrait of Prince Albert in the centre
of another example only served to deteriorate that which otherwise would
have been one of the best examples of its el.iss in the Exhibition.

.In stating that Jlr. Eeveridge's display completed that of the Dunfermline
contributors, we overlooked tlie fact that Messrs. Dewar and Sons, though
a Ixmdon firm, are also manufacturers at that place, and accordingly exhi-
bitetl in that capacity as well as represented the Loudon house. The
examples were beyond all praiso as specimens of weaving, and a.s efforts in
design, they also deserve recognition : but the fact that they are injured
by the introduction of figures, which, in reality, have no relation to the pur-
pose of the article decorated, is an objection which we have so frequently
m-ged, that it is scarcely worth while to refer to it again.

The examples exhibited by Mr. Charles Pegler, of Leeds, would appear to
be both of Irish and Scotch manufacture, since in that described as manu-
factured for Mrs. Fox, of Bramham Park, we find the border exactly the
same as the one exhibited by Messrs. Dewar with the stag in the centre.
This orontaius the armorial bearings of the above lady, to individualise it.
Again, the. double damask made for the Rev. Charles Wheelei-, has a centre
similar to those exhibited by Messrs. Corey, Blain, and Co., and Jlessi-s.
Crawford and Lindsay. This, then, was a joint-stock vase and flowers, a.o
it appeoi-ed to be the property of several. Altogether Mr. Pegler's display
was a very good one. The cloth manufactured for the Earl of Harewood,
as also that for the mess of the Royal Horse Guards, ai'e highly creditable to
his enterprise. The communion cloth (p. 297), beautifully as it is woven, is
spoiled by the chai'acter of the ornamentation, or rather that which should
have be;en ornamentation. Pictures are not propei'ly emblems, but repre-
sentations : the only emblems here of the Lord's Supper are the vine and
the corn ; these are very properly introduced, but tho pictm-e is wrong in
principle, and absurd in practice, costing more to do than a thoroughly
effective and properly di-awn ornament would do, and yet giving no result.
FOREIGN LINENS.
We now proceed to a brief notice of foreign linens ; and it must be
remembered that Flanders was the original seat of this trade in western
Europe, and that the manufacture was brought to this country from the
Flemish seat of manufacture and from Holland, the favom'able climate of
Ireland having been soon discovered as likely to be of more than ordinary
importance to the manufocturer, who in the eai'liest times was at once the
grower, preparer, spinner, and weaver of the raw material raised by him-
self The revocation of the Edict of Nantes was, as in the case of the silk
trade, one of the great causes of the successful establishment of the linen
trade in gi'eat Britain and Ireland : and in the latter counti-y, the Earl of
Strafford had. prior to that event, brought some workmen from France and
Flanders, and erected looms for the purpose of working up the raw mate-
rials raised from the superior seed he had previously imported.

The state of the manufacture in the countries whence we derived our
trade in linens does not appeal' to be in so flourishing a condition as might
have been expected, under the pressm-e of the great movement now going
on in favour of mauufactures ; since, possessing all the facilities for raising
the raw material and all the traditionary knowledge of its preparation,
it might have been expected that more would have been done.

BELGIUM.
The damasks exhibited by IL P. Verriest, of Courtrai, were of a coarse
but effective character, such as would be used for every-day use. M. C.

300

rX i ''I (

THE CRYSTAL VALACE AND ITS CONTENTS

Dujardin, also of Courtrai, exhibited napkins of very fair design, one being
a specimen of that kind of weaving against which we have pronounced so

strongly, since it represents,
or is intended to represent,
the King of the Belgians on
horseback. M. T. Dommer,
of Alost, exhibited speci-
mens of excellent character
in weaving and respectable
design, the portions of orna-
ment being good ; but, as
usual, the weaving of the
human figure comes in to
mar the excellence. This
exhibitor showed some cam-
bric handkerchiefs of good
quality. M. B. Hauseus-
Hans, of Vilvoide, contri-
buted examples of a similar
character, to which the same
remarks may be applied.
The bleached examples were
admirable.

There were one or two
other exhibitors from Bel-

ABCHITECinKAL MEDAL.-
BBUGES.

-WIENEK OF

gium who exhibited coai'se and serviceable damasks
and diapers of good character, the design being gene-
I'ally very fair.

AUSTRIA.

The Count Harrach, of Janowitze, Moravia, and
Starkenback, Bohemia, exhibited very excelleut ex-
amples of linen furnitures, the designs of which were
generally appropriate, being woven in a variety of
colours, but all of such a character as to suit the
material. The adaptations to hangings and window-
curtains were well managed, and our manufacturers
may take a hint therefrom, which with taste and skill
may become useful to them. The bleached examples
of the small cloths and napkins were excellent, and
the taste in design far above the average of this
kind of goods. The printed examples, too, wero
novel and well executed.

The Benevolent Society of Milan exybited bold and
effectively designed coarse damasks, and there were
some excellent linen ginghams exhibited by John
Lang, of Vienna.

From Ullersdorf, near Schonberg, Moravia, there
were presented some specimens of raited flax,
whilst Russia largely exhibited the raw
material, aa well as hemp, and speci-
mens of cloth of a coarse but varied
quality manufactured therefrom.

ZOLLVEREIN.

The states of the ZoUverein dis-
played some admirable specimens of
flax manufactured in various forms, the
coloured specimens being of a novel
and excellent cha-
racter. M. Kauff-
man Schweidnitz,
exhibited co-

loured damask for
hangings exceed-
ingly well de-
signed, chiefly in
stripes. Christian
Dierig, Langen-
bielau, in Silesia,
also exhibited
Jacquard woven
damasks in stripes,
the patterns and
colours of which
are well select-
ed; indeed, some
of the designs
are peculiarly
elegant and ap-
propriate and in
great variety.

A. H. C. Wes-
termann and Sons,
Bielefield, exhi-
bited a good assortment of bleached damasks and diapers of good cha-
racter, the designs being occasionally very elaborate and elegant. The
display of the larger examples shown by this house was a very effective

one. The designs were generally broad, bold, and artistic, and when I
tempted to get into the routine course in the introduction of animals, t
whole were in excellent taste.
The Byzantine design was ad-
mirable, and the heraldic por-
tions of one or two remarkably
clear and effective.

Erben Anton Eichholt, of
Warendorf, Westphalia, showed
small cloths, all of which were
excellent specimens of weav-
ing : the borders were admirably
drawn and designed, and were
perfect models for our designers
of damasks. The centres of
these cloths, however, were ar-
chitectural representations of
Cologne cathedral, and Scott's
monument at Edinburgh. They
were drawn and woven with
wonderful precision, but had
no business to be executed in
such a fabric.

On the whole, the display of
linen damasks was an interest-
ing, though by no means an attractive t
and the probabilities are, that thousands 1
visited the Exhibition who never though
worth wbUe to look at any of the examples,
in no department was there more skill and ta
displayed than in these unostentatious prod
of the loom.

ORN.VMENT.iL SLATE TABLE. — MAGSl
ASD CO.

.■■•Si

BEONZE rorXTAIN. — JABEZ JASIES.

laid table-tops, chimney-pieces, candelabra,
purposes to which this useful, novel,
applicable.

MAGNUS'S WORKS IN ENAMELLED SL.

Among the numerous interesting mi:

manufactures in the British department ol

Great Exhibition, there were few, perl

which attracted more general attention than

various elegant articles in enamelled ^

Foreign visitors especially appeared struck

surprise to find representations of their

costly marbles so perfectly faithful to natu

to be with difficulty distinguished from in

itself ; and even with a placard attached t ■

articles, stating that they were of slate, i'

difficult for some of the visitors to believ

fact On the ground of novelty enamelled

stands imrivalled, for, until the last few >

the uses of .slate were limited I

roughest purposes. An occa-

piece had indeed been smoi.'

painted, and varnished in the

of tea-trays, and ornamented w

flower or bird in the Birmin;

fashion ; but it remained foi^

Magnus to display its full cap

ties and to adapt it to its pr

vai-ied purpose;

persediug in a
measure the u
foreign marble?
thus opening
wide field of
ploy ment for n
artists. Anion;
articles disp"
were a portion
bath-room, in v
representation!
porphyry, lapi
zuli, giallo ai
and other ma
and rare stones
introduced wi
plea-singandar
effect. A col
and v.ase of
phyry— -a spit
billiard - table,
legs and fran
which, as wel
the bed, an
slate ; several
&c. — served to show the i
and interesting inventio

AN IliLUSTKATKI) GYGLOIVKUIA 01' Till-; GREAT KXIIIIJITION OF 1851

30.2

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

FLUTES, VIOLINS, &d.
TT has ofteu been a question — and one which ivould be mo.st interesting
to solve satisfactorily — whether the Bute, so popular among the Greeks
and Romans and other nations of antiquity, was the same in form as the
German or transverse flute of the present day; there are no con'ect data
on which to form a direct answer to the question. AVe have no instruments
of the kind handed down to us, nor any sculptured representation
answering to the description, for the musical instruments, as well as the
music of the ancients, are enveloped in almost impenetrable mystery. It
is true, that, on some Roman tesselated pavement, there was discovered
the representation of a young man playing on an instrument similar to
the flute, held transversely to the mouth ; and, we have heard, there is an
antique statue of a fawn, with a pipe, in the same position ; but we have
no means of proving this was the fliite of the ancient Greeks. When the
flute is spoken of by the Greek and Latin authors, it is evident not a single
instrument, but a class of instruments is alluded to. If we were, however,
to hazard im opinion on the subject, we should be inclined to hold with
those who believe that the flute of the ancients was open at both ends, and
held perpendioulai-ly when played. We are strengthened in this opinion
by the fact of there beuig right and left-handed flutes, .and that they
differed in tone, and were employed under various circumstance, according
to the chai'acter of the music, wliether solemn or lively, grave or gay. The
right-handed flutes gave the basii, and the left-handed the treble notes :
they were often played alternately, and it will at once be perceived, that
while it would be perfectly possible to play right and left-handed flutes
held perpendicularly, and to change them with facility, it would be
exceedingly awkward and diificultto do the same thing with the instrument
held transversely. How far this inference helps to decide the question,
we must leave to be determined by others ; but that the flute was held in
the highest estimation by the Greeks and Romans, and that it was their
most important musical instrument, there can be no doubt. Prizes were
contended for by the most celebrated performers at the Olympian and
other games; the professors and teachers of the instrument realised
handsome fortunes, and Hved iu a style of the greatest luxury and
extravagance. There were also colleges of flute-players, and bauds of fifty
and 100 pei-formers. Among the Grecian and Roman ladies there were
also several celebrated playei's, and. like the pianoforte at the present d.ay,
it was considered an indispensable accomplishment among the highly
educated and fashionable. It was also the principal musical instrument
employed in the sacred services of the temples. Even Senophon thought
it not unworthy of him to give his advice to professors ; and to a young
man who did not meet with the patronage he desired, he recommends " to
take a large house mid live in great style, that he may be thotiijhta, first-rate
performer."- This advice, how to make a reputation, is often enough acted
upon in the present day, much to the hurt of the really clever and honest
professor; and this branch, at least, of the art, or rather arts, of the
musician seems to have undergone little change since the hi.storiau of Cyrus.

We must now turn to the flutes in the Great Exhibition ; but first we
will give a glance at the improvements introduced by Biihm of Munich.

M. Bbhm produced his first flute in 1832; but it was brought into
general notice by the Academy of Sciences at Paris, who, on its being
brought before them, with the ready attention to scientific improvement
which characteiTses that distinguished body, at once named a commission
to inquire into its merits, whose report was unanimously in its favour, and
who at once recommended its adoption iu the Conservatoire of Paris in
preference to the old flute. Had it not been fur this favourable report, and
the alacrity with which every improvement in art or science is taken up
■n the Continent, we are afraid the flute of Bohm would have been long
ere it found its way into geueral use, and would have had an overwhelmin"
amount of prejudice to contend against, prejudice of the woi-st kind, namely,
that founded in ignorance.

The improvements in Bijhm's first flute consisted ui the correct
distribution of the holes at equal relative distances, aud in makiug them of
equal sizes. This was effected by following out the principle on which a
single note is produced, and applying it to the production of others. Our
readers will at once understand this, by considering that any tube of a
certain given length and diameter will, when sounded, give out a certain
note of a certain pitch. Assume that note to be C natural, by cutting ofi a
proportionate quantity of the tube the tone is sharpened, aud C sharp can
be produced ; by again cutting off the same quantity, you get the next note
higher, aud so on until the octave is completed. Instead, however, of
shortening the tube iu the flute, and other instrument of the kind, holes
are bored at the same distances that the tube would be shortened, which
answers the same pui-pose. Now, supposing the diameter of the tube to
be the same throughout, an equal quantity ought to be cut off to produce
each note, therefore the holes answering the same purpose ought to be
equidistant. We may observe that there may be some sHght modification
of these principles to answer particular purposes, such as the equal
temperament in tuning, &c

The other improvement in Bohm's first flute is the substitution of open
for closed keys, he having discovered that not only was it mechanically

easier to keep a key open with a spring which was not required to be'
strong to keep it open as to keep it perfectly closed, but also that the clos
keys acted as a damper to the next note above, and produced a mufB
tone, or what is technically termed a veiled note. This was Bohm's fi:
flute, and how it was appreciated on the Continent we have already .shov
He next found, that, however exactly he placed the holes, some of the noi
were still unequal— some being weaker, and not so clear and full as t
others. It then occurred to him, that there must be something radica
incorrect in the primai-y construction of the tube ; lie therefore substitut
a perfectly cylindrical in the place of the conical bore, .and introduced 1
parabola head joint, which has the effect of refracting and propelling t
sound with greater velocity, and, though not necessary to the produoti
of perfect and equal notes (the correct proportions of the cylinder and t
placing the hole effecting this), is of great advantage as an aid to quid
and more facile execution. It was evident that in the conical boro t
notes in the narrow part of the tube could not be so clear aud powerful
iu tlie wide, and that, by adopting a perfect cylinder, there would be (
same force to eveiy note, and they would consequently be equal.

This was the second improvement of Bijhm, and we see that he b
entirely to remodel the construction of the instrument. The sai
principles apply also to other wind instruments.

Seeing how self-evident and simple are the principles upon which tb
eftective improvements have been founded, the wonder is that they wi
not adopted before ; but it must be borne in mind, that the traiisiti
from the old flute, A, B, C, to the German flute, and thence to the presi
keyed flute, was not efiected at once ; note by note, and key hy key, v
added to suit the necessities of the performer, or the idea of impro^emi
possessed by the manufacturer. An improved but imperfect instnimi
had grown up, and while, from time to time, considerable talent a
ingenuity was employed in perfecting it, the makers and professors W'
hardly prepared for an alteration in the very first principles of 1
construction of the instrament.

M. Bohm, in the Foreign Department, Bavaria (No. 23), exhibitei
cylindrical flute, of silver with the following improvements — corr
proportions in the construction of the tube, a new .iirangement of i
key-mechanism, and a new form of embouchure of gold; JlvAc d'amoHi;
B flat, in German silver ; aud a model of a patent hautboy, constructed
the same principles. These three instruments were not so remarkable
their high finish in point of workmanship, though in this particular tl
ai-e excellent, as for the disposition of the keys, which are arranged to co
under the fingers in a more natural and regular order. At first sight, ■
mechanism appears somewhat complicated, aud we have he,ard this brouj
forward as an argument against Bohm's improved arrangement of the ke
We cannot, however, but consider it an ill-founded prejudice. Any pi
of mechanism that has more than a single simple motion, according
this rule, would be complicated ; we might \^ith equal reason call the la
marine engine, of Bolton and Watt, complicated, as compared with
primitive model of the early application of steam-power to locomoti
Wlion every piece of mechanism has its proper employment aud use, f
does not interfere with the action of the other, there can be no complicati
Tlie first repetition action applied to tlie gi-and pianoforte was cal
complicated ; yet we now see that no instrument of the kind is considei
complete without.

We now turn to the French department :

M. Clair Godfrey, Sen., of Paris, exhibited wood and silver flutes of f
workmanship and high finish in every particular.

M. Tulon exhibited improved flutes, with a new disposition of the ke
and hautboy, of first-class construction and make.

M. Bouftct, Jun. exhibited clariouets on a new plan, flutes, oboes, a
bassoons, for military bands, of excellent construction.

M. Tribert exhibited flutes and clariouets, highly finished, and a clario)
in tortoiseshell and silver. M. Breton, crystal and wooden flutes,
Bohm's principle, and clarionet, also on Bohm's principle, of very excelle
make, but we cannot see the beauty or utility of the crystal flutes. 1
other exhibitors in this department are M. Besson, and M. Roth.

Iu the Austrian department, M. Uhlmanu, of Vienna, exhibited hautbc
and clarionets elegantly mounted and of fine workmauship. In the Belgi
department, M. Mahillou, oi Brussels, exhibited clai'ionets, &c. Fri
Denmark, M, Silboe, of Copenhagen, exhibited an ebony flute, with ele?
silver keys, and an archimedean bore ; clarionet, in B flat, with t
mouth-pieces, on J. Van MuUer's constructiou, and also hautboy, on t
older Dresden pattern.

We had also flutes and other wind instruments of wood from t
Zollverein, Saxony, and other parts of Germany ; and iu the Amcric
department, M. Eisenbrant, of New York, exhibited some highly finish
flutes, with jewelled keys. In the English department, Messrs. Rudall a:
Rose, exhibited Bohm's patent flute. Carte's patent flutes in silver and woe
and the improved ordinary flute : all of the highest possible finish. Befo
the improvements of Biihm, Messi-s. Rudall and Rose had arrived at t
greatest attainable perfection in the manufacture of their flutes on t.
old system, not having the good fortune to light on the same improvemeil
as Bohm ; they, however, knew how to appreciate them, and at once nuu
arrangements with him which .secured to them the sole right
manufacturing flutes on his principle in England.

Before leaving the subject of flutes, let us suggest to the manufacture
and professors of the instrament the propriety and necessity of combinij
together, and deciding on the adoption of one perfect system of fiugerii

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOl'yEDIA 0¥ THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

:iO:i

f spdi-itiiiii cif tli« kcj'H. Al preHCiil tluii'o iii'n no losa tlmn bLx orsoven
ti K : aiul i',yc:ii .is liuvo boon tin) iniprovoiiiontH on the instrument, and
I ill lis it may lio ill tone nud porfict in intonation, it can novel- bcconio
)0{>ular or do otherwise than decline, tut iindoiibtc<lly it has, ho long
defect exists, and tho learner, who imagines he has aciiuired the art
■playing, finds to his inortifieation, that he ha8 ^inly learnt the Hyatem,
I erroncmis, of a particular master or mnnnfacturer. Who would
len this is tho case, abandon the instnimont in disgust?
limits ivotild not allow \i3 to enter into tho history of the violin, and
le its progressive improvement would bo a diflieult matter. Tho
nnliko .ill other musical instruments, has remained stationaiy, .and
dergniio little or no improvement since the days of the Aniatis,

Guaruarius, and yti-adti!iri\is; and in the hands of these inimitable

tho instrument seems to have reaehcil its greatest perfection.

g, again, from other musical instnunents, the violin improves by age,

ce tho instruments by the old masters fetch immense prices, and
ly Amati and Straduarius have realised as much as from 200 to 300

for a perfect instrument in line preservation, and 70/. to 80/., or
•ould bo considered cheap for a good Amati. Straduarius, at the

moment, is in much request, and fetches the highest price,
mencing with the violins exhibited in the French department by
le of Paris, wc find tho style and workmanship of the famous Italian

of Cremona — Amati. Straduarius. .Joseph Guaruarius, imitated with
,ng truthfulness and beauty, and tho appearance of age and wear
ith remarkable exactness. Those wlio are aware that the knife is
the principal tools employed in the construction of the violin, and
ence tho cut and form of the scroll and sound-holes peculiar to each
is almost as well known .and distinguishable as the style of a pei-son's
iting, will appreciate the cleverness and beauty of these imitations,
mish of these instruments, however, seemed deficient in richness and
cy. M. Villaume, also, exhibited a violoncello and bass of excellent
and a gigantic double b.ass with machine head and stops ; also bows
ly machinery, patented.

onnardel, M. Jacquot, and MM. Husson and Buthofe, were amongst
er exhibitoi'S.
e Austrian department we found also some beautiful models.

rico. of Cremona, exhibited a violin of great eleg.auce and beauty,
able also for the brilliancy of its varnish.

ittuor. of Vienna, exhibited violins, tenor and violoncello, exceedingly
nd worthy of notice.

!osselt, of Tumiiu, Bohemia, violoncello, inlaid mth mother-o'-pearl ;
Herzlieb, of Griitz, Styria, violins, tenor and violoncello, of flist-ratc
anship. We had also in this department some fine specimens of
strings, from Padua and Venice. There were also a considerable

of violins, tenor violoncello.s, and double basses, exhibited in their
t departments, from various parts of Germany ; but, however good
ight be in tone, they displayed neither the elegance of form nor finish
violins on the Italian model. There was also a small violin in the
. department, the upper part made of fir, the sides, the back, &c., of
cod, by H. Ruderd, of Wai-s^aw : like everything else in this
nent, it was of excellent workmanship. In the English department,

Purdiiy and Fendt exhibited violins, violoncellos, and a double bass,
ch, without servilely copying the old Cremona makers, they had
led in producing very beautiful models. In these instruments they
it attempted any artificial seasoning or colouring of the wood by
it, and saturating it in lime, to cause effects which only age should
it have produced new instruments on as perfect a model as possible,
•h the wood is in no way weakened or impaired, but left in its

state and appearance. This was the method of the old Cremona

; had they done otherwise, their instruments would never have
ed their freshue.is and .strength, matured by age, for a period of
Is of two hundred yeai-s. Mes.srs. Purday and Findt have also
ed a varnish which they think, with time, will equal in brilliancy
rability the celebrated varni.sh used by the old Italian makers, the
ition and application of which is a secret supposed to be lost. It
M answer very well, but we think climate has much to do with it,
A no varnish will dry so well in the damp atmosphere of this country,
it the excellence of the old vavnish is in a great measm'e attributable

warm dry climate of southern Ifcily, which no artificial heat
lal; the same causes are in operation in America at the present
.t. The cabinet-makers of New York employ a copal varnish for
imitm-e, pianofortes, &c., greatly surpassing in brilliancy and dura-
ovir French poUsli, but which the moist atmosphere of our own
i makes it impossible to apply in the same perfection iis in their dry-
air.

Betts exliibited two violins, correctly modelled and finished with
ire. Mr. Foster exhibited a violin and violoncello made after the

of his grandfather, well known as " Old Foster," w-hose instruments
1 much esteeemed for their clean workmanship and excellent tone.

FOL-NTAIN. — BY JABEZ JAMES.
ttle fountaiu, studded with dolphins and sea-monsters, and crowned
figure of old Neptune himself, is cast in bronze, and is supplied with
ly a'small engine. It is well adapted for the decoration of a summer-
)r a cottage verandah. (See p. 300.)

HARDWARE.

SHEFFIELD MANUFACTURES.
'PHK conversion of iron into steel, (to the extent of many thouHOnd ton-
annually.) is the principal manufacturo of Sheffield ; and tho several
processes of ccmontution, bli»tci-ing, shearing, casting, tilting and tempcriog,
were illiistraterl by Hpeciineim in the I*)xhil>ition. Thus, Messrs. .JohnsoD,
C'ainmcll, and C!o. of the Cyclojis Works, exhibited progrosHive specimonb,
from the imported iron up to the most refined state of the metal — in the
varieties of "cemented blister," " double refined ca«t," " double-shear," oi
" elastic spring." Their display of tools included their " curvilinear tanged
file;" .and their "continuous tooth concave and convex file," the latter
rewarded by a medal from the Society of Arts. The careful finish of their
work w.as also shown in their springs for railway carriages; and in a piston-
rod, weighing IG cwt., the finest and Urgest piece of steel in the Exhibition.
Another assortment, forwarded by Turton and Sou, illustrated steel-
manufacture from .Swedish barinm. Tho same firm contributed a steel
ingot, weighing upwards of 1 ton 4 cwt., intended for one of a pair of piston-
rods for a marine engine. It consists of the contents of 4.S crucibles, each
charged twice with SOlb. weight of steel ; tho operation w-as performed l»y
40 workpeople, and the pouring of the melted liquid steel into the mould
was accomplished by three men in eight minutes.

From the various kinds of steel are manufactured toitlery, needles, liook>?,
oraaments, &c. — a class of production, which h.as made this seat of industi-y
famous since the days of Chaucer's " Slietfield Thwittle." Among tho tools
exhibited w-as a cast-steel circular saw, 5 feet in diameter, by Spear and
Jtickson. Messrs. Unwin and Rogers's display of spring-knives, pistol-knives,
and surgical instruments, was good : a case contained the preparations of
steel wire, in the process of manufacturing needles. The Etna works
disphayed circul.ar saws, files, hammers, adzes, &c. An assortment of files
and rasps, from 1 to 46 inches in length ; and a case of scii5.sors and shears
of every variety, highly ornamented, with specimens airanged, from the
rough steel to the finished article, were exhibited by Hunter. Messrs.
Turner .and Co. displayed a pair of Albert venison-carvers, with stag antlers ;
and the Prince of Wales's sailor's knife. We must not, however, omit to
record a brilliant trophy of Sheffield cutlery, arranged in a ca.se in the
western nave of the building. It contained 230 paii-s of scissors of every
size and piittern, grouped and mounted upon a white ground: the centre
object wixs a pair of huge scissors, 22 inches long, the bows and shank
representing in outline two crowns : the upper one sui-mounted by a
thistle .- all the ornamental work is wrought with the file, some portions of
the surface bemg chased. This object is by far the most expensive pair of
scissors ever produced in Sheffield. On each side of this appeared another
pair. nearly the same size, and scarcely less beautiful or costly. One pair
represents, in chasing, the bruising of the serpent's head ; in the centre i»
wrought out with the file tho Prince of Wales's feathers ; and the bow is
tho shamrock, rose, and thistle, and scrollwork — .all wTought out with the file.

Next was illustrated the scissors' manufacture, in its ten stages. Among
the most striking specimens was a pair of 16-inch fancy nail-scissors, orna-
mented with etching ; a gi-oup of surgeon's scissors, curved, angular, and
distorted for difficult operations : a sportsman's knife, cont>aining 80 blades
and other instruments ; also, one f of an inch long, with 51 blades and
other instruments : and a case containing 12 perfect pau-s of scissors, yet
HO small that they do not weigh half a grain.

Another striking feature was the variety of stoves; register and air.
cooking and gas, heat-reflecting, smoke-curing, &e.

Among the gas-burners exhibited was the self-regulating apparatus, by
Mr. Biddell. w-ho introduces into the centre of the burner a vertical
compound rod of about -| inch diameter, the cylindrical case being of brass,
and the core within of steel. By the expansion and contraction of this rod,
which is surrounded by the flame, a small lever and simple valve, in con-
nection with the bottom of the rod, are acted upon so delicately, that the
exact amount of gas required to preserve uniformity of flame is preserved.

One exhibitor, who has great faith in a new name, sent a saucepan with
a false bottom, upon which, potatoes being placed, covered up, and set upon
the fire, steam is generated, and thus the potatoes are cooked in the water
they contain — a contrivance called the Anhydrohepsetcrion.

Dr. Arnott's stoves, and veutilating apparatus, were exhibited ; with
Peirce's pyro-pneumatic stove, made of fire-cl.ay in pieces, through which
are air-keys, the whole cased -w-ith iron ; an open fire warms the fire-bricks,
the p.assages between w'uich are connected with a pipe leading to the
external air, when the warmed air rises into the apartments, and a supply
of fresh air is obtained froni without.

Edwards's Patent Atmopyre was shown : it consists of a porcelain chamber ;
within it is the gas-fire, w-hich escapes through minute perforations ; the
ma-ss thus becomes red hot, or, in the words of the patentee, ** solid gas
fire " cooking stove. Sever.al gas-meters were also shown here.

The stove-grates tastefully displayed painted china and ormolu, encaustic
tiles, gold medallions and scrollwork, marble and alabaster; and we learn
from Mr. Hunt's excellent Hand -hook, that 7 of these grates and 6 fendei-s
have been designed by pupils of the Government School. The fire-irons
and feuders were also of corre.sponding elegance.

There werg several specimens of patent w-ire ropes exhibited by Messrs.
Newall ; and of flat chains with wooden keys, for collieries, by Mr. Edge.
Messi-s. Henn and Bradley supplied a good assortment of their crown-tapered
screws, of the most dehcate structure for pianofortes, as well as for tlie
heaviest railway purposes.

304

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTs/''^'^'^'''-"

Among the Foreign cutlery, the Prussi;m and Belgian specimens approached
nearest the excellence of English manufacture, of which nnuiy were evi-
dently imitative iu style.

' SHEFFIELD PLATING.

Althopgh the electro-plating process is extensively
Cres«-ick, of ShefiBeld,

ipplied, Mr. J. G. A

states, in a letter to the

Times, that the old and

Bubstantial method of

plating on the ingot by

tire still obtains in that

town, and is almost en-
tirely used in articles for

the London trade— such

as dishes and covers.

tea-sets, candelabra, itc ;

and iu many cases such

goods (made by the first

class of Sheffield manu-
facturers) have stood the

■wear of from tweuty to

thirty yeai-s' use.

Mr. John Gray, of

Billiter-square. exhibited

a series of articles illus-
trative of this method

of plating, commencing

from the ingot and termi-
nating in the finished

article. The ingot is

composed of copper

alloyed with other metal.

so as to impart to it

the necessary rouglmess
and i-igidity. The plate
of silver is tied upon its
polished surtace with
wire, and the combined
metals are then heated
in a furnace, till both
bodies are in a molten
state, and thus become
most effectually united.
After this process, the
two metals united form
an ingot whicli is eub-
iccted to rolling and
hammering into form :
which test tlic electro-
process never subjects
articles to, as they ai"c
all coated after the good.s
are finished so far as
manipiUatiou and anneal-
ing is concerned. Solder-
ing the silver upon any
baser metal is only prac-
tised in making cutlery,
and does not at all apply
to plated manufacture,
being a distinct branch
of business.

Mr. Gray also exhibited
an ingot of copper pre-
vious to this process, with
the plate of silver tied up
on it with wire ; ingots
of copper and white metal
after the silver plate has
been united to them by an
elevation of temperature
only ; and a sheet of
jilated metal, rolled from
a plated ingot. A table
dish, made from the rolled metal, was the next iu the seriet, with the silver
mountings laid upon it, but not yet soldered. The steel dyes iu which tlie
silver mountings are struck, together with the mountings produced by tliem,
were also shown ; in fine, the table dish was exhibited in its finished state,
as well aa a specimen of a salver produced by this manufacturer.

The metal now used at Slieffied as a foundation for plating, is German
silver to a very great extent, (whereas, formerly copper was used.) and is
thus, on a white foundation, little infeiior iu colour to the silver which
forms the outer coating or surface. *

Plating by fire is the mode that has been practised iu Sheffield for more
than a centurj-, and is still styled iu the London shops " best Sheffield
plate," in^contradistinctiou to ot!-cr spurious and iiiferiov productions.

-■H.VL,vl,ili.i;t.ljy^^il^|A^;W,()rASES IN TUK KUSSIAN UKI'AUTJIENT.

METALLIC PENS.
A Steel pen is as gi-eat a wonder of the present day as a pin was ti u
ancestors. Large black and red pens were made of steel early in the pr n
centuiy ; but the extensive introc5,uction of steel pens dates from 1828, g
Mr. Gillott, of Birmingham, patented a machine for making them »

1830. when Ml-. Per q
Loudon, added to i
flexibility ' by aper g
between the shoulde i(
the point.' About li
years 1820 and 1S2' r,.
fii-st gross of tliK
pens was sold wli"
at 7^. 4s. the gi-o-
cheapest pens aii
sold at twopence the »
and the price rises Q
the elasticity and
of the pen up to 3
and 5j. per gross. I
150 tons of steel arei
to be now annually
into pens ; and, ii
Birmingham esta
ment, 500 hands are
employed. Here
outline of the S'
stages of the mai
ture. The rolled i
steel being received
Sheffield, is cut into i
put into cast-iron
and softened by hea
rolled between
cylinders to the rec
thickness. The st
then passed to a w
who, with a hand
cuts out at a singU
the future pen ; i
good hand will cut 1
per day of ten
The centi-al hole an
slits are cut by ai
press ; the semi-pe'
then softened by
by a die worked l
foot, are stamped
the maker's namt
then by a machinep
into a cylindrical
Tli e pens are again b
and then thrown
oil, which makes
very brittle ; but
are cleansed and re;
to elasticity by p
them in a tin cyl
turned over a fire,
cofiee-roaster ; the
arenext scoured wit
dust, in cans place
frame which revoh
steam. Each pen i
groimd at the ba( B
two ways, at right : l«
to each other, or i fr
"ver each other; tl
holding the pen wit
pers for a moment t*
revolving " bob." ta
pens are then slit ^ li
tool very nicely .rf
into a hand-press, t
by a haudle. They arc tliou exauiiued and sorted ; and lastly, vani
with lac, dissolved in naphtha, evaporated by heat.

Messrs. Gillott's specimens ranged from a monster pen, weighib
and measuring 1 yard in length, to a Lilliputian weighing 4 grain
nionster containing metal enough to make 1,092,397 of the tiny oned
colouring of the metal is very rich. In a gla^s case, too. the whole hi
of the manufacture was wonderfully told. In an adjoininsr case, by f
and Co., were shown silver and gold pens, some tipped with iridiud
osmium, the hardest of known metals ; and in Hinckes and Co.'s can
a series of nut-shells, each containing an incredible number of infiniki'
pens of great finish, which it required a microscope properly to ap|
Jfcssrs. Perry also exhibited some tine specimens.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

ARTS OF DESIGN AND DECORATION.

♦

SCULITUIIE.

E resume our notices of the Sculpture in the Groat Exhiljition.
We beyin witli Power's Greek Slave (see p. 320), which was thrust
rwavd in such a prominent position, ami upon whicli king Mob lavished

much wild and un-
loning encomium. We
list state boldly, that wo
not join in the admira-
m bestowed upon this
»rk,and as we are awaro
at in so doing we run
unter to opinion.s of the
ijority of the critics of
e day, we may be per-
.tted to make a few
ore observations to ex-
lin, perhaps to j ustify,
r position. First, the
ure is ill studied : of
iirse,the proportions of
auty are, to a great ex-
nt, matter of taste or
liuion : but without
ying claim to infallibi-
y in these matters, wo
er that the figure of
e Greek Slave, as it
wide from the ideal
lauty of the antique,
3uld, upon an average

sufirages, fail to esta-
ish its claims with the
esent generation of be-
ilder. It is a lengthy
5gy figure below ; square
,d high shouldered in
e upper part ; the flesh
s none of the plump-
and softness, the
bainment of which is
8 triumph of the sculp-
r's art ; the arms, par-
sularly the left one, un-
fplyspai'e. Secondly, the
ititude is constrained
id inelegant. The figure
I made to lean with the
ght hand against a post,
at a very little too low
I allow her to remain in
\ upright position : the
lusequeuce is, that there
a departure from the
I'dinary repo.se of nature,
jthout a sufficient ob-
Ict, and an awkward out-
le on both sides of the
l^re, but particularly
1 the left. It must not
leape remark, either,
lat, in carrying out this
i-judged conceit of attitudinising, the artist, whilst he has shown its
fects very prominently in the lower parts of the back, has overlooked it
(tirely m the right arm and shoulder. The attitude is constrained and
lelegant, because it wants naturalness — because it wants unity of purpose:
le arms drawn one way, the head turned abruptly to the other ; so that
lere is no seeing the full face but with a side view of the figure, and that

Ko. 20, February 14, 1852.

ARL'H.VNGEL MICHAEL AFTER SUBDUING SATAN. — STEPHENS.

side, as a point of view, subject to many objections, and OTce vtrtA. For
the head itself, wo cannot consider it by any means beautiful ; to us it is
certainly not pleasing : it is too square ; the forehead too prominent for
female beauty; the eyes too much sunk fur any expression — and, of all
shades of expression, that of softness, which is the attribute of womankind
(in marble) ; and the ]irofdo, as it is the hrst view generally taken of this
head, is unfortunately its least agreeable aspect : the nose sharply pointing

outwards and upwards,
instead of pursuing the
direct line from the fore-
head, BO as to preserve
the oval form ; the chin
prominent and lengthy
from the starting-point at
the neck ; and, to make
the matter worse, and to
complete the extrava-
gance of the outline, the
hair drawn up in a stiff
hard knot, when a few
loose loops falling half
way down the neck would
have done much to relieve
the harshne.'^s of the
general expression. The
artist has bestowed much
l^ains upon the little
Greek cap, which with
her other raiment, the
unhappy slave has very
neatly displayed upon the
post against which she
leans ; but we think she
would be puzzled to wear
such a head-gear with her
present mode of coiffure.
And now a few words
about the incident sup-
posed to be characterised
in this production. Not
to nm the risk of doing
injustice, we will copy
the official description
affixed to the statue : —
" The figure is that of
a young and beautiful
Greek girl, deprived of
her clothes and exposed
for sale to some wealthy
Eastern barbarian, before
whom she is supposed to
stand with an expression
of scornful dejection,
mingled with shame and
disgust." A very interest-
ing case, truly, but one
the knowledge of which
deprives the work of that
legitimate charm "which
attaches to the nude
figures of ancient art,
wherein an obvious inno-
cent unconsciousness of
dishahille prevents all
compunctions on the score of propriety." The official accoimt is particular
to inform nf of the accurate identity of the Greek costume, and the little
cross : but adds, " the chains on the wrists are not historical, but have been,
added as necessary accessories." Necessary to go beyond the truth to realise
the whole of a very painful conception, which, we submit, in its most
offensive incident — that of the denudation itself — is not " historical ! "

Price One Vessj.

306

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

To couclude, tlie Greek Slave is a poor refacdamento, with alteration,
but witliout improvement, of the " Venus di Medieis," with a romance
attached to give it a relish. It is a bad beginning for American art, on all
accounts; which mu=t produce somethinpr more genuine, if it intends to
take rank with the schools, bygone and to come, of E\irope.

In the British Sculpture Koom stood a " Nymph Startled," in marble,
by Behnes, which exhibits none of the meretricious coyness and other
objectionable ch u-acteristics of the work we have just noticed at such
length. The figure is cat in a good wholesom.e mould ; the attitude
graceful and animated, v/ithout affectation ; the flesh soft and smooth^
and the general finiJi of the work iu every respect satisfactory. We must

THE STAttttfeb HVWPli. — bfe&NES.

also admire, for the purity of its treattatSBl, a whole-length marble figure,
lightly draped, after the antique ftehion. by T. Campbell, entitled " Portrait
of a Lady as a Muse." These two were by fiV the best things of the kind
in the room. Sharp's " I5oy and Lizard '' is a pretty conceit prettily carried
out. The sitting statue of Fia*man. by the late M. L Marshall, "is a fine
specimen of portrait sculpture, i-eplete with dignified ease and high
intelligence.

And wliile upon the productions of British art, there are several, which,
though located in the Italian dejmrtmcut of the Exhibition, we may
properly claim, being the work of English bauds. Of these, the two
Nymphs, by the late lamented Rich.ard W'yatt, justly claim pre-eminence,
no^ only here, but perhaps above all other works of the same class in the
Exhibition. Supposing the reader to have observed these works, we would
say : — ^Remark in both the symmetry of proportions, the exquisite softness
of the flesh surface^, the winning simplicity of the attitude.s, the smiling
beauty of the faces, more particulai'ly as reg.irds the full round speaking
eye of the smaller one ; the classic proportions of the heads, set off and
adorned witli tresses light, wavy, and picturesque in form and disposition ;
— examine the careful finish of the whole, ami you cannot hesitate to set

these down as works evidencing the highest genius, and the nearest
approach to artistic perfection. Close beside these was more lately
introduced a figui-e entitled " Highland Mary," by B. E. Speuce, a work nol
without merit, but tame and without speech, as compared with her twfl
lovely neighbours. This figure is fully, indeed, somewhat heavily, drapejU
a great plaid shawl hanging down her back, and nearly touching tM
ground.

Mr. E. E. Stei^hens' group of " Satan Vanquished by St. Michael " (see p.
305), which stood on the left in the South Transept, is a composition not with
out merit, though it certainly does not attain that high poetic charactei
which we look for in works of this class. The subject is severely treated
the Archangel stands erect, without any attempt at attitudinising, whilst th(
enemy of man, whom he has just overthrown, crouches in the dust bcneatl
his feet. There is a total absence of humau passion in the expression of thi
face ; a point in strict accordance, perhaps, with the heavenly nature of th(
personage represented, but which, on the other hand, would impose upoi
the artist the necessity of realising the supernatural dignity attaching t(
him — a task in which he has not been successful. A word with regard tc
accessorial details. It is certainly recorded that the Archangel brougb
down a chain from heaven to bind the serpent ; and iu a work of sculpturi
commemorative of the event, some reference might properly be made to it
as being by no means unimportant ; but, at the same time, we couhl havi
wished that the said chain had not been made quite so much of, and ii
such hard angular outline as Mr. Stephens has employed ; that it hai
been at most taintly indicated as encompassing the prostrate evil spirit
and not held up in triurajih, in the hand of the Archangel. All sucl
efforts at perfectionising petty details are unworthy of ai't, and betray :
want of confidence in its higher resources.

In the Roman department, we found many efforts, in vai-ious styles and o
various degrees of merit. An " Iconic Statue." by M. Lawrence Macdonalr
is a heavy, cold unintellectiial study, upon which more labour has beei
bestowed than the subject was worth. A " Ceres," by John Gott. is of th
commonplace order of prettiness. " Love Triumphant," by Angel
Bienaim^, is a foolish conceit, consisting of a Cupid on a lion's back
Benzoni's group of " Psyche trying to keep Cupid from carrying the gift c
beauty to Venus," is a cold and artificial affair, considerable pains bavin
been bestowed upon tlie he.ads. • Riualdi has a large theatrical lookin
group of " Rinaldo and Armida," in which the female figure, arrrayed i
Turkish costume, is finished with considerable roundness and softness
whilst the knight is stiff as buckram, in coat of mail ; the buckler, leggingi
and helraetbeingbrought to a degree of polish which speaks highly of labou
misapplied. Cardwell's group of two little boys with a bird's-nest, bus
feeding their feathered captives, is one of many puerile production;
both in the Roman and Tuscan departments, which are attributabli
perhaps move justly, to a low standard on the part of the patrons of ai
than of art itself In the front of the Tuscan chamber was a very vigoroTi|
and characteristic bust of " Lorenzo the Magnificent," by C'ostole, of Floreno
Sad falling off in matters of art since his day !

Of the art of many-climed Austria we have spoken at some length in
former Number ; the bold and startling productions from the ZoUveraj
(Kiss's " Amazon," the " Bavarian Lion," &c., to wit) we have also bi
ciently illustrated from time to time. We may remark generally of
ZoUverein states, with Prussia at their head, that in art they exhibited
crudeness almost inseparable from new efforts, when there are no
examples, no traditional principles to guide the hand. The subjei
chosen are too often of a base order, unworthy of high art, and are some
times treated with an extrnvngance intolerable to an educated taste. 1
may be sufficient to point to one very glaring example of both these erroM
Fortunately, it was not a very prominent one in the late ExhibitiOBI
though, in Berlin, where the original of the work exists in marble, it i
vastly popular — indeed, has received the highest honours. In an obsottn
passage in the roar of the ZoUverein department was to be found, by thoa
who were curious to search for it. a cast of a Bacchante on a Panther, afW
the original in marble, by T. ICalide, " sculptor and professor of arts)
Nothing can be conceived in worse taste, or executed in more bold defianSI
of the proprieties. The Bacchante, a coarse, heavy figure, is dead — that ii
— is intoxicated, and lies sprawling on her back on the top of the panther
who licks up the dregs of liquor she has left in her cup. The artist seem:
to have taxed his ingenuity to make the most of the most otfensivf
features of such a .subject, and we think he has succeeded.

In the French department, at the entrance of the Gobelins Room, stooc
a somewhat similar subject, though certainly not so flagrantly earned out
by Glesinger. Here the Bacchante, having evidently indulged too freelj
in her favourite juice, is lyiug asleep in an attitude of wild insownance, nol
upon the back of a panther, but upon a bed of vine leaves and grapes. Th(
treatment is less indelicate than that of M. Kalide's figure, and the exe
cution ma.sterly in many respects ; but still it is of a sensuous character
which neither derives interest from the medium through which it is pre
sented, nor adds dignity to the art employed upon it.

Still in France, we were struck witli some very wonderful raelo-dramatic
scenes in phister, by Lechesne, which attracted a crowd of gazers iu the!
middle of the Nave : in the centre we had a woman fast asleep under soma
straggling branches of trees, whilst an eagle, with tremendous breadth oij
wing, was pouncing upon her naked infant, who blubbers piteously, but
hopelessly. On either side were two exemplifications of canine fidelity and
Sagacity. In the one we saw a tremendous snake abo^t to dart upon n
little urchin, wlio, terrified, crouches behind a large dog of doubtful breed,

b~:

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPyEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

307

llic otlioi' group wo Biiw tlint tlio yoiiiiK i,'onl.leiimn'» confidcncti Imil not
mirtplaooii, lop there lien tho vonouiouB roptili', witli his hi'n'.l liittcu
1 oil', whilst the Uttlo buy ovorwholms his dolivcnT with his ciircsson.

JI. Ktex dJHplavocl several works which exhibited talent nnd oriKiiinlity of
loiieeptioii ill various lines : his two lar^o plaster groujis in tho Nave — tho
1110 roiu-e'cntiiiK n family bereaved by tlio cholera, tho other tho family of
.'iiin lifter tho murder of Abel — arc certainly vigorous efliirts, albeit Sfjine-
vhat eliargealjle witli cxtravaKiuico. His " Hero ami Lean<ler" is fjood in
■M I iitiou, though his figures, particularly tho female, arc of a heavy mould.

\' i:d minor works by tho same hand, includiuf,' some bas-reliefs, have
"" idorable merit.

Ml'BDER OF THE INNOCENTS. — GEETS, OP BRUSSELS.

("■:! the left hand, on entering the Gobelins Room, stood the group, by

'I Ihy, of Eve with her two children, Cain and Abel, in lier lap, whom

' nL,'s to her bosom, clasping her li.-iuds round her knee, whilst she seems

idge iu a reverie as to their future fate. There is something very

isque and striking in the conception, which is ably carried out, (see

ijiM\ing, No. Ifl, p. 249.) At the base are slightly sketched bas-reliefs of

■ temptation by the serpent, the sacrifices of Cain" .and Abel, and the first

jrder, which explain and give character to the work,

iThe " Cephalus and Procris " of M. Ramus is a group of some merit, and

jth considerable expressiveness.

Iu general, the works of the French school, unequal in individual merit.
If interesting, as marking the existence of au educated school, thotigh one

which the clas.?ic rule,, have frequently been forgotten. Amongst the

■■ works in which classic treatment has been aimed at, we must mention

e,,i]Qmendation Lemaire's Psyche, mth the butterfly, in marble, ex-

ly graceful ; .and Pradier's bronze group of Venus, half kneeling, and

ling to Cupid, and the same artist's Pliryno, which stood in front of

'nmce of the Gobelins Room, but which was certainly not entitled to

I ■ "honour" of a Comicil Medal : though the jm-y thought otherwise.

FOREIGN AND COLONIAL DEPARTMENTS.

- ♦-

RWITZEItLAND.
J^WITZERLAND is a federal State composed of twenty-two cantonn,

which, till 1847, formed independent and distinctiyo States, poBocaiing
a cominerci.al tariff and customs of their own. In 1850, these cantons
submitted to ft systematic tariff of customs, equally enjoyed l>y tho whole
of tlio confoder.ation : these tariffs are at present un<lcrgoiiig some modifi-
cations. The statistical importation and exportation tables of Switzerland,
compared with other countries, are extremely uncertain, and in the present
introduction and subsequent notes we are frequently compelled to confine
ourselves to simple and general facta. Since tho 1st of January, 1851,
Switzerland has adopted an uniform cun-ency, which is called the federal
franc, of the same valuo and the same subdivisions as tho franc of France.
They are at present giving their attention to an uniform system of weights
and measures, and it is very probable that analogous decimal measures to
those of France, Belgium, and Lombardy, will before long be adopted.
The quiutal is equivalent to 50 kilogrammes, or about 110 lb. avoirdupois.

Switzerland possesses many metallurgical mines, of which only a very
small number are worked. Many have been abandoned, owing to the pro- '
duce of tho metals not p.aying the expenses of working tliem. Mines arc
still worked with some advantage yielding the following metals : iron,
copper, nickel, cobalt, argentiferous lead and zinc : but not ia sufficient
quantity for home consumption.

Berne, Soleure, Schaffhausen, St. G.all, Grisons, and Valais, are the prin.
cipal cantons that produce iron. The iron produced at Berne has a high
reputation for its tenacity, malloahUity, and resistance to fire. During the
reign of Napoleon Bonaparte the iron of this canton w.as much used for the
manufacture of gun-barrrole.

The- manufacture of wire is also of importance, and the celebrated sus-
pension bridge of Fribourg, with a single span of nearly 900 feet, was made
of the wire of the Bernese Jura. The canton of Schaffhausen is celebrated
for the excellence of its ea-st and wrought steel, easily distinguished fi-om
the other kinds. The canton of Valais possesses many rich beds of iron,
which is exported to St. Etieiiue in Franco, where it is manufactured into
cast-steel. The importations of e.ist and manufactured iron, zinc, copper,
tin, lead, &c., are considerable. These metals come from England, Belf^um,
France, and various States of Germany, &c.

Switzerland possesses many salt-mines or saline springs : the most impor-
tant are those of Bale-Campagne, Vaud, and Argovio. These mines do not
suffice for above half the demand.

There are but few coalmines, and these of little value; coals arc
imported from France. The canton of Neufciiiltel possesses some bitumi-
nous lime mines, from wdiich they extract asphalte, and export it iu small
quantities.

Beds of slate, gypsum, numerous varieties of marble, .and various mine-
rals, are likewise to be found in this country.

Switzerland has a considerable number of manufactories of earthenware,
the produce of which is largely exported from the cantons of Zurich,
Berne, and Schaffhausen. The potteries of Winterthour and Schaffhausen
are justly celebrated for the beauty and variety of their productions.
China, and the finer kinds of earthenware, are manufactui'ed at Vaud,
Geneva, and Argovie. The finer earthenware and china is imported from
Germany, France, and England.

Snntzerland possesses iu abundance clay for the manufacture of bricks
and tiles, the demand for which, however, is very limited, owing to the low
price of stone, slate, and wood. There arc about fifteen glass factories,
which iu-e employed principally in the manufacture of bottles and glass for
windows; the annual importation of glass and crystal is about 20,000
quintals of 60 kilogrammes. Common glaas is imported from the Duchy
of Baden and Savoy, the finer kinds from France, Bavaria, Bohemia, and
England.

The canton of Soleure is celebrated for its manufactory of fhnt and
crown glass for optical instruments, the superiority of which is so univer-
sally esteemed as to be much sought after by the most eminent opticians
of Europe and America.

The principal chemical manufactories are those of the cantons of Zurich,
Berne. Soleure, Bale, Glai-is, and Argovie ; the supply, however, is not equal
to the demand, and the annual importation from other countries is about
60,000 quintals.

The vine is cultivated in all the cantons, with the exception of Uri,
Unterwald, and Glaris.

Several of the cantons have large manufactories of soap, and nearly all
manufacture caudles ; the tallow is imported from Russia France sends
to Switzerland about 30,000 quintals of soap annually.

Switzerland is extremely rich in cattle and other animals. There are
about 850,000 oxen and cattle, 600,000 sheep, 350,000 goats, &c., for which
her rich pastm-es and numerous forests are well suited. Although this
country is most favom'ably adapted for the extension of tanneries, this
art ite not largely or successfully pursued. The enormous duties on the
importation of leather into France, and some of the States of Germany, has

308

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS j

SILVER CDP. — FRIES, SWITZERLAND.

had an extremely prejudicial effect on this important branch of commerce;'
but the present facilities for transport are likely before long to render thisi
tiade one of the most considerable and valuable of the country. Her e»-i
ports are, however, considerable in the skins of oxen, cows, sheep, and:
goat=, tanned and untanned. The exportation to France alone exceeds
800,000 kilogrammes annually. The large skins are held in great estimationi
for their solidity and durability, and are much sought after for the manu-
facture of the soles of shoes. A considerable foreign trade is likewisei
carried on in calf-skins, which are much used by the bootmakers. In the
north and west of Switzerland are a few manufactories of chamois leather,!
morocco, and varnished leather.

Switzerland is also rich in the number of her forests, and the wood thtit
grows in the more elevated portions of the country is highly esteemed
for building purposes, much of which is exported into France, Algeria,
and Germany. In many of the mountainous districts, and particulai'ly in
the Bernese Oberland, the artizans carry on a considerable trade in carved
wood, such as furniture, fancy articles, &c., a few of which are exported)
Her manufactories in wooden agricultural implements have arrived at a
very high state of perfection in many of the cantons. Of these various
specimens are shown.
' The breeding and care of cattle is one of the most ancient pursuits ot
the Swiss. The rich pastures of the Alps, the purity of the air and waterj
give that superiority to the Swiss cattle, which they even preserve abroadi
It is a remarkable fact, that even the cows sent into a warm climate pre*
serve the property of giving a superior quantity and quality of milk ; th.i
consequence is, that above 15,0(i0 oxen and cows, as well as 20,000 calvest
ai'e annually exported to the South of Europe and Algeria.

The Swiss export a considerable quantity of cattle to France. Thml
breed of horses are noted for their strength and great power of enduranoei
they export from 6,000 to 6,000 annually, as well as about 20,000 sheep
The cow-bells and agricultural implements exhibited suggest these facts.

The Swiss cheese enjoys a deservedly high reputation, due to the breeo
of cattle and the perfumed pastures of the high Alps. They export largelj
into almost every country. The Cheeses of Gruyere, Emmeuthal, ano
Schabzieger, are held in high esteem, and keep for many years.

Nine only of the twenty-two cantons of Switzerland produce the cereala
in sufficient quantity for their own consumption; these are — Lucernei
Fribourg, Soleure, Schaffhausen, Berne, Argovie, and Vaud. A consi*
derable quantity of corn, maize, and rice, is imported into Switzerland
principally from Germany and Lombardy.

The manufacture of watches is one of the three principal branches c

Helvetian commerce ; i
is not general, but cor
fined particularly to th
cantons of Genevi
Neufch&tel, Vaud, pai
of the Bernese Jura, an (
the canton of Bale. Th;
department of industr
has never prospered i
any of the other cantoni
and is at present ei
tirely abandoned.

This fact is entirel
owing to local circua
stances, and the pro,"
perity of the trade ha
steadily and graduall
increased, independen
either of protective di
ties or government pi
tronage, whilst in othe
countries this manufa*
ture, supported by gt
vernment, and an in
mense outlay of capital
has hitherto never sui
ceeded.

The principal circuit
stances which have cor
tributed to its develof
ment in the Cantons t
Geneva and Neufchatei
have been the abui
dance of capital, the Ic
interest of money, chea
Labour, and the absenc
of other trades ; the p
neral instruction of til
population, with a nati
ral aptitude and taat
for fine and delicat
work, combined with
love for commerce, ani
finally tlie inclemenj
and severe winter
the valleys of the Jural

CAKVED ESCRITOIEE AND TaTlb. — PROM SWITZKUIAND

AN U.LUSTllATKD CYCLOl'illDlA 01' Tliii GllEAT EXHIIUTION OK 1851.

3(J9

i<i

if onh'i', iialieiioo, oimI industry "f llio inlii

1(1 t.lio natunil
itanta.

The divinions of labour in thia department nro bo numerous, lliat tlio
[ovomout of a watch, of the valuo of 1»., will frequently pass through more
lan fiO handB.

The Cantons of Geneva, NoufchAtel, Vaud, and Boruese Jura, nro'cal-
ilatod to niannfactnro two-thirds of the watches in the world; tho total
inual eBtimation of which is about 1,20(1,000.

I Tho manufacture of silk in Switzerland is extremely ancient, and dates
mny oentnrics back. It received a
n:iL stiunduH at tho period of tlie Rc-
.■;il cif tho Edict of Nantes, when the
ni.l pei-sccutious of the Protestants
iiiipi'llod a f;reat number of French
i.Mcliants to emigrate to Switzerland.
roni thia epoch dates tho prosperity of
lis branch of commerce, and at the
rem-nt period forms one of tho greatest
iHuvrH of the aftlueneo of tho coimtry.
t is a remarkable fact that, notwith-
banding the absence of protective
utic", and oven circumscnbed by many
f the neighbouring States by high pro-
octive customs, the silk manufacturers
avo succeeded by energy and industry
1 overcoming every obstacle.

The silk manufactories of Zurich oc-
upy p.'irt of the inhabitants of the ad-
leent cantons of St. Gall, Zug. Schwitz.
ml Lucerne. There are about 150,000
oonis. of which 95 per cent, work at
(inio on plain and common stuffs, and

pir ceut. on figured silks and shawls.
'mm 20,000 to 25,000 workmen are de-
■enilcnt on this branch of industry.
'lie average returns are from 25 to 30
lilli.ins of francs per annum, varying
. curding to the price of the raw mato-
ial : 75 to 80 per ceut. is about the
oat : 20 to 25 per cent, is consumed in
Iio iti'ooess of dyeing.

'J'Ik' greater proportion of the weavers,
ncn, women, and children, are occupied
(luring the summer in the cultivation of
heir grouuds, and take to the loom iu
vinter and leisure hours.

Switzerland ranks next to England,
n comparison with the number of her
copulation, iu the production of woven
md spun cotton ; it is likewise one of
,ho countries that consume the most,
riie production has i-apidly increased
luring a period of thirty years, without
uiy protective duties, and notwithstaud-
ng the heavy and severe imposts im-
losed by surromidiug neighbours, on
he importation of cotton manufactures,
riiis prosperity is due to the abundance
if moving power in every part of the
Niuntry, the concentration of the popu-
atii'U, and her great energy, intelli-
gence, and industrial genius.

Switzerland possesses about 131 looms,
ivhich put in motion more than 950,000
jpindles ; she manufactures all the num-
aers, up to number 250 (English). The
ianton of Zurich is the principal seat of
this manufacture. The number of fac-
tories here amount to 70, while that of
the canton of Argovie has only 20.

Switzerland is one of the greatest consumers of spun and wove cotton ;
;he annual consumption is reckoned about 3 lb. weight per inhabit.int.
Mech.anical weaving is increasing yearly, principally in the Cantons of
Zurich, Berne, Schwitz, Glaris, Bille, St. Gall, Argovie, and Thurgovie ;
there are likewise a considerable number of hand-weaving machines. The
canton of Zurich alone reckons more than 20,000 weavers, who annually
manufacture more than a million pieces of cotton, of various qualities, at
.» very low price. There are more than 250 bleaching establishment.-^, the
greatest number of which are in the cantons of Berne, Appeuzell, St. Gall,
and Argovie. The purity, excellency, and abundance of the water is of
great advantage to these establishments, as well as to dyere.

amount of executive skill displayed upon them, and for the truthful home-
liness of tho subjects represented in them. They are, indeed, for the mont
part, sculptured bucolics, exhibiting tho piwtoral life of happy .Switzerland,
in all tho various ph.iscs; whilst a few illustrate other points of nationality,
as tho costumes of tho twenty-two cantons, still kept remarkably distinct
.■^mong^t tho niral popidation ; or some spot doar in tho racraoriefi otSmin
men, as the chapel of William Tell, at Altdorff. There is sonietliing very

CARTED ESCRITOIRE, AND TABLE, FROM SWITZERLAND.

TuE Swiss department contained several specimens of wood carving, in
decorative furniture and otherwise, which are interesting for the great

WORKED IIU.SLIN COYERIET.— C. ST.vnELI WII.P, ST. C.M.J., SV.'ITZERLAyD.

eharmiu" in the simple devotejuess to a beloved nationality thus evidenced
by a brave, industrious, and primitive people, in their contributions to the
world's great and glittering fair. The escritoire, by Wettli, of Berne, which
our engraving represents, is in white wood, and intended for the use of a
lady ; it is so contrived that it can be used either in a sitting or a standing
posture. The embellishments, as already stated, comprehend various
p.assagP3 in the industry, field sports, and anuisements of Alpine life. The
general style of this piece of furniture, considered as such, is light, and by
no means inelegant Tlie small table, by Scliild, of Berne, is also extremely
pretty, and both are well suited for a lady's boudoir in the retirement of a
rural horn-.

SILVER CUP.— BT FRIES, OF ZURICH, SWITZERLAND.

With the exception of watches, the contributions in the precious
metals from Switzerland were rare. The Cup engraved, in oxidized sUver,
with emblems of war, the national cross, &c., is remarkable more for the
curiosity of the devices than for its size or beauty of design.

310

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

PAINTS AND PIGMENTS.

A JIONQ the numerous metallic colours exhibited, none were more remark-
able, either for the beauty of their tints or the great diversity of their
applications, than the various salts of lead. Of these the ordinary carbo-
nate, or white lead, is by far the most important. It is largely manufac-
tured both in this country and on the Continent, to be employed as a
body-colour or groimd-work, by means of which other and less opaque
pigments may be applied to ornamental purposes. This substance consists
of a compound of carbonic acid and oxide of load, and is annually mauu-
fiictured in Great Britain to the amount of about 11,000 tons. To make
this pigment, none but metallic lead of the purest and best description
can be employed ; for, should it contain even the slightest traces of any metal
yielding a dark-coloured oxide, the whiteness of the ceruse produced would
be materially affected, and its value iu a proportionate degi-ee diminished.
The preparation of this salt may be effected in vaiious ways, but the kind
most highly esteemed, both on account of its colour and its covering pro-
perties, is obtained by what is usually called the Dutch process, intro-
duced into this country in the year ITSO.

In order to prepare white lead by this method the metal is cast either
iu the form of stars or circulai- gi-atings, in order to expose as large a
sm-face as possible to the action of the vai'ious chemical inliuences to
which it is afterwards to be subjected. The crates thus formed are placed
one above another in the upper part of a conical earthen vessel, some-
thing like an ordinary garden-pot, but having about the middle a kind of
shoulder, by which the metal is supported above the surface of the dilute
acetic acid with which the lower part of the vessel is filled. These pots
are then arranged side by side on the floor of an oblong brick chamber,
the bottom of which has been previously covered with two or three feet
of spent tau, obtained from the tan-yai-d. The first layer of pots is after-
wards covered over with loose planks, and a second range of pots, also
imbedded iu tan, is placed upon the former ; and thus a " stack " is bmlt
up, so as to entirely fill the chamber with alternate ranges of the pots
containing the acetic acid and metalUo lead, surrounded by, and imbedded
in, the tan. Instead of tan, stable manure was formerly employed for
this purpose, but the darkening of the lead, occasioned by the sulphu-
retted hydi-ogen gas which is in this case evolved, has caused the use of
that fermentent to be almost entirely discontinued. Several ranges of
stacks occupy each side of a covered buOdiug, each stack containing about
12,000 pots, and from 50 to GO tons of metallic lead. Soon after the stack
has been built up, it begins to " work," or ferment— lai-ge quantities of
steam and vapour being at the same time evolved from the various aper-
tures or spouts which ai-e left in the tau for that purpose. The internal
temperature of the heap now rapidly rises until it attains from 150° to
180 Fahrenheit, and considerable quantities of watery vapom- and car-
bonic acid gas ai-e at the same time evolved. By this means the acetic
acid contained in the bottoms of the pots is slowly volatilised, and its
vapour, passing through the interstices in the leaden gratings, gi-adually
corrodes the surface of the metal, on which a crast of subacetate is rapidly
formed. This is quickly decomposed by the cai-bonic acid continually
given off from the fermenting tan, which liberates the acetic acid to com-
bine with a fresh quantity of oxide of lead— whUst the first is converted
into ordiuai-y white lead, which adheres firmly to the central portion of
the metal, which still remains unattacked.

In the course of from six to ten weeks the process is completed, and on
unpacking the stacks, the lead is found to have undergone a remarkable
change : for although the form of the castings is stUl retained, they are
converted, with considerable increase of bulk, into dense masses of carbo-
nate of lead. This conversion is complete when the operation has been
very successful : but in most instances a certain quantity of metallic lead
remains unattacked in the centre of the mas.s, and from this the exterior
coatmg is readily separated by passing the crates between properly con-
struct^ rollers, by means of which the outer crust becomes crashed and
falls off. The white lead thus separated is then transfeiTed to a series of
nulls, where it is ground into a thm paste with water, and alternately
reduced, by the process of successive washings and subsidences, to the
state of an impalpable paste. It is now taken from the cisterns where it
has been allowed to settle, and placed in earthen bowls, in which it is
removed to the shelves of large di-ying stoves, heated by a series of steam
pipes ; and there, m the com-se of about a week, it is brought to the state

1 P'^^'^^ ^^"^y "itibed between the fingers into a fine powder, and in
which the most powerful microscope does not enable us to discover the
slightest trace of a crystalline character. If intended to be made into
pamt, the diy white lead is now mixed in a pug-tub with refined linseed
oU and IS subsequently passed through a null, by means of which its
particles become more thoroughly incoi-porated with the oil.

trom the large quantities of spent tan used in the manufacture of this
article, it will be inferred that the establishments in which it is prepared
are chiefly to be found in the neighbourhood of towns in wliich tanning
IS extensively earned on, and where the refuse fi-om the tan-pits is con-
sequently to be procui-cd at a cheap rate.

The ordinary work of white-lead factories, such as buUding and taking
down the stacks, is almost entirely carried ou by women, a very large
proportion of whom are Iiish, whose weekly earnings vary from 9s. to llfc
The persons working ou white lead are, however, extremely subject to
peculiar diseases, occasioned by the absorption of this metallic poiaowii
into the system ; and unless great attention is paid to its removal fronfcji
the skin when the hours of work are over, it frequently occasions muscular
coutractious, by which the use of the affected limb is entnely and pebnij
maneutly lost.

Besides being made by the method above described, white lead is also
sometimes prepared by precipitation from the salts of that metal : but
when thus obtained, it is deposited in a crystalline foi-m, very unfavom^
able to its covering properties, and is consequently much inferior for
almost every pm'pose to that manufactured by the Dutch process.

Among the specimens of this substance exhibited, we observed samples
from Messrs. Russel and Robertson, of Holytown, Lanarkshire ; and also
from Messrs. Pontifex and Wood, of Shoe-lane, Loudon, who displayed a
series of examples illustrating the manufacture in all its stages, begiuuing
with the crade galena or lead ore. and ending with apeoimens of the pre-
pai'ed pigment iu its finished state.

In the various foreign departments of the building, numerous specimens
of this substance were also exhibited, among them samples from Austria,
Belgium, France, Germany, Bavaria, Saxony, Holland, Sardinia, the Uiiited
States, and China.

There were also exhibited two different illustrations of the oxkhloride
of lead, and also numerous examples of oxide of zinc, or zinc white, both
from this and other countries — although the larger proportion came from
Belgium, where the metal is produced in considerable quantities, par-
ticidai'ly from the mines and metallurgic establishments in the neigh-
bourhood of Liege. This substance when ground iuto paint, has many
advantages, but many defects. V\'o now proceed to the examination of
the other very numerous preparations of lead employed by the painter
and artist for various ornamental purposes. Among the most important
of these may be classed the various red and yellow colours obtained by
the combination of chromic acid with oxide of lead. The yellow v.arieties
known by the name of chrome yellow are prepared by the adtlition of
bichromate of potash to solutions of the soluble salts of lead ; and the
different shades observed in the numerous specimens sho^^■n, are obtained
either by vaiying the proportions of these two ingredients, or by the
addition of an acid or alkali to the solution of bichromate of potash before
it is added to the lead salt. The price of these prepai-ations is entirely
regulated by then purity, as it is usual to adulterate them largely cither
ivith sulphate of baryta or Paris white. The better kiuds sell for about
Is, per pound, whilst the same quantity of some of the most adultcmted
chromes may be obtained for urf. ; in which case, although the casual
observer would notice but Uttle difference between them and the pure
vaiieties, they consist principally of Paris white, stained only with chro-
mate of lead. These colours, like most of the other salts of lead, ai-e
Uable to become blackened by exposm-e to sulphuretted hydrogeu gas,
but ai-e not perceptibly affected by light alone. Some of the commoner
kinds, notwithstanding that they contain a poisonous salt, are also largely
sold for coloui-ing grouu I mustard, the appeai'ance of which has been
previously impaii-ed by copious adulteration with flom', oatmeal, pepper,
or other less wholesome commodities.

Red chromate of lead, more commonly called Persian red, is a bichro-
mate of the oxide of that metal, obtained by boiling a proper amoimt of
bichromate of potash with finely-divided carbonate of lead, until it has
acquii-ed a deep red colour — when the brilliancy of the tint is fm'ther
heightened by the addition of a small quantity of strong sulphuric acid,
totally free from any metallic impurities.

The mineral blue colours, of which numerous examples were to be found
in the case belonging to Messrs. Poutifex and Wood, as well as in those of
Messrs. Blundell and Speuce, and Windsor and Newton, are for the most
part compounds of iron and cyanogen. They are prepared by the addition
of a salt of iron to a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium, usually' known
by the name of prussiate of potash, a yellow salt of which the chemical
section contains several fine specimens. The colom'S thus obtained are
known in the trade under the names of Chinese or Prussian blues — the
only (Ufference existing between the two being occasioned by the admix-
ture of a certain portion of alumina with the latter kind. The alumina
in this instance merely serves to dilute the colour and give it additional
weight, and the better kinds are consequently such as are entirely free
from any mixture of this earth. These blues, besides being extensively
employed by painters and ai-tists, are used iu large quantities by paper-
makers and paper-stainers ; the former of whom by tliis means commu-
nicate a blue tint to writing paper, whilst by the latter it is not only
employed as a simple colour, but also in the preparation of green pig-
ments of various shades and tints.

Of the mineral gieens, a lai-ge portion of those exhibited consisted of
various samples of the colour known in commerce as Brioisicich gncn.
This substance is prepared by mixing together iu variable proportions the
yellow chromates of lead and Prussian blue — more or less sulphate of
baiytes or Paris white being at the same time Eidded, in accordance with
the shade .and strength of the colour intended to be made.

In addition to these were numerous greens which derive their colotir
from the salts of copper, of which many of them entirely consist. Among
them may bo mentioned Schcclcfs, or emerald green, the verditcrs, and

312

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS; AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPiEDIA OP THE GREAT EXHIBITION OV 1851.

VIEW. IN THE WESTERN NAVE.— KEITH'S! SILK 'TROPHY, ic.

314

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPiEpU OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

MACHINERY DEPARTMENT.

MARINE STEAM-ENGINES.
JHE collection of steam-engines exliibitcd, though by no means so full as
could have been desired, comprised many remarkable models, more
particulai-ly relating to recent improvements. A cumplete collection of
working models, from Watt's first stoam-eugiue down to the most recent
improvements, would be an exhibition in itself, and one of incalculable value
and interest. Perhaps, on some future occiwion such a scheme may be
carried out; but it will roquh-e the zealous co-operation of many hands.

On the present occasion we shall pay attention to the exhibited engines
for ship propulsion.

Among the aiticles of this class exhibited, we first noticed a pair of
marine engines sent by Mr. Atherton, of Devonport. which are intended
by him to be applicable, with slight alterations, either to pad»Ue-wheel or
Bcrew-steamers, in any cases where beam-engines are employed. In the

SIEiM ENGLVi:.— rVANS.

case of those engines, it is proposed to substitute one single beam overhead
for the pair of hcams usual in the older forms of marine engines. The
parallel motion is also ilispenaed with, and one end of the beam is attached
to a trunk piston, the other to the con net- ting- rod and crankshaft. Two
air-pumps are used, one at pach end of the beam, with a view of balancing
the work. There is a variable cxpansinn-,::?ear fitted to the engines, capable
of adjastmcnt during the time they are working. In eounosion with these
engines of Mr. Athertou, we may allude to a plan proposed by that gentle-
man, which has ah-eady attracted considerable notice, of marine engine
classification, which he coisiders essential to the increased efficiency of
steam-fleet service. The system which ho recommends for adoption con-
sists of a limitation of the number of engines, arranged according to the
gradation of sizes, to cylinders of ten, twimty, thirty, forty, fifty sixty,
seventy, and eigbty'lnches diameter, constructed with a view to the com-
plete adoption of the expansive principle, upon the same plan as the pair
of engines which he exhibits; and which, he considers, will afford all the
varieties of power now commonly in use, and meet the probable require-
ments of steam-ship service, both commercial and national. The advan-
tages which he st-ites would result from an application of the system to the
steam marine, would be, that the arrangements of the machinery of all
vessels would be similar in their nature : new ships would no longer be
experimental in their character, but their results would be certain ; foreign

ports could be supplied with the means for meeting all probable contin-
g»>nciea connected with the machinery; the weights and properties of each
class of engiuea would be properly and accurately ascci-taioed and defined,
and could be specifically contracted for. The subject is one deserving of
serious consideration on the part of those who are interested in the manage-
ment and increased efficiency of our steam marine, whether for commercial
or national purposes-

We come next to a pair of SO-liorse power engines, for a screw boat, sent
by Messrs. St^thert and Slaughter, of Bristol, on Mr. Slaughter's patent.
Here the cylinders are inclined at an angle of about 45 dogi-ees, fixed at
the top of "the frames, and tied together by a cross-bar of the frame. The
connecting-rods both work direct on to one crank-pin attached to the main
screw shaft, which is intended to run 120 revolutions per minute ; and at
the back of the engines the screw itself is shown on the shaft. It is of gun
metal, and with thi-ee blades instead of two, as is more usual; but it is
worthy of remark as the only fu -sized screw sent to the Exhibition. The
arrangement of the air-pumps is vertical ; and it is peculiar, inasmuch as,
instead of their buckets making as many strokes as the pistons of the steam
cyliudei-s, their speed is reduced by a wheel and pinion to one-thii'd the
number, in ordor to allow them to work quietly with metal valves : the
crank-pin which works them is fixed in the toothed wheel, and the motion
is commimicated by beli-crank levers, which also work the feed-pumps and
bilge-pumps. We undei^tand that a pair of engines identical with these
have been worked for some time in the Bristol Channel, with considerable
success. Messrs. Stothert and Slaughter claim on behalf of their engine
the following advantages :— High speed upon the screw shaft, in connexion
with slow speed of vacuum apparatus, in the same machine. They state
that there is no rciisouablc limit, on the one hand, to the high speed
required for the screw shaft giving facility for securing the best form and
angle for the propeller, nor, on the other .'to the reduction of speed required
for vacuum appanitus, with the diminished risk of accident resulting there-
from. They also state, that, by their arrangement, a considerable saving
of power is effected, by reason of the relatively reduced proportion of the
vacuum-pump, and the consequent saving of fuel.

The next in order were a beautiful pair of screw engines, of the united
power of 700 horses, being some of the largest yet made for tliat purpose.
They were sent from the well-known establishment at Soho, of Boulton and
Watt, now carried on in the name of James Watt and Co. There are four
horlzontiil cylinders — the cylinders each of 52 inches diameter and 3 feet
stroke, 65 strokes per minute; the screw itself is 16 feet diameter, and
makes the same number of revolutions. The cylindci-s are coupled in paire
direct on to one shaft, which is cranked in the middle to work the two aii"-
pumps- which are fixed in an inclined position between the steam cylinders
and below the platfoi-m, where the starting-gear is worked. The con-
densers are also betwe*-n the cylindei-s. The bilge and feed-pumps are
worked from a light cranksliaft at the forward end of the engines, and arc
very easy of access. The aii"-pump valves are of vulcanised Indian rubber.
The link motion is applied to work the slide valves, and the whole arrange-
ment is simple and compact. The ereat difference of opinion which exists
amongst engineers in their aiTangements of engines is strikingly shown by
contrasting the engines of Messrs. Watt and Company with those of Mr.
Atherton. In Messrs. Watt and Company's engine two air-pumps are used
to force steam cylmdera, while, in Mr. Atherton's, foui' air-pumps are used
to two steam cylindera.

Two very curious and interesting models were shown by Messrs. Watt
and Company. One of them was a model of an oscillating cylinder engine,
made in 1785, at the Soho manufactory; the other a model, of the same
date, of a locomotive engine, also made at Soho : they are both illustrative
of Mr. Watt's patent.

The engines sent by Messrs. Penn and Son, of Greenwich, included a
pair of 16-horae engines with oscillating- cylinders, of their usual size and
pattern, as fitted into the numerous river boats on the Thames, and were a
most excellent snmple of workmanship and propoi'tion. They were fitted
with two different paddle-wheels, to show the variety — one being that of
the common wheel with fixed floats, and the other a wi.eel with " feather-
ing" patldles. similar to those made where great speed is required. Some
of thu very fastest of the steam-vessels on both the Dover and Holyhead
stations are lUso fitted with this sort of engine, but on a much larger seule.
The celebrated Banshee is one of them. Engines on this plan have also
been fitted into the Queen's yacht Faii-y, but with a screw instead of paddle-
wheels. Another class of engines sent by this firm was a pair of 30-horse
engines for the screw propeller, being horizontal tiimk engines with fixed
cylinders. In these engines simplicity of arrangement is studied and
carried out to aveiy remarkable extent. The connecting-rods are attached
to the centre of the pistons at one end, and to the crank shaft at the other.
They are intended to i-un 115 revolutions per minute. The air-pumpa are
fixed in the condenser, and are worked direct from the pistons, each by a
horizontal rod working tbroueb stuffing-boxes in the t^linder cover and
the pump cover : they are, of course, horizontal, and are double acting, so
that their dimensions are reduced to a minimum consistent with their
effective action. Their valves are made of vulcanised Indian rubber, and,
although worked at great speed, are quite noiseless. The feed-pumps are
worked ip a similar manner, but are smgle acting only, as this is more con-
venient. All the parts are easily got at, and the starting and reversing
gear is very conveniently placed. Engines on this plan, but of much larger
size, viz., 360-horse, liave been fitted to her Majesty's steam frigates

natural green, or groxmd malachite. Scheele's green is an ai'senite of |
copper, prepared by adding a hot solution of ai-senite of soda to a nearly
saturated solution of sulphate of copper, which for this purpose should be
perfectly pure, and, above all, eutii-ely free from any metalhc impurities,
by which the colour of the resulting precipitate would be liable to become
affected. When the precipitation of the copper Sidt has been completely
determined, a certain portion yf acetic acid is added to the mixture ; this
liquid has the property of greatly adding to the brilliancy of the colour
produced, but in what pi-ecise way this is effected, chemists have not, as
yet, satisfactorily determined. The colour thus obtained is of a most
beautiful and delicately green tint, but possesses little body, and is
therefore not much used except by paper-stainers and the manufacturers
of fancy paper articles. This pigment, like must of the other compounds
of copper and arsenic, is of a highly poisonous nature, and the most
lamentable results have in more than one instance resulted from its
employment in the colouring of the fancy sweets ^vith which twelfth-
cakes, &C., are occasionally ornamented. Verditer, although of a gi'een
colour, is far less delicate in tint than that just described; it is made by
the addition of milk of lime to a solution of sulphate of copper, and is
chiefly employed by paper-stainei-a in the preparation of the commoner
kinds of coloured papers.

Natural (/rem, or powdered malachite, is exclusively employed by artists,
and is therefoi'e not made in large quantities. It is obtained by gi-iuding
to the state of an impalpable powder, the fine gi'een carbonate of copper,
of which very beautiful specimens were shown from Cornwall, Russia,
France, and particularly from some of the South Australian Copper mines.
This, from the scai-city of pure samples of green copper, and the small-
ness of the quantities manufactxired, is an expensive colour, rnd it is cou-
Bequently never employed either by paper-stainers or house-painters.

Among the finer coloui-e attention may also be drawn to the substance
known by the name of Vermillion or cinnabar. This is a compound of
sulphui- and mercury, which occurs in natme as a common ore of quick-
silver, and is prepared by the chemist aa a pigment under the name of
Vermillion. This substance is. chemically speaking, a bisulphuret of
mercury, and being, on account of the beauty of its colour, extensively
employed in painting, making red sealing-wax, and for many other pur-
poses, the preparation of the artificial variety has become the object of
an extensive and important manufacture.

The usual process is to heat together, in a largo earthenware or iron
pot a mixture of sulphui' and nietaJlic mercui-y, in the proportion of 150
of tlie former to 1,080 of the latter. When vermillion is prepared by
sublimation it forms into masses of considerable thickness, concave on
one side and convex on the other, of a needle-form texture and brownish
red colour. On being finely pulverised, however, this substance assumes
a lively red colour, of which the brilliancy in a gi-eat measure depends on
the fineness of the state of division to which the sulphuret is reduced.

This ])iginent — which, like most of the other mercurial compnuuda, is
highly poisonous — is volatile at a red heat without leaving any residue.
This circumstance is therefore taken advantage of for the purpose of
testing the purity of commercial samples of vermillion, which — being
frequently ndultei-ated with red lead, dragon's blood, brick dust, and par-
ticularly with Persian red — would, if impure, leave these mattei-s behind
when heated to the subliming point on a piece of hot iron plate. Lai'ge
quantities of this colour aro annually consumed by artists, paiuterSf aud
paper-stainers ; but like many other metallic compounds it is liable to
blacken if exposed for a long period to the du-ect action of the solar
rays.

Among the finer and moi-e expensive colours the different varieties of
lake deserve special notice. Under this title are comprised all those
colours which consist of a vegetable or animal dye, combined by pireci-
pitatiou mth a white earthy base, wliich is usually alumina. The general
method of preparation is to add to the coloured infusion a solution of
common alum, or rather a solution of alum saturated \vith potasli, espe-
cially when the infusion baa been made by the aid of acids. At first only
a slight precipitate falls, consisting of alumina and the colouring matter ;
but on adding potash a copious precipitation ensues, of the alumina asso-
ciated with the dye. When the dyes are not injured, but on the contrary
rather improved, by the presence of alkalies, the above process is reversed ;
the decoction of dye-stujff is made with alkaline liquors, and after it is
filtered a clear solution of alum is rapidly poured into it. The third
process is applicable only to substances having a great affinity for subsul-
phate of alumina; it consists of agitating recently precipitated alumina
with a decoction of the dye.

Yellow lakes aro coloured cither with decoctions of French or Pci-siau
berries, quercitron bark, or annatto ; the red and scarlet lakes from
cochineal or madder; and a kind of brown lake is prepared from the
liquor obtained by the maceration of finely-chopped Brazilwood.

Carmine is merely another name for an exceedingly brilliant and expen-
Bve variety of lake, in which the colouring principle is derived from cochi-
neal, which is the female of a species of insect very abundant in Mexico,
where it is found adhering in large quantities to the young shoots of the
cactus opimtia, or nopal tree.

Among the specimens of these substances exhibited, some beautiful
lakes and carmines, manufactured by Mc'^srs. Godfrey and Cooke, coidd
not fail to be admired. There were also examples of lake, carmine,
orchil, cudbear, lacdyes, and turmei-ic, by Mr. J. Marshall of Leeds, which
were well worthy of attention.

_.=^^^

In various parts of the section, as well as in many of the foreign dcMrt,
ments of the building, were found specimens of both natural and artiL-l
ultramannc. The natural variety of this most beautiful blue Lh i>repaml
by reducing the mineral called lapis-lazuh to an extreme state of diviaion
in wliich form it fumislies the artist with a most valuable and expensivp
pigment. Artificial ultiumarine is much inferior, both in colour mH
durability, to the natural product ; but it is still a very beautiful colour
and is prepared in large quantities for the use of painters and paper'
stainers. This substance is manufactm-ed chiefly in Germany, wltere it is
made by the fusion of a mixture of several earthy matters, togetlier with
sulphm- and carbonate of soda. Tlie theoi-y of the productioa of tlih
body is as yet but imperfectly understood; but its beautiful blue colour
is supposed to be in some way connected with the reaction of aulphuret
of sodium on silicate of alumina, of which both the natural and wtificial
vai'ieties contain a considerable amount.

The natural ultramarine is one of tho most permanent colours \v'i,
which we are acquainted, but there is still much uncei-tainty with i: ui
to the dm'ability of the artificial variety. A very general imjue- nm
however, exists that, when mixed with the organic matter used aa a
vehicle for its application, it will at length be found to change.

There were likewise among the chemical products various specimens ot
cobalt blue, or smalt — a colour which, although less brilliant than ultra-
marine, is peculiarly useful for the purpose of painting in enamel and
colouring glass, to which the most minute quantity of the oxide of cobalt
imparts a very decided blue tint. This substance is easentially a silicati:
of cobalt, and is prepared by fusing together, in a reverberating; furnace,
a mixtm-e of oxide of cobalt, white sand, and carbonate of potit>h. The
fused mass is afterwards powdered and washed in hydi-ochloric aciJ, for
the purpose of extracting the alkali, which, if allowed to remain, wouM
cause the smalt to lose its colour and assume a black tint on exposui-e to
the atmosphere. A great portion of the smalt manufactured in tlii*
country is prepai'ed from the cobalt separated from nickel, used at Bir-
mingham in the preparation of German silver; this is chiefiy sent to thi.'
Staffordshire potteries, where it is employed for painting on porceliio and
common earthenware.

The collection of colouring-matter exhibited also containeil numoron;
examples of organic stains and dyes, but as these should r>»ther be con-
sidered in connexion with the process of calico-printing than amcmi^ the
ordinary pigments, we shall reserve for a futxire occasion oui- notice en
this subject.

BABRETT, EXHALL, AND ANDREWS' GORSE BRUISER.

The introduction of gorse aa food for cattle is every day gaining: giouuil
There aro times and situations when gorse ia a most valuable article to
cattle-feeders, its nutritious qyalitiea being of the highest clas:^. Varimu
noblemen and gentlemen have used it with advantage, and made a variety
of experiments, always with satisfactory results, more especially with milt'i
cows and sheep.

The great obstacle in the way of general introduction is tlie difficulty of

getting rid of the hard points or prickles in which the nutritive j'lK''

the plant are contained. Until these are entirely destroyed, no sxi\ia^ L-nu

--■,v,

other foo'l.

swallow it; though, when they ai-e destroyed, any horse, cow, or o

herbivorous animal, will eat it with avidity, and prefer it to &ny c
oven though the animal may have never tasted it before. .

The old practice was to subject the gorae to the action of heavy ei g^
stones (as in a cider mill), until the introduction of a proper '"^'^'^'^^ ;.
Messrs. Ban-ett. Exhall, and Andrews. This machine both cuts au>l ^^.^^
the gorso, and delivere it for use quite soft and much hke b-ng "'^'■''
which state, of course, any animal can eat it without inconvenieiiO'*.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPtEDLV OP THE GREAT EXIIIIJITION OP 1851.

315

aiit ami lOncuunlur, ami tlioir [lurfunnaucoti liavu l)uuii in tiio lii^^lient
e satUfuctory. Altugutbor, thoy may bo coiiiiiclered an great n iiiiiipU-
pii of pai'td coiiijiavLHl w ith the provluuB Hiiuplo u^cillutiiig oii^iuti uow
sivoly (iHcil liy all uuj^iuuora, m tlio otiuillatiiig uiis'iuu itsolf ia alliiwod
Kiniplcr than tUo ol»l Ijoaiii oiiginu, wliitth wiw univorHally uacd iu

■vi'Asols uutil a fow ycara hIucu, uud which ia uot yot iibaiiUouoJ iu

few iuHtaucos.
ci>iii|iarisun of tho I'olatlvo advautages of paddlo wheels and Borew

Iki-d was I'DictMl iipiiii tho uotico of tho obBoi'ver here, by the close
mily of pairs of lii'dt-class oiiKiiica by the sauio maker ; oud wheu it in
iu mind that one was a pair of l(i-hoi'so powiT, and tho

a iiair uf 30 horso — each of the higlicst dogreo of excelleuco
ran^'oment— it must bo allowed that tlio screw propeller
t« of tho forms of eugiuc most easily adapted to stoani-
and of much greater lightness and simplicity of coa-
tion. bciides jjossi'ssiug that important requisite for vessels
,r— tlio having all tlie parts bolow tho water-lino,
adilition to tho eugiuos themselves, models were showQ of
runli cugiucs, and of a pair of largo oacillating eugiucs, of
orso power, ;is Utted into her Majesty's steam-ship Sphyux ;
t may not bo amiss to notice here that a pair of theso latter
at the time being fitted iiit<} the Great Britain, at Livei-pool,
there ciui bo little doubt that they will give a satisfactoiy

in that well known vessel.

■ donkey " engine, or steam feed pump, was also shown iu
loUection. It was a good sample of an ai'tielo which is indis-
ble uow that tubular boilers are so uuiversal. It may', how-
bo noticed that the relative sizes of cylinder and pump may

ry much modified for high pressure purposes, as a much
or excess of cj'linder area may servo for high than for low
are. Tho same exhibitors also showed the model of the

f her Majesty's ship, Arrogant.

nuuber of variously shaped screws for propclliug vessels were

ited by Captain Smitli, whose efforts to introduce this

n have been most unceasing for many years past. The

forms generally consist of a much greater length of screw

iiowfouudtobe neoessai'y ; and nothing is more surprising to

le who investigates the matter for tho fii-st time, than to see
3ry small surface necessiu'y to absorb the whole power of a
pair of engines, aud to transmit the force requii'ed to propel

SSfl.

loug other models of screws sho'wn by this gentleman,
those of the actual propeller used by Mr. Smith iu his
imental boat of 6-horse power, in 1836-7, on the Padding-
^anal, and with which she performed the fii-st sea trip
made with a screw propeller. Also wo saw the screw,
les diameter, made by Mr. Smith, and applied to his model working
in 1S35. The fac-simllc of a model of the screw propeller of her
ty's steam yacht. Fairy, presented by Mr, F. P. Smith to her Majesty,
ai'd tho Great Britain steam-ship, at Blackwall, ou tho 22nd of April,
Wiis likewise shown.

3 models of marine engines sent by the firm of Maudslay, Sons, and
were of the most complete aud beautiful description of engines made
em. First in order was a pair of beam engines of the kind made by
for many yeai's, and fitted in many of the ships in the navy, but which
3V,' generally superseded by other forms of engine — a.s. for instance,
scillatiug cylinder engines, of which a pair was exhibited in model,
our cylinder engines patented by them are, however, the kind generally
by this firm for large vessels, and very many of them^have been made
vorkcd for years with the greatest success — amongst other vessels, in
uecn's yacht, the Victoria and Albert. The cylinders are fixed upright,
n the tops of the piston rods are placed wi-ought iron "T" pieces,

i-ise aud fall with the motion of the piistons ; and to tho lower end
jh ■' T " piece is coupled the bottom end of the connecting-rod, the
eing attached to the crank. This anangemont allows of a much larger
cting-rod being used than is usually possible with direct acting engines ;
Iso, in tlie case of very large engmes, it reduces their separate pai'ts to
geablo weights aud sizes, while the total room occupied is much less
that requu-ed by beam engines. The air pumps are worked by a
ite pair of levers, aud these latter also serve for the feed and bilge
Very little framing is required for these engines, except the head-
which cai'iies the paddle shafts.

3 " annular" cylinder engines, patented by Mr. Joseph Maudslay, were
ited. This description of engine has been fitted into several of the
Is trading between Folkestone and Boidogne, as well as in others.

are somewhat similar in appearance to the trunk engines before
ibed, but with this difference — that the internal cylinder is a fixture,
Ifo piston rods are necessary to connect the piston to the " T " piece,
in the trunk engines there is'uo piston rod. The lower end of this
piece moves up and down in guides placed in the hollow of the Lnterual
ler, which has no cover. The connecting-rod is attached to it and the

as iu the double cylinder engine,
other class of engine shown in model was a sort of " steeple " engine,
iarly adapted for shallow river boats, such as are required on the

b; and several have been fitted to vessels on that river.

! most recent arraugemeut of Messrs. Maudslay 's engines was shown

ery compact and simple model of a pair of engines for working the

screw propeller. Tlio two cyliuden) arc horizontal, side by aido with the

I counuctiiig-rodH, jointed on to the crosfahc'iulB at the oudM of the piiitoij rods,

' uud coupled ou to two crauks at right ougles to each other ; tho iiir-)>uuipg

j being vertical, aud each worked by two cxceutric« at. tlio back of tlic two

j cranks, the rods from which descend aud lay hold of tlicair-|mmp "croH«lie,i>l,"

The same suuplicity of parts of tho Bcrcw cugiucs, us compared with tho

puddle-wheel engines by the Hanie mukoi's, wiui found here, OJt has been

alluded to before ; and, tlio wholo of the models being usually [>ut iu

motion, their remarkable excelleuco of workioaiiRhip »iid prop^a-liou waa

set oil' to the greatest advantage.

JOYCES STEAM-ENGINE.

Mr. Taplin, of Woolwich dockyard, exhibited a model of a plan for
lowering and raising vertically the funnels of large steam-vessels when
sailing only. This, and other plans somewhat similar, now extensively used,
are classed under the name of telescopic funnels, and most of the Government
ships are thus fitted.

Mr. Stevens also showed a rough model of a new system of surface
propulsion, termed by the inventor tho " fan paddle-wheel." It is to be
regi'etted that want of time prevented a more complete model of the
invention being sent ; for we understand that several nautical authorities
have expressed a liigh opinion of the merits of the invention, and even
consider that, applied to our fast steamers, the " fan paddle-wheel '' would
enable them to make the voyage across the Atlantic in from one to two days'
less period than at present. The invention consists of a continuous
propelling sm'faco, composed of a series of paddle-blades, or segments,
radiating from the centre, aud joined side by side from thence to theu' outer
extremities — which, wheu iu motion, enter, pass through, and leave the
water at inclined angles, thus dividuig or compressing the water alternately
right and left.

raWBttEB BOXES. — ESHIBITED BY THE EAST INDIAN COMPANY.

CARVED CaOSIEB HEAD. — UO-JKilS.

OR^'A^!E^^AJ, i.E.uiir.n,— pun d, tabis.

RELIEVO LEAT]

The specimens o
lievo Leathei-s in
Crystal Palace, alth
exhibited but by ■
firms, the two Fi
and the other En|
identical in their n
factiire and mod
treatment, are of
cient importance
demand a distinct nt
From all that we
collect in referenc
the earliest histor
the art, it is clearly
traced as far back ai
years before Christ
British Museum pos
ing some sci'aps
pieces of gilt le£
straps taken from n
mies, upon which
relieved figrureraent
King Orsokon adc
the god Bhem, and ot
of Amoun Ra Harsa)
Italy, Spain, and Flan
centuries ago were
nent for tlieir relii
leathers, the flati
ground-work of w
was usually gilded/
veredorcoloured; an
cently, Germany, FrS'
and more espec f
Great Britain, took •

MARBLE FIRE-PLACE. — JOHN THOMAS. fTOVF. — FEF.THAM.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCL01M<;DLV OF TIIK OllKAT KXIIIIJITION OV 18r,L

•■'A7

Jujii I lii.sMciiartmont iif art mnimfacturc. An able writer, while ilwellin^
ijiiicli Riistci upon tliiH sulyoct. Bays, the riiBtinct relief in which tho
ruK coiil'l he enihossoil. tho brilliancy of onloni* t)f which tho leather
uwoiitil)liv tho lii«h hurnLsh which could bo pivcn to the gold, the
)ility, ease of ajiplicatinn, and roHistnnce of damp, ron(h'rcd the material
iarly fitted for paiu'l.s and hauKinps. It was a warm and Rorgoous
u)^ for the wallfi, afVonlin^ infinite scope for art, taste, workmanship,
heriilclio iMMblazonnient, and tlio I'xeliisiveness of wealth, and was
fore largely used in tho decoration of palaces
baronial halls. At Hlonheini, flinchinbrook
0, Norwich Palace, Knockton Hall, at Lord
oroii):;h'K, and in many private collections,
^r tapestries aro still to bo found, preserving
tniost brilliancy of colour and gildiuf;. Some
) leather tapestries at Hinchinbrook, it is said,
the name of Titian. About 1S31 or 1532,
y VIII. built a manor-house near Eastham
ch, in l''.sscx, with a high, stpiaro tower, that
her sort of year of probation Anne Boleyn
enjoy the prosjiect of tliH Royal Park at
iwich. This tower had hangings of the most
ous gold leather, which remained until fifty
since, when the house coming into the hands of
■rii'tor with no especi.al love for tho memory
e lUuff Harry, nor tho sad Imuntiugs of the
f Anne Boloyn, nor the old art and workman-
ut" leather decoration, but a clear pcreej)tion
in so many yards of gilt leather there must
mie w'eight of real gold, had tho tapestries
lown, sent to the goldsmith's furnace, and some
vorth of pure gold gathered from the ashes,
the French department. No 1202, M. Dulud, of
exhibited several pieces of tapestry and
nental hangings in embossed leather, which
n' identical in subject and the method of their
iratiou with tliose of Mr. Leake in the Fine
IJourt. He likewise showed two elbow-chairs,
with embossed leather, and other articles of
ture similarl}^ decorated, amongst . which a
et w.as the best, and which served admii'ably to
the fitness of leather where the appearance of
rate carvnng is required. Opposite to these was
164, A. A. Despreaux, a collection of Vene-
leathers of similar pretensions, but differing
dely as possible in their result. The patterns
ted as models are well known by us to be very
rably adapted for the puipose ; but whether
sgui^e the original source, or fi'om inefficiency
e operatives, nothing could have been more
tent than the conclusion, and scai'cely any-
more execrable in taste, than the method in
h they are daubed with colour. All drawing,
•ace, and all notions of chromatic harmony are
to the winds. If these in any way resemble
lecorated leathers at the period of their decline
ultimate abandonment, we can scarcely wonder

e total extinction of this branch of art manufacture in those countries
h were eager to appreciate it in its palmy days.
Leake's (of Warwick-street, Golden-square) collection was in the Fine
'ourt. To this exhibitor's perseverance we arc indebted for the revival
is branch of art manufacture in this country ; and we do but justice in
ig, that the models from which he has hitherto made selections are of
ery best and most classic styles.

hon.so of ('anion and Co. had exhumed Roino of tlicir long buri<d tnasurcii,
and showecl the progi'ess of type founding Binco the time of William Caxloii
(172(1) uj) to IS.'il. Looking over thcHs old Bpecimen« wo were much Ktnick
by the beauty of tho Roman letter, and inwardly rcmarkwl that our apparent
progress, liad not, in some instanccH, liocn a real arivancc. The script of
Messrs. evasion is, however, very beautiful. MessrH. Robert Bcoley and Co.,
exhibited n highly polished type mouM, and, what was far more interesting,
specimens of Elizabethtin typo, with ornamental Tudor capitals, Hcriiit

K.MtBLE FIRE-PLACE, BY JOHN THOMAS — STOVE, BY FEETHAM,

lESE are altogether veiy handsome productions. The fire-place, in white
lie, is very elegantly carved ; the figures being a bust of Cha\icer in
;entre, and the virtuous Dorecene, and the patient Griselda on either
The stove is an admirable specimen of workmanship.

TYPOGRAPHY AND MISCELLANEOUS STATIONERY.
3 houses of Caslon, Besley, and Figgins, certainly contributed the best
lustrations of type founding on the English side of the Exhibition.
Messrs. Figgins proved incoutestibly the truth of their typo by the
jition of a form of pearl, made up of two hundred thousand pieces,
orted in the air by merely the lateral pressure of the screw-chase.
I the type irregular this could not be effected. Their specimens of
type for newspapers were very excellent, but their dissected type
Ids, machines, and raw material (antimony and lead) used in their
ifiicture, tell us veiy little about the process of type fountliug, which,
ould wish had been practically exhibited as one of the most curious
important branches of industry in the world. The old established

STAMPED LEAXaEn OBXAMESTS. — LEAKE.

Roman, Syriac, Persian and Arabic, together with borders adapted for
colour-printing, all of which were good. Miller and Richards' modest
frame, containing a specimen of the smallest type ever produced, and called
" brilliant," was very interestiug, as showing the perfection of the new type-
casting machine patented by Mr. Richards. Our readers w*ill estimate the
minuteness of this type when wo tell then that "Gray's Elegy," of thirty
verses, occupies a space of only three inches and three quarters by three
inches.

We confess that we do not take kindly to either Mr. Pitman's phonotypic, or
Dr. Benner's phonological alphabets, and therefore leave their merits to the
judgment of our readers. Jlr. Pitman, we must however admit, deserves
commendation for his gi'eat pei*severance. There was an interestiug
selection of type in sixty-seven languages, from the founts of the celebrated
James Watts, and exhibited by his son. We had likewise in this section
good specimens of type from Pergusson, of Edinburgh ; Stephenson, Blake,
and Co , of ShefiBeld ; also specimens of brass rules and type from Duncan,
Sinclair, and Son ; and music type b)' Novollo and others. In stereotyping
we had a hu-ge collection of casts from Messre. ICniglit and Hawks.
Specimens of a new pi'ocess of bituminous polytyping, fi-om Messi-s. Manchin

318

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

and Morel, in •which the printing surfiice itself is a bituminous compound.
This process is ingenious, but has arrived too late in the field to compete
successfully with the now rapid processes of electrotypiug, the casts
produced by which are (ai more durable and less liable to injury. In
electrotypiug we had but very few specimens. Messrs. Dslarue and Co.,
who employ this art extensively, and who might have contributed very
interesting casts, seem somehow to have overlooked the subject; this is to
be reoretted, as we had nothing to show in competition with tlie Austrian
collection. We noticed some casts exhibited by J. Baker, made according
to a method introduced recently into England, and which consists in casting
fusible metal into lime-wood matrices, which are made in a peculiar manner.
This is an ai-t extensively employed in printing silks and other textile fabrics.
Before quitting the type section we must notice the type and wood-cut
printing of M-ssrs. Bradbui-y and Evans as a work of merit ; likewise the
polyglot bibles of Messrs. Bagster and Sons, which, our readers are doubtless
aw.are, are printed in vai-ious languages, ,and correspond page for page, with
each other. Nor must we omit to mention the extensive case of the British
and Foreign Bible Society, with one hundred and .«ixty-five books in different
limguages, containing parts or the whole of the Holy Scriptures, nor the
case of the Religious Tract Society close by its side, containing religious
tracts in many languages. Also we had a case belonging to the London
Society for Teaching the Blind t j Koad, containing embossed books, maps,
geometrical tablets, and appiii-atus for writing ; and similar contributions
from other excellent charitable societies. Whilst turning from these, our
eye lighted upon a box just at the entrance of the section, which we at first
took to be a poor-box, but were informed that it was an invention of a
working man for the distribution of postage stamps. The customer, ou
dropping in a penny, it is said, will receive a postage stamp ; if only a half-
penny, he must repeat the operation. We must not forget to notice
Mr. Paxton's first i-ough sketch of the Great Exhibition building, which was
interesting for its very roughness ; and with a word for Mi-. Tait's school
outlines, which did not attract our attention imtU we overheard a young
a-'pirant after knowledge declare that " they were capital things to teach a
fellow to draw," we will proceed with the subject of type in the French
section.

Here our eye first lighted on a mould, exhibited by Marcellan Le Grand,
for casting one hundred .and fifty types at one time, and with which it is
asserted that a workman mav cast forty thou.'.and types in a day. M. Le
Grand exhibited likewise specimens of types of the oriental languages,
including Chinese. There was also a fine selection of type from C. La
Boulaye and Co., the successors of the celehr,ated Firmin Didot and Co.,
quite worthy of the higli reputation of this wonderful establishment. The
German character is particularly beautiful. As for M. Derriery's musical
type, it is so perfect, that it is diflScult to believe in its being typography ;
his type borders for colour piinting .are likewise good. JL A. Curmer exhi-
bited specimens of stereotyping from paper matrices — an art which was
introduced into England a few years back, and abandoned. M. Gautier,
jun. 's bi-ass type for bookbinding and other purposes, is the best of its kind.
M Dupont exhibited some specimens of litho-typogi-aphy, produced from
stones, etched so as to leave the printing surface in high relief, and types
set up in fanciful forms which struck us as by no means remarkable. The
best thing in his collection appeared to be the reprint, from lithographic
transfers, of an old typographical work printed in 1786, entitled "Recueil
des Historiens des Gaules et de France," and filling eight hundred and
eighty-five pages folio. The books from the N.ational printing-office, in
Paris, we need scarcely say, were good specimens of typogriaphy.

Austria appears to stand pre-eminent in typography and the allied arts of
stereotyping and electrotypmg. We noticed particularly, amidst the varied
riches of the Imperial printing-office of Vienna, a system of type for
composing the eighty thousand signs of the Chinese language by means of
about four hundred points and strokes ; the composition appeared, however,
to us to be a w*ork requiring a great amount of care to avoid the chance of
errors, which a slight alti-ration of tlie jjosition of any one of the points
would cause. The Lord's Prayer in two hundred and six varieties of
language, and in tlie chai-acter peculiar to e.ach country, is a remarkable
production. Stereotype and electrotype casts of the size of royal paper,
with the pla-ster matrix used for the first, and gutta-percha moulds for the
latter, were among.-st the riches enumerated in an explanatory pamphlet
placed at the disposal of visitors. The specimens of lithographic printing
were also of the greatest beauty. Thi.s collection was so va'^t and absorbing
that we thought it was the only contribution of the kind from Austria,
until we lighted on H:iasc and Sons' (of Prague) specimens of types and
typography, which, although eclipsed by the larger collection, contained
some things of merit.

The United States, the land of Fr.anklin, as far as we could perceive, con-
tained only one specimen of type, and that was not remarkable. We noticed
in the ZoUvercin some excellent specimens of electrotypes from E. Hacmel,
of Berlin matrices from wood blocks, bra.ss types, and brass engr.aved rules,
with specimens in chromotypography — the latter not remarkable.

Wenow return to the Eiighsh side, to describe the miscellaneous stationery,
fancy papers, playing cards. &c, &o. In this department the Messrs, Delarue
and Co. were the largest exhiliitors, their stall being literally crowded with
specimens, novel in design. We were particularly pleased with two books,
tlic one containing a largo collection of linen ornaments of great chastsness,
and the other a series of fancy papers ; the us(?s of which are exemplified
by the .albums and boxes, to which we shall have occa.sion hereafter to
advert. In these books tlie beautifully blended enamel colom"ed papers

a:'e so arranged as to contrast with e,ach other, and are certainly the nee;
approach to the representation of the prismatic spectimm of anything ?',.
have seen. The greatest novelty, however, was the iridescent papers, ^
chameleon-like, change their brilliant hues when viewed from diffd/
positions. They are produced by a thin film of colourless varnish, aH
is spread out upon water and then lifted off to the object to be coitt
The .application of this new art was exemplified by artificial sheUe
splendid as Nature's choicest productions — beetles that would deceive-fi
the microscopist— pearl-like visiting cards, and ornate bronzes. It ap{i>
incredible, at first, that a varnish, colourless in itself, should produce i)
resplendent hues ; but what schoolboy has not blown bubbles and adaii
the beautiful tints which make tlieir appearance, and which become n
.and more vivid as the bubble becomes attenuated, till it bursts,
exactly such a thin film .as encloses the air bubble, but of a more permai
material, which produces these colours on paper. Sir Is:iac Nefl
discovered and investit;ated the colours produced by a film of air contAi
between two lenses, and which are still called Newton's rings ; and t
determined the numerical data on which the undulatory theory of U|
based. In playing-cards the Messre. Delarue and Co. surpassed evei
else of the kind exhibited. The designs by Mr. Owen Jones are very cleg
especially those which were destmod for her Majesty, It must begratif;
to the antiquarian to find that playing-cards, on which so many gc
volumes have been written, still maintain their influence on the art
engraving and printing, of which they were the cradle. We rcmai
likewise cards in which each suit is printed in a different colom-, and w
struck us as likely to be of service to short-sighted persons. There i
similar cards on the French side of the section.

Mr. Whitaker Ukewise exhibited playing-cards, with ornate design
some merit. Messrs, Dobbs and Co.'s case contained specimens of eraho,
boards and lace paper ; amongst them we perceived some of Raph
cartoons, " The healing of the lame man." Mr. Buck exhibited hand-serf
Mr, Kronheim, in addition to his print of " The Descent from the Cn
sent embossed and gilt labels, specimens of which were likewise exhil
by Mr. Mansell, who also displayed lace papers of good design, and s
gigantic valentines. Messrs. Dean, Messrs, Meek, and Mr. Hider, were
contributors of valentines. We are quite at a loss for a standard of t
by which to judge this class of productions, but we suppose that they pi
the p.arties for whom they are intended, and certainly they display n
ingenuity in concealing many a little appropriate stanza beneath I
intricate foliated ornament. We know not whether valentines are use
Germany, but we found at Mr. Techner's stall, in the Prussian depai-tn
specimens of the leafage used in their manufacture ; and also at
Schaenffeler's (Wurtemburg) specimens of lace paper. Mr, Pinche's dis
of envelopes, with private crests, will sustain his name as an engmver ;
the envelopes with ornamental seals, by Smith, of Rathbone-place, '
likewise good, but struck us .as specimens painted up for the occa;
r.ather than objects for current sale. Near them we perceived some fieri
letter paper, of Mr. Wildes, of Snodland. the design of which was give
the water, and is similar in character to those before mentioned, T.
were some ingenious envelopes of Mr. Dudman's, with moist cer
contained in a tin-foil capsule.

We now turn once more to the foreign side of the Exhibition. In
French dep.oi-tment, M. Marion, of Paris, exhibited fancy papei-s
envelopes ; but although they were all very beautiful, there appearei
have been no exertion on his part to produce novelty. M. Valant's fo
envelopes and papers, ornamented simply with ruled lines in colour
metal, were very chaste. Lefevre's fancy letter and note papers deser
praise, and the playing cards exhibited by him were the only coutribut
of the kind from France — they had the various suits printed in diffe
colours, the same as some exhibited by Messrs. Delarue. M. Ernest Mc
exhibited specimens of cliromo-typography applied to heraldic illustrati
which are very successful. In the Belgian department wo noticed a si
collection of envelopes in which we perceived some of a bufi' colour,
which we were informed were for the .American market ; fancy wax,
remarkable for its beauty, by Zegellaar ; beautiful fancy marbled pa]
were exhibited by Messrs. Glenisson and A'.angenetchen ; playing-cards ■»
exhibited by those gentlemen, and by M. Daneluy ; these cards appea
to be of good quality, but not equal in finish to those manufactm-ed
England : and this rem.oi-k applies generally to all the playing-coi-ds exhib:
by foreign makers. The Austrian playing-cards, are perhaps, the n
highly glazed of the foreign card,s, and in other repects well manufactu:
The exhibitor w.as J. Geirg Steiger, of Vienn.a. In Russia, we ai-e infori
that the manufacture of playing-cards is a Government monopoly, the pn
being applied to the support of foundlings ; but we did not see any specimi
Denmark sent playing-cards of fair quality, manufactured at Copeuha§
by M. Holmbald. Trommann, of Darmstadt (ZoUverein), exhibited a la
collection of playing-cards, well manufixctured, and amongst them
recognised copies of English cards, we suppose for exportation to
colonies. There were specimens of pl.aying cards also fi-om H. L. Schnaf
of Offenbach ; and altogether Germany may pride herself on her con
bution in this manufacture, as well as in fancy colovued papers. Amei
sent no playing cards, although we believe they ai-e manufactured t
considerable extent, especially of the lower qualities.

O. Schafer and Schube, of Berlin, showed some good embossed boards;

chromo-metallio embossed borders, Theodore 'Von Zaber, of Mayen

exhibited specimens of chromo-typography, of which we cannot speak

I praise. The fancy marbled papers manufactured in Germany are rema

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOP^IDTA OF TIIR GREAT EXIIIRTTION OF 1851.

h Ito.iutifiil : tlicro wm: Hpocimeiifl oxIiil>it-i)il \>y Wii-^t Ilrotliers, of
|l istiidt, nnd Alloifl nessaur, of A*»clifift"iilmrg, Biivarift, who likowiHo
^ >ited pnod RpcnimpHH of Hurfaco colouivd omlmsKoil piipor. M. Hiiiiiern
jm moii"^ of fmiry ombosKinj^ Jind printing woro jtrotty ^ood. Limtly.
I (lonlo. of Munich. oontribuUnl by fur tlio best Bpocinions of imitation
I piipora in the Kxhiljition, to^^otiior with oniliosstul gold oruamenti.

319

MEMOIRS OF WORKING MEN.

, JAMES WATT.

I ! cnlobrity of somo men may bo comparod to a raetoor wliich appears
T r a littlo and then vauishe.^ away ; thoii- memory is only found in tlicir
■ lo monuments. Others, again, liko planets, h.ave snoeeeded in attain-
more permanent distinction; tliey havo conferred benefits upon their
V men which remain after them ; tlioy require no busts — no empty
oxis structures to toll that they havo lived ; their memory is in their
Of tho latter class wasJ.vMES W.vtt. the immortal discoverer of
.eam-eu'^ino. Ho was born in 173t.!, at Greenock, in Scotland, where
ther was a merchant and maj;istrate. His (grandfather and uncle both
gnisbed themselves as matliematieians and enj^ineers. Tlie subject of
emoir was educated in his native town, which has lonjj been dis-
isbed .as a port of extensive commercial relations and for tho elejanco
ubstantiality of the works of its nieclianies. especially in reference to
ation. Till tlie a^e of sixteen he continued at tho grammar school,
he was apprenticed to a matliematical instrument maker. At the ago
hteon ho was sent to Lonil.m, being bounil to a distinguished matlio-
al instrument makm'. Here, howi'ver. the delicacy of his health,
an attack of rheumatism, ooc.isionod by working one winter's day in
pen air, prevented him from deriving any advantage from liis situation,
e was soon obliged to return to his native country. In 1757 he went
jde in the tTnivorsitv of (il isgow. being appointed philosophical instru-
raaker to that seminary, with apartments in the buihling. In this
,ion ho remained till 17'14. when he married his cousin. I\Iis5 Miller,
len established himself in tho town as an cugiueer. Wliilo iu this
ity. he was cnnsulted with regai-d to the gi-eat canal which traverses
1 from east to west, termed the Caledonian Canal ; and he is said to
proiectcd tho canal wliieh unites the Clyde and Fortli. An accidental
istance. however, had given a different bent to bis pursuits. One of
omen's steam-engines had been sent to him from the Natur.al
BOpliy class for the purpose of being rejiaired, and this turned his
tion to tho power of steam, of which he was destined to make Such
did applications.

las been usually admitted that the first individual who ascertained
,ct that steam was capable of raising weights or water, w.as tiie llaVquis
srcester. M. Arago, however, in the Annitaire for 1837, denies the
acy of this couclusion. aufl claims the discovery fir Salomon de Cans,
itrymau of his own. A few extracts in the words of the respective
irs will enable the reader to draw his own inferences. Hiero. of
mdria, 120 years before the Christian era, wa'^ acquainted with the fact
rteam. tinder certain circumstances, could give rise to motion. In
Blasco de Garay, a sea captain, proposed to the Empei-Qj- Charles V.,
ate embarkations even when there was a per''ect calm, and without
md oars. In June o/ the same year he is said to have made an
iment with a Vessel of 200 tons, which he carried into Barcelona,
ding to some, at the rate of a league per hour : according to othei-s at
ite of two leagues iu three hours. The appai'.atus which he employed
barge cauldron of water attached to wlieels connected with tlie sides
vessel. This account is given by M. Gonzalez, in Zach's astronomical
pondence for 1S26. It is altogether, however, so improbable that
importance can be attached to it ; such is the Spanish claim to the
very of the force of vapour. In 1615, Salomon de Cans wrote a work
ed " Les Baiwns dcs Forces Jrouvantes, ttc." In this he states tlmt if
be introduced into a copper globe, with a tube passing vertically
gli the upper p.art of the globe, and dipping under the surface of the
', on the application of heat to the globe, the water will be driven up
ibe ; he observes, " the force of the vapour (produced by the action
e) which causes the water to rise is produced from the said water,
1 vapour will depart after the water shall have passed out with great
'This is the French claim to the invention of the steam-engine.
29, Br.anca, of Rome, described the eolipyle, or vapour blow-pipe,
however, has little connexion witli the subject. In 1663. the
uis of Worcester published Ins " Century of Inventions.'* In his sixty-
1 invention, he states that he has discovered an admirable and very
•ful method of raising water by the assistance of fire, not by aspiration,
'the philosophei's say, intra sph(erum activifati^, the aspii-ation acting
it certain distances ; " but my method has no limits if the vessel
!ses sufficient strength." He took a cannon, filled it to three fom'ths,
hut up the open end ; he then k^pt up a constant fire around it, and
course of twenty-four hours the cannon burst with a great noise.
ing a way to make my vessels so that they are strengthened by the
^thin them, and that they are filled in succession, I have seen water
il continuous manner, as from a fountain, to the heiglit of forty feet.
Sel fiiU of water rarefied by tlio action of fire, raised forty vessels of
*ater. The pei-son who superintends this experiment has only two
wcfcs to open, so that at the instant when one of the two vessels is
led, it is filled with cold water during the time that the other begins

to art, anil thin in succession. The firo in kept in a const.ant d.-cree of
activity by tho 8amo pemon , ho Imi niifficiont tirao for thi;< during tho
intervals which remain after turning tho stopcockH." Such i/i tho Knglinh
claim to tliO discovery of tho Htesim-onginc. WhatcTcr 0[rinion m.iy bo
.arrived at, one thing is certain, that if lii» prcdeceiworn were ifpiorantof the
force of vapour and its movin,' power, tho Marquis of Worcester waft quite
familiar witli tliem. In 1683, Sir Samuel Moreland wrot- his "Klevationg
of Water by all kinds of Maeliines. &c.," a manuscript pr'-ficrrcfl in the
British Mnscum. Ho obrtorvns that •' water being evaporated by tho force
of fire, its vapours require a much greater Rpaco (about 2000 timen) than tho
water previously occupied, and rather than bo confined will burst a piece
of cannon. But being well regulated according to tho rulen of statics, and
by science reduced to measure, to weiuht, and to balance, then thcr will
carry tlieir burdens peace,ably (like good horses) ; and thus they willlw of
great us-; to the human race, particularly for raising wat'-r according to the
follo\ring table, which expresses tho number of pounds which m.iy be
raised ISOO times per hour to the height of six inches by cylinders half
filled with water as well .xs the dilTeront diameters and depths of the said
cylinders." In 1690, Denis Papin, a native of Blois, in Fr.ince, first thought
of pltioing a piston in a cylinder, .and acting upon it by the force of steam.
It is unnecessary to enter into the question of the priority of the discovery
of the steam engine from the iircceding details, because they appear merely
to demonstrate the force of steam, or its moving power— the alphabet of
the steam-enijjine.

In 169S, Captain Savory obtained a patent for an instrument in which
the power of steam was .applied to jiractical purposes. The water was
placed in a boiler, the steam escaped by a tube ,at the upper part of the
boiler into a lai-ge spherical vessel, where, upon being condensed, a vacuum
was formed, which enabled the atmosphere to act. It was therefm-o the
atmosphere, .and not the steam which w.xs tho moving power. In 1705, a
patent w,as taken out for an improved engine on the same principle, in the
names of Newcomen, Crawley, and Savery. It wa-S in 1764 that James
Watt was employed to repair a model of one of these engines behmging to
the Natural Philosophy class in Glasgow college. He was struck with the
defects of the machine, and set about improving it. In 176S he completed
his first engine, which, as with those now iu use, differed from that of
Newcomen by the condensation of the steam taking place in a second
vessel, so that the descent of the pistou was produced by the force of the
steam, and not by atmo.spheric pressure : the ascent of the pistim wa^ also
produced by the power of the steam. The engine of Watt w.as therefore
a true steain euginc ; those which preceded it can only be considered as
machines which produced certain efieots by the atmosphere acting on a
vacuum produced by the condensation of steam.

Dr. Roebuck supplied Watt with the me.aus of accomplishing this gi-eat
work, and in 1769 be obtained his first patent. M'att had remarked that
two-thirds of the stearh were condensed by the contact with cold water:
hence there wa-s a loss of two-thirds of the fuel. He first attempted to
su Institute a wooden pipe for a tube of iron, considering that the wooil is a
worse conductor of heat ; but he found that the wood had less resistance
to the suddeii altel-nations of temperature. He then thought of passing'
the steam into an iron tube without ceiling the walls of the tube : this
constituted tlie invention of the condenser. This vessel, free from air, .and
communicating with the water, being opened at the moment when the tube
is filled with steam, draws the latter towards it. and wlicu the vessel
receives .at the same time a jet of cold water, the steam which is p.assing to
fill it is condensed ; the remaining p.art of the steam iu the pipe is removed
into the vacuum caused by condensation, and thus the piston is allowed
five play. To get rid of the w.ator in the condenser, a small air-pump w.as
applied, which was worked by the piston. Tlie invention of the condenser
was then W.att's 61*51 great improvement. The second was the admission
of steam above and below the piston according as it was to be depressed or
raised. He svuTonnded the metal tubes with wood in order to keep in the
heat. He calculated with precision the quantity of fuel necessary for
producing a certain portion of steam and the volume of cold water required
to condnnse it. Such were the inventions for which the new patent was
obtained, but funds were wanted to extend the utility of the discovery.
Fortunately, iu 1776, Dr. Roebuck, who had exhausted his me.ans. met
with a purchaser of his interests iu the patent in the person of Matthew
Bolton, of Birmingham. To him. therefore, it m.ay with justice be said
that the C'>untry owes the present dilfusion and importance of the steam-
engine. The finn of Watt and Bolton commenced their manufactory at
Birmingham by constioicting a steaoi-engine. which all those interested in
mining were requested to inspect. The invention began gradually to be
appreciate<l. especi,ally in Cornwall, and Watt's engine very soon replaced
that of Newcomen. One great encouragement to adopt the new engine
was the terms upon which it was supplied. The agreement was. that one-
third of the saving of fuel over the old engine should be the price of the
new engine. The saving was carefully ascertained in this way : the
quantity of fuel necessary for producing a certain number of strokes of
tlie piston was ascertained by Newcomeu's engine and by a new one of the
same dimensions. The number of strokes was determined by means of a
piece of clock-work, termed the counter, attached to the engine, .and so
arranged that every stroke advanced the baud one division. The instni-
meut was placed in a box supplietl with two keys, and was opened at the
time for settling accounts in presence of the agent of Watt and Bolton, and
of the director of the mine. To show the amount of saring it is only
necessary to state that the sum which the firm derived from three engines
in one year at the Chace-water Mine, in Cornwall, amounted to 2382?.,

320

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS.

proving that the saving of fuel by the new plan was equal to upwards
of 7000?. per annum, being equivalent to '238'2/. per annum on each engine.

The manufactory of
Soho speedily extended
its limits, and what
was once a sterile hill,
soon became a popu-
lous and fertile manu-
factory. The firm ob-
tained an extension of
their patent to 1800.
To this period the
engine had only been
employed to raise water,
but in 1800, Watt be-
gan to think of apply-
ing it to mills. This,
he conceived, might be
effected on the princi-
ple of the spinning-
wheel, where the im-
pulse which turns it
one-half completes the
revolution. While en-
gaged with his models,
he learned that a ma-
nufacturer of Birming-
ham, named Rickards,
had constructed what
he was m search of. He
procured a plan of it,
and found that it was
precisely his own ; he
ascertained that his
own plan had been sold
by one of his faithless
workmen to Rickards,
who had procured a
patent. It was too late
to claim the invention,
and he therefore sought
for a new plan. He
accordingly invented
what is termed the sun
and planet motion.

The intelligent and
aspiring mind of Watt,
however, was not con-
tent with directing its
attention to one subject
alone, fle invented in
1779 a copying - press
consisting of two cylin-
ders, between which a
sheet of moistened pa-
per was passed and
applied over a printed
sheet ; thi.? contrivance
was very successful. In
SLirch, 1787, he intro-
duced into Great Bri-
tain the method of
bleaching cotton by
means of chlorine which
had been discovered in
France by Bcrthollet.
This claim was at one
time disputed in favour '

of Professor Copland, !

of Aberdeen, but it
was quickly set at rest
on the side of Mr. Watt
(Ann. of Phil., vni., 2).
In 1800, Mr. Watt re-
tired from the firm
with a handsome for-
tune, and was suc-
ceeded by his son, who
continued along with
the son of Mr. Bolton
to carry on the manu-
factory. During liis
residence in Glasgow
liis first wife died. At
'5irmingham he married
the daughter of Mr. Macgregor, a manufacturer in Scotland, with whom,
in the heart of his family, he happily spent the evening of his days. He
was elected a fellow of the Royal Societies of London a'ld Kdinbtu-gh, and

the Institute of Paris in 1808 made him one of their eight foreign aa
ciates. In 1817 he visited Scotland for the last time. In the course

two years afterwan
his health broke dow
and he died on the 25t
of August, 1819, age
eighty-four years, b
loved and respected I
all. Mr. Watt was oi
of the most estraon
nary men of any a;
He was not only
mechanic, he was
accomplished schob
and yet in a great nw
sure self-taught. ]
was familiar with t
modern languages ai
had an excellent
quaintance with d
mistry, physics, an
quities, architects
and music ; in short,
■was generally well-
formed. Possessing
these requisites, ano
splendid benefactor
his country, it is
markable that govei
ment never confen
any honour upon hi
Immersed in expensi
wars which delug
foreign lands with i
blood of our fellci
creatures and impo
rished our own peoj
it sought only to ' i
stow rewards on thi
who were foremost
the fight. It was f
haps well ; the dayel
these men are past, 1
those of Watt will
dure for ever. 1
visitor to the ancii
relics of Westminsi
Abbey may have
ticed many a gorgec
monument in memi,
of individuals who ht
left no record behi
them save these hea
less stones, or a notJ
perhaps, in the hiatO
of battles of their hi
ing assisted in the p
mature death of soi'
friend of freedom
unfortunate foe ;
looks long in vain '.
the monuments of th(
who have succeeded
advancing the pown
of the mind, and atli
espies an obscure tab
which tells that oulj
mere spot can be spat
for the ti-uly mig'
dead. The memory
Watt was left to
established in peacel
times, when a philoi
pher, the hero of int
Icct, is valued above
hundred warriors, t
lieroes of the passion
for Watt assisted
superseding the bar!
rism of war. A hai
some statue of Wl
was erected in 1824,
Birmingham. Glaag(
has a similar tribute
his memory, and We
minster Abbey can now boast of having deposited within its walls a marl
statue of one who has conferred greater benefits on liis country and ~
the world tlian perhaps any individual commemorated by its monnraont!

THE OREEK SLAVE. HIRAM POWER.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE CHEAT EXHIBITION OF 185L

iitOl'P or OBJECTS OJ"
VERTU.
BY WERTHEIMER.
"flra briltiaut group
omprlses, first, au
legant casket. Louis
Juatorzo stylo, of or-
lolu witli porphyry
ilaid; second, a cas-
et, or-molu, witli six
anels paiuted ena-
lel upon porcelaiu,
esides other similar
nrichments on the
d ; and third, an ink-
taad and penholder
f most elegant sliapc,
iso iu or-molu and
orcelain. Nothing of
lae kind can be con-
oived more recherche
ndfcxsteful than these
lijects, which stood
1 the loft depart-
leut of the main

miour or objects or vertu. — wertheimer.

FtJ RNITUBE. — WEBB.

The table exhibited
with two chairs, by
AVebb, of Bond-street,
claims to be Kliza-
bethan, and of old
workmanship, from
its apparently free
and careless handling;
nevertheless, the carv-
ing of all the thrco
articles is equally
beautiful. The table
is a very pretty, well-
proportioned design,
and is superior iu
every respect, but that
of execution, to the
chairs, which are left
quite plain at the
back, in the French
fashion, but are too
much loaded with
projecting ornaments
to be used with com-
fort. This is an error
which sacrifices com-
fort to appearances;
and which -can nc%-er
answer in thclong run.

Xo. 21, Febrdart 21, 1S52.

FL'BNITnBE. — WJ:BE.

TnicE O.VE Penny.

322

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

CiSEELABKrjf.— ET MR. WKBE.

The candelabrum exhibited by Mr. Webb, of Bond-street, displayed great
merit, both in de.-;i?n and execution; style, tliat of the Venetian of the
sixteenth century. The carving is bold and effective, and the or-molu
branches ai-o iveli arranged and beautifully chiselled.

W.M'.DROBE. — liT WU/KIKSOir.

This wardrobe, in walnnt-trcc wood and pollard oak, is remarkable for its
good taste in the design, and simplicity in the ornamentation. It is not
often we meet with a work so unexceptionably well finished, with so little
a»t;mpt at meretricious display. (Sec p. 328.)

CRYSTALLISED SALTS.
AMOKGST the various objects belonging to the Chemical Department,

none were entitled to a larger shai-e of attention than the various
Crystallised Salts, so valuable in their application to manufacturing
processes.

First amongst these we must mention the various largo and very beautiful
specimens of the hydrated double sulphates of alumina and potash, or
ammonia, usu.%lly known by the name of common alum. This substance
is sometimes discovered in a natural or native state ; and where so found
it occurs in volcanic districts in the form of a white flocculent powder,
covering the surface of lava and other trachytic bodies abounding in such
localities. In this form it occurs in Auvergne, in the south of France, in
Sicily, and the volcanic islands on its northern coasts ; but more particularly
in the neighbourhood of Naples, in the Grotta di Alume on Capo Miseuo,
and in the Soifatara. Fi'om these localities it is collected, and dissolved
in water, which, after being allowed to deposit the earthy impurities held
in suspension, is evaporated, in order to crystallise the ahun which it con-
tains. The salt thus procured is subsequently purified by repeated crystal-
lisations, and, when brought into the market, conUdns but a very minute
amount of foreign matters. No fuel is used for the evaporation but the
natural volcanic heat of the soil in which the leaden pans ai-e imbedded.

The alum thus obtained forms, however, but a very small propoilion of
that which is annually employed in the arts ; and much larger quantities
ai'c prepared in various localities by the chemical treatment of a mineral
known by the name of alum-stone or alum-rock. This is a massive,
granular, partially crystallised, transparent, and not homogeneous rock,
which frequently enclose? quai'tz, sometimes iron pyrites and manganest
ore. Tliis mineral, wliicK is a basic sulphate of alumina united with buI
phate of potash, is of a yellowish colour, sometimes passing into green oi
brown, and is not unfrequently found in the form of distinct crystals. Tht
ordinary alum-rock, although less pure than the crystallised varieties, iia;
a nearly similar composition, and occurs in considerable quantities, and ir
a massive state, at Tolfa, near Civita Vecchia, in the Papal States ; ai
Montione, in the dukedom of Piombino ; in the Comitats of Beregh anc
Zempliu, in Hungary ; at Mont-d'Or, in France ; and in some of the islandi
of the Greek Archipelago.

Alum is prepared from this substance by first burning the stones ii
heaps or furnaces, and then transferring the residue to large walled cisterns
where it is repeatedly moistened with water, and allowed to crumble foi
three or four months ; at the expiration of which time it is converted inti
a soft mud, tasting iierceptilaly of alum, which is subsequently -n-ashed ou
with water and made to crystallise by the slow evapoi-ation of the liquore
The alum so obtained possesses most of the properties of ordinai-y schis
alum, ^\hich will presently be described, but it has also certain distiac
characters, by which it may be distinguished from the latter salt.

The Roman alum always crystallises in opaque cubes, whereas the
common variety assumes the form of transparent octahedrons. It als<
appears to contain a larger per-centage of alumina than enters into th'
composition of common alum ; for although perfectly soluble in pure watei
a deposit of that earth is determined by heating the solution to .abou
110 degrees Fahrenheit. The salt thus obtained is, however, of peculia
value as a mordant for the purpose of fixing colours, and as such it is large!
employed and much esteemed by the dyers of calico and other textile fabrics

Originally the whole of the alum consumed in Europe was produced fron
alum-stone at Rocca, now called Edessa, in Syria — hence the name "' roc
alum" — and was brought from the Levant to this and other Europeai
countries. About the year 1460 the art of preparing alum was introducec
at Tolfa by Johann de Castro, who first discovered tlic alum-stone in tha
district. Tlie art spread from thence in various directions, and in thi
seventeenth century the manufacture of this substance was oommenoec
lioth in this country and Germany, although the materials used and thi
processes of prepm-ing the salt were very difierent from those previous!
employed for this purpose.

The greater portion of the .alum at present consumed iu the arts is mad
from alum sliale, "ivhich is a kind of claj- slate impregnated with sulphure
of iron and bituminous matters. This mineral is found iu the Scandinavia)
peninsula, in Bohemia, in the Hartz. in Upper Bavaria, in Voigtlaud, in th
mountainous ilistricts of the Lower Rhine, near WTiitby, in England, and a
JIurletand Campsie, near Glasgow.

When these schists are exposed to a liigh temperature, in contact witl
air, the iron jiyrites (or bi-sulphuret of irou) which tlu^y contain loses jus
one-half of its sulphur, and is converted into tlie simple sulphuret of tha
metal ; which, speedily absorbing oxygen from tlie atmosphere, become!
converted into sulphate of iron, or green viti-iol. This sulphate gradual!
ti*ansfci*s its acid to the clay with wliich it is mixed, causing the productioi
of sulphate of alumina and peroxide of u-ou. A portion of gi-een vitriol
however, remains undecomposed, and the quantity of this will be greate'
as the amount of the other salifiable ba,ses contained in the schist becomi
reduced. Wlien lime or magnesia is present in the ore, they materiallj
facilitate tliis decomposition, and afford corresponding amounts either o
sulphate of Ihne or sulphate of magnesia, which latter salt is freqxientlj
one of the secondary products obtained during the manufacture of commoi
.alum from alum schist. The undecomposed portion of sulphate of iron i
also washed out and crystallised, and {otms an important item in thi
proceeds of an alum manufactory.

When the shale does not contain sufiScient bituminous matter to rende

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OP THE GREAT EXHIBITION OP 1851.

323

iiiiibu.itililo. ifia piled in lioaps with ii proper mixturu either of coal or
1 ; but, in luoat instancoa, it in i'ouinl Hutlicient to place n Iriycr of fuel
m bottom of tlio heaps only, an, when oueo fairly ignited, the combua-
I i.< carried on by the bitnniinouj matters contained in the Blmlo itself.
U'hitby, these heu[w are piled to the height of 90 or 100 feet, and form
iiiids of wliieh the sideK of the b.ise measure 2i)0 feet in len|{t|i. At
't, on the contrary, tho heaps uro not built to abovo a few fepi) in
^t, but are extended over a considerably larger sm-face.
I'lio lixivjation of tho cjilcinsd ore is not usually couiraouccd until tho
liles have become quite cold ; but as froni tln^ir yreat size tho calcination
iqnires many weeks, or even mouths, they are so arranguil that any water
'jeh niny fall on them in the form of niiii, is conveyed by means of
Irnins int<> proper reservoirs, where it is collected for subsequent concen-
rntiou by evaporation. Tho cisterns in which the lixiviation is ofroctod
:iro eommouly made of briek, and are so .arranged on tho side of a hill or
ilopinp piece of ground as to allow of the contents of that which is higher
n the series being drawn into that which is placed below it, in which case
ill the expenses wliieli would be incurred to pump the liquor from ouo
lasin to anotlier are entirely obvi.ated. Into the highei^t range of cisterns
he calcined mineral i.s now to be put — care being taken that the largest
unips are idaeed at tho bottom, and afterwards drawm off into a lower
jstern. and the partially exhausted ore again treated with a second supply
if water, which, being much weaker than tho other, is subsequently run
nto a separate cistern. Wiicu water is added a third time on tlie partially
pent mineral, it is too weak for separate evaporation, and is preserved for
ho treatment of a fi'esh qiinntity of calcined ores.

The lixiviated mineral, after being exhausted of its soluble ingredients,
5 removed from the tank and piled up in ;i heap, where it may either be
llovved to decompose spontaneously, or, when dry, is again subjected to
alcinatlou. The process of concentrating and evajiorating these liquors is,
.'om their liability when heated to deposit au earthy crust on the sides of
;io vessel in which they are contained, usually carried on by a surface heat
1 a long and narrow cistern of masonry, covered by au arched roof, which
jrma tho flue of a fire place situated at one end of the ai'rangement. During
his operation a portion of the sulphate of iron present is occasionally
parated. but the final eliiiiiuatiou of this salt is effected at a later stage
f tlio proceedings.

After being concentrated to a proper degree, the solution (which now
ontains sulphate of alumina and sulphate of iron, with frequently a
reater or less amount of sulphate of magnesia) is treated with a proper
uantity of either sulphate or mui'iate of annnouia, or sulphate or muriate
f potash, either of which .salts at once gives rise to the deposit of a copious
owder, which is impure alum in the form of minute crystals. The mother
ore now contain sulphate of iron and sulphate of magnesia, which are
ateil from each other by repeated crystallisations ; and the finely
ividi'd .alum, which, from an admixtui-e of the ferruginous liquors, has a
iddish colour, is washed in very cold water, in which the iron salts are
■Ucli more soluble than tho alum.

After two successive washings, the alum is obtained as a perfectly pure
■anular powder ; the firet washing water, which contains a large proportion
'the iron salts, is added to some of tho other liquors, to undergo a second
faporation — whilst the second, which is more pure, serves instead of
ater for the first washing of the next batch of pulverulent alum. After
IS granular alum has by this means been thoroughly washed, it is placed
a lai'ge leaden pan. in which it is either dissolved by the action of a
urent of steam or by the smallest quantity of boiling water which will
)ld it in solution.

As soon as a concentrated solution of tho salt is prepared, it is run off
to lai-ge tubs calleil reaching casks, where it is obtained in the crystalline
a,te in which it is sent into tho market. These casks are smaller at the
iper end than at the lower, and are made of very strong staves, nicely
■ted together, and held in their places by heavy truss-hoops, which admit
being readily removed. The concentrated solution, during its slow
cling in these large vessels, forms large .and regular crystals, which hang
wn from the top and project from the sides, whilst a thick coating of
It is also deposited on the bottom of each tub. At the end of from eight
ten days the hoops are knocked off, and the staves constituting the sides
the vessel are sep;u'ately removed, when an exact cast of the inside of
e cask will be found modelled in white and perfectly pure alum. The
)rkman now pierces one of the sides near the bottom with a pick-axe,
allows the mother liquor from the inside to run off upon the floor,
im whence it flows into proper cisterns sunk in tho ground, where it is
llected for the purpose of being treated for the various salts which it
ly contain. Tho alum is now broken down into lumps of a convenient
>, and after being properly dried, is stored iu the finishing bing, and is
idy for the mai'ket.

Phe mother liquor, besides containing ordinary alum, is composed of a
lirated solution of the pei'-sulphate and proto-sulphate of iron, of
.*t4des of iron, sulphate of magnesia, and sulphates of the alkalies,
ades which it contains soda-alum in solution, when soap-boiler's waste
iteen employed as the precipitant.

It Whithy, 130 tons of schist are required to make one ton of alum;
tht Hurlet and Campsie, where the ore is of better quality, 50 tons only
iBecessary to make the same amount of salt,
imong the specimens of tliese sulMtances exhibited were some magnificent
Btals of alum and sulphate of iron, manufactm-ed by the tioistees of the
e Mr. Buckley, of Manchester, on whose table were also examples of the

alum schist, both in its raw and calcino'l Hlatet, and likewiHO namph h ;I1u»-
truting the various «ttigcs of manufacture of tlicBC most important pro<liictti.
In illustration of tho manufacture of ahiuiH, ox carried on at W'bitby,
wo-s a ca«o belonging to Mr. W. Moberly, of the Mulgravo Worki, noar
.Sind.scnd, which contained HpccimeUK of niw and cnleiii-'d alnmnhale,
alum-meal, and iiniKJiud alum, togolher with Hulphate of luagiUMiu, botli in
itN rough und liiuuhed Htatea.

.Similar spccinicuii were ul.-io o*liibit«4 by the Hurlet aud Campcic Alum
Company, aud products in illustration of tlio manufacture of green vitriol
wore forwarded by Mr. J. Hall, of Qucenborough, in the Islo of Shoppy,
where the sidjstance is extensively |iroduced. Mr. 1'. Spence, of Manchester,
likewi.se exhibited some fine blocks of alum, and beautiful crystals of green
vitriol, obtained by his new and improved ])roceeses for tho production of
these articles. In the year 1845, this gentleman patented the mimufacture
of alum from tho common shale of tho coal and iron formation of this
country, which often lies in immense heaps in the neighbourhood of our
collieries, .and is usually cousi<lered as being of no commercial value. By
this ])roce.ss, which is said to be both simple and effective, a ton of alum is
obtained from every ton of calcined schist; and the specimens exhibited,
which are of the kind known by the name of ammonia alum, are prepared
by the addition of I'efuse liquors from gas-houses to the solution obtamed
by the lixiviation of the calcined stone. By tho process of Mr. Spence, tho
pyrites are burnt in a kiln connected with an ordinary sulphuric acid
ch.amber ; and of the vitriol thus )n-oduced about one-half is added, with
proper precautions, to the burnt pyrites remaining in tlie oven. By this
method the whole of the pyrites aic converted into isulpbate of ii'on, and at
the same time a considerable quantity of available sulphuric acid is
obtained, at uo other cost than the fii-st expense of the apparatus
employed. Mr. Spence also exhibited a sLib made of a peculiar hydraulic
cement prepared from the waste products of the manufacture of alum.
This is obtained by mixing the calcined ore, after it is entirely exhausted
of its soluble salts, with a ceitaiu proportion of the refuse lime which has
been used for the purification of gas ; these are then calcined together,
and, after grinding In the usual way, are foimd to afford a cement having
all the properties of hydraulic mortar. Tliis discovery appears to us to bo
one of considerablo importajice, and likely to afford many practical
advantiiges.

The purpofses to which ahim is applied, and the various arts in which it
is more or less extensively employed, are far too numerous to be particu-

j lai'ly mentioned ; but among its more important uses may be cited its
application as a mordant, and as a base in the preparation of many of the
finer coloure, such as the lakes and carmines. It is also extensively used

I in medicine as a valuable astringent; and it is largely employed for tho
manufacture of the glossy white substance called satin white, which is

I laid on the surface of many kinds of ornamental papers, for the pui'pQse of
giving them a firm body and a smooth surface.

Copperas, or gi'een vitriol, is of most extensive application in many
branches of the arts of every-day life. It enters largely into the compo-
sition of the ink with which we write — forms au essential ingredient of
blacking and of many black dyes — is the salt of iron employed in the
manufacture of Prussian and Chinese blues, for staining black leather — is
used in medicine as a styptic — and is of extensive application in a vast number
of other ways, which our space will not allow us to notice at present.

In connexion with this substance, we noticed some very beautiful
specimens of alum and sulphate of alumina, exhibited by Mr. H. L. Pattinson,
of Gateshead, Neweastle-upon-Tyne. Sulphate of alumina is commonly
known in commerce as concentrated alum, and is made by treating with
sulphuric acid clays rich in alumina, and subsequently throwing down, in
the form of Prussian blue, the iron which they contain, by the addition of
yellow prussiate of ))otash. This substance, excejit in not being crystal-
lisable, possesses all the characteristics of common alum in a higher degree
than that salt itself, and it is daily becoming more extensively employed
among dyers and calico-printers, to whom, from its large per-centage of
alumina and its pei'fect solubility, it has become a most important
acquisition.

MODEL OF BRIEN BOROIMHE S HARP. EXHIBITED BY MR. EAEL, OF DCBUN.

This little subject will be viewed with interest, as a correct counterpai't
of the ancient Celtic harp. It is described as a model, being a restoration
of the ancient harp commonly called the hai'p of Brian Boroimhe, (Brieu
Boru), King of Ireliuid, preserved in the University Museum, Dublin.
This restoration is made in the hope of inducing artists to adopt it as a
model in emblematic devices relating to Ireland. It is cej-taiuly tlie
oldest existing Irish harp ; and is supposed to have been figured on the
coins of Henry VIII., and iu the mutdated state in which it long re-
mained, it gave origin to the curt and inelegant form not unfrequently
used in jewellery, &c. It is now restored to the graceful form it originally
possessed, and its elaborate carving h;is been carefully and accurately
restored. (See p. 328.)

ALHAMBEA STOVE. — BT STFABT AND S5IITH, SHEFEIELD.

Tais is one of the veiy handsome stoves manufactured by Messi-s. Stuart
and Smith, of Sheffield, which we pai'ticulaily commended iu a previous
notice. The pattern is aiubesque of tie richest description, in or-molu
and bright steel. It was purchased out of tlie Exhibition by her Majesty.
(See p. 32S.)

324

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS ;

CARRIAGE DEPARTMENT.

MAN has been Yariously described as a cooking animal, a3 a laughing
animal, a trading animal, and by no end of other attributes, as the
culinary, risible, commercial, or other feelings of the describer predomi-
nated ; but, as we ivalked through the compartment of the Crystal Palace
devoted to carriages, cabs, locomoti%-e engines, and other means of convey-
ance, we coidd not help thinking that he might be quite as appropriately
distinguished from the brute creation by the definition of a coach-building
animal. Nor was this opinion weakened on our way home through

coaches into England ; and, after a while, divers great ladies, with as
great a jealousio of the Queene's displeasure, made them coaches, and
rid up and down the countries, to the great admiration of all bcholdeiB;
and then, by little and little, they grew usual among the nobilitie and-
others of sort ; and within twenty yeeres became a great trade of coach-
making."

Anderson, in his " History of Commerce," makes the use of coaches in
England even later than this, and says they were introduced by the Earl of
Arundel about the year 1580. For a long time they were exclusively con-
iined to the wealthy classes ; and it was not till the year 1625 that coaches

for hire, wl-.cn they

flood nt the principal

.,1. .,.:.. ,,.:r,:,^^

I.oiidcn.

CARRIAGE DEPARTMENT,

Piccadilly, crowded with cabs, omnibuses, and every description of vehicle,
conveying hundreds of passengers, here, there, and everywhere.

From the days of the charioteer Jehu, who, we are told in Scripture,
"drove furiously;" from the days of the old Assyrians, Ninevites, and
Babylonians, of whom we have the sculptured representations as they
appeared in their chariots of war ; from the days of the Olympic chariot
races ; from the days of the ancient Britons, who, Csesar tells us, garnished
their coach-wheels with scythes, down to the present time, when fast nien
drive about in Hansom cabs ; when hard-worked mechanics take a shilling
trip by railway into the green fields ; and when even the poorest occasionally
indulge in a threepenny omnibus to Camden-Town, or other suburban
retreats— we have continued evidence of other means of locomotion than
tlie two legs with which nature has endowed us.

Yet, notwithstanding this antiquity of the practice of riding in carriages,
coach-building, as we now understand it, is of but comparatively recent
date in England, being no farther back than the reign of Elizabeth.

Stow tells us, that, "In the ycere 1564, Ouylliam Boonen, a Dutchman,
became the Queene's coachmanne, and icas the ^nt that brought the use of

In 1637 there were in London and Westminster only fifty hackne
coaches.

From coaches let for hire, the next step in England was the introductu
of stage-coaches, which very soon after 1638 were established. These, tl
immediate precursors of the omnibus for short distances, and railway fi
longer ones, bring us down to our own day. Of mail-coaches, the first ri
between London and Edinburgh about the year 1785 ; and the next, fro
London to Glasgow, in 1788 ; from which time, spite of the intricate retio
lation of railways, which now like a cobweb covers the map of Englan
with its thousand branches, they have continued down to this day ; and
many a country village may still be seen the round red face of the coao
man, as he pulls up at the door of the little roadside iuu — still may 1
seen' the bustling ostler, as he releases the smoking team from their harnes
to give place (as h.Ts the system of which they are a type) to fresher, strong
cattle— still may be heard the guard's ofacial note as he winds his horn (
starting— vestiges, though they be of an age, which, though all but o'
own, has been miraculously hun-icd into the past by the omnipotent powH-
of the steam-engine.

A.N ILLUSTRATED CYCJ.OIVEDIA OP TJIE GREAT EX1I1J51TI0N OF I80I.

825

From the sodan-chaii- and tho cumbrouK bai'go of tlio clayK of Klizabeth—
luxuiios tbftt none but tho higlioi- classes could indulKo in -to tho oxcurHion
train nud tho penuy boat of our own, how groat a ohanpe ! How great a
qhango, too, from tho heavy, lumbering vohiclo whic'h (Juylliam Booneu
OODStnictod for Iuh Royal niistn^ss, to tlio light, tho graceful, and com-
modious vehicles wo saw exhibited in the Crystal I'alaco !

The contributions of our carriage-builders to tho Kxhiliition maintained
Che superiority which thoy h-ivo long hold iu this dopartmont of manu-
BOture. ,
Amongst the carriages oxhi-

lited, there wore none abso-
lutely new ; but the special re-
quirements of almost every
me wore here provided for.
Approaching the stylo of a
Itate carriage, was the " Scmi-
jircular Clarouce," built by
Jfford for the Exhibition ; in
rhich tho axletree is so con-
itructed, tliat if it should
)reak, the wlioola would con-
linue to run without coming
)ff ; the springs aro made on

plan to procure tho ease of

long spring without its un-
hapely form ; and a new self-
LCting door-lock fastens itself,
lUd prevents the door from

.tiling. Tim hammer-cloth
if blue silk velvet, decorated
vith gold and silvci-, is stated

0 be unique in design ; but
eems bettor adupted to be the
rarriago of anambassador, ot
l>ther important official per
lounge, than that of a private
ndividual.

Amongthe cai-riages of mor<
itiUty, iu which ease and con
'enience aro especially at-
ended to, f.waa a i'ateut
irougham, with inverted dou-
ile C springs, from tlie manu-
actory of Cook and Co. The
ild-fashioned C springs, from
vhich cai'riages w'ere gene-
Tilly hung, give a much more
lasy motion than the ellip-
ical springs that have iu a
3reat measure superseded
hem. The suspension of a
arriage from curved springs
B a very eS'ectual means of
)reventing jolting, though it
liable to produce a swing-
ng motion ; but the principal
ibjection to them is theii' ap-
)earance. In the carriages
itted %vith the double C
prings,this objection has been
■emoved; for the double curve
iifords sufficient elasticity
rithiu a much shorter space
.nd they are arranged under-
leath the carriage in the
ame position as, and looking
carcely more promiucut than,
illiptical springs. In the pa-
ent carriage ot Cook and Co.,
itted with these springs, there

1 also a couvenieut arrange
lent inside to serve as a sub-
titute for the carriage bas-
ets, which occupy so much
00m in front. \Vithout im-
airiug the external appear-
nce, there is a cupboard made
iside the coachman's seat,
rhich opens inside the carriage.

A Carriage with Patent Automatic Invi.sible Steps, invented and exhibited
y D. Davies, ot \\ igmorc-street, dispenses with the attendance of a footman
[. open and shut the door. The steps act on the principle of the -'lazy

eath very compactly. There was also shown a Simultaneous Double Step ;
y a small connecting-rod, both treads opening and shutting at once, and

rhv,"n!T"'^ '^"■Ju"' '*"=. '^'■'^'^'"■y ""'^W? step; it can" be opened or
lut by a pei-son mside the.carnage, and can be made to work with the door.

An economical arrangement for those who dosiro to havu differont kinih;
of carriages combined in one, was shown by IlocU and Son, of Hiwtingii, tho
inventors of tho I'atent Dion.pha, which may be used either ait a Clarence,
M a baroucho, or .-w an entirely open caiTinge; if a covered one be wanted,

siDi.BOAr.n. — RVTTA rERcn.\.

either entirely closed or not, the appropriate head is fixed on. The fold-
ing-steps are likewise on a new principle.

Kesterton's Amempton Can-iage is also of this class ; which, by a simple
contrivance, can be converted into a light, open, step-piece Barouche. The
framework is secured to the head with a new kind of fastening • and tlie
back, instead of being flat, is of a curved form.

A Four-wheeled Model Carriage was exhibited bv the designer, G. H.
Baskcomb, of Chislehm-st. It indicates the distance of the gi-ound travelled
over, and marks the same upon a dial ; it has spiral springs beneath the

326

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

driviug-bos seat : an elastic bar to relievo the feet from vibratiou ; four
preventive wheels, in case of accident ; two arms with roller wheels, to pro-
tect the vehicle from collision ; and a screw-break, by which the driver acts
upon the wheels, so as to ease the vehicle down-hill, or stop it.

In Home's Patent Segmental Brougham and Chariot, the distance be-
tween the wheels is greatly shoi-teued by the application of the eccentric
double perch bolt-locls in the turning of the fore-carriage.

A Xew Foiu'-wheeled Can-iage, or Improved Brougham, by H. MuUiuer,
of Leamington, has two distinct curves instead of one in tlie front part,
and trimming inside at the back. In the communication with the coach-
man, the voice-conductor is entirely concealed ; and the mouth-piece is at
each side, instead of at the middle of the back, as usual, and suspended
from the roof.

By WUloughby's Carriage Invalids with ftactured limbs, or severely
afflicted, may be removed from their beds, without change of position or
fatigue. Inside is a kind of platform, supported from the top by sjirings,
which passes under the front of the carriage, and is long enough to hold a
person in a recumbent position. A portable couch which fits on to this plat-
form may be carried into the bed- room, and the invalid having lain down
upon it may, without the slightest change of position, be introduced com-
pletely into the eai'riage through an opening at the back. Room is left on
the side of the couch for two seats to hold attendants.

Of invalid or Bath ch.iirs, to be drawn by hand, there were many kinds.
One, manufactm'ed by Jordan, had a self-adjusting reclining apparatus, an
addition to the usual constraction ; and another, called a Park Wheel-chair,
invented by Heath, of Bath, was decorated with paintings and glass panels.
There were among the carriages several varieties of Jaunting-cars, Dog-
carts, and other light vehicles ; some of which were constructed with re-
markable paucity of materials, and were elevated by high wheels, so as to
run over the groimd with scarcely any perceptible draught.

Among the models of public carriages was a Cabriolet, to caiTy five per-
sons in separate compartments ; and an Omnibus divided into compart-
ments ; both patented by J. A. Franklinski : the omnibus has an outside
gallery, with a separate door to each compartment, and an improved method
of reaching the roof by end steps ; and the entire carriage is 2 cwt. lighter
than those in general use. A large omnibus, manufactm'ed by Kinross, of
Stirling, was also shown : it will can'y 19 passengers inside, has a large ven-
tilating well in the roof: the passengers, when going out and in, can walk
upright ; and the well forms a comfortable seat for outside passengers. It
has double hind-springs, so that when lightly loaded, the motion is easy ;
and, when heavily loaded, both springs come into action, and cause it to
retain the same motion : it is adapted for two or three horses abreast, with
equalising bars or levers ; as is also the Omnibus exhibited by Menzies, of
Glasgow. Rock and Gowar, of Hastings, exhibited their Patent Omnibus,
in wliioh each passenger has apportioned his proper share of space on the
scat, namely, 16 inches: tlie front and hind arc circular, and the door
opens both way.s, so that passengers may get upon the step from either
side of the road with safety.

There was also shown an Improved '' Hansom" Cab, in which the driver
is brought down from his elevated perch behind the hood, and the wheels
are of lighter make. The body, too, is brought nearer to the ground and
rendered more accessible, but the main features of the old style are pre-
served ; and no attempt has been made to secure a registration of distances.
Shillibeer exhibited two of his Patent Funeral Carriages, in which were
combined the hearse and mourning-coach in one vehicle.

D. Mitchell, of Wbitbura, Linlithgowshire, exhibited his model of a
Safety Carriage, which, in peril, can be stopped from the inside with
facility and safety ; this invention was described in fifty difi'erent lan-
guages.

Of improved Carriage Consti-uction, several specimens were exhibited ;
including working models of Collingc's Patent Axle-trees, besides their
Spherical Hinges and Fastenings; Crosskill's Improved Patent Wheel, in
which the spoke is tm-^ed with strong double-shouldered ends, the rims
are turned, and double-shouldered sockets bored in the felloes — the hoop-
tire being made and affixed by patent steam machinery.

Aitken's Patent Iron Wheels are stated to have nearly one-third less
draught than any now in use, and from theii- suspending construction, to
obviate all jar : and, in case of accident, a spoke of the wheel can be
replaced in ten minutes without removing the tire.

In Lee's Patent, when the axle breaks, the wheels bear up, and continue
the work of the carriage, without the axle ; and they do not take fire,
as the boxes carry oil to last twelve months.

There was also shown a model of Qrisdale's Spring Carriage-wheels, in
which the springs are inclosed in the nave of each wheel, and revolve
with them ; and any shock, from the uneven road, is received on the
springs alternately.

Mr. Gibson, of Birmingham, exhibited his Elliptic Springs, between
which is placed a block of India-rubber, the three thicknesses being bolted
together, (with sufficient play.) and covered with a brass-box.

Among the Coach-furniture, that of Worcester china was generally
admired ; and much of the coach-lace was in excellent taste.

FOREIGN AND COLONIAL DEPARTMENTS.
BRITISH GUIANA.
THE space devoted to the productions of this colony was upon a portion
of the south side of Canada ; the most striking feature in connexioii
with them being the lai'ge proportion which raw materials and produce
bore to the other articles exhibited. The colony, situated on the ooasi;
of the South American continent, and adjoining Brazil upon the northy
produces nearly every article grown in the tropics, and in the richneaa,
and beauty of its timber it rivals many of the productions of its southern
neighbour.

In the mineral kingdom the articles exhibited were principally speei-
meus of sand, which are well adapted for the purpose of glass making, and
of which considerable quantities are exported to the United States. There
were also some interesting specimens of clays, obtained, at vai-ious depths,
from an artesian boring of 125 feet.

The vegetable kingdom included specimens of rice, for the cultivation
of which the colony is exceedingly favourable — so much so, indeed, that
three crops, it is stated, may be obtained from one sowing, the second and
third crops being derived from the old roots after each reaping. Some
fine specimens of Indian maize, grown on the banks of the river Deme
rary, wore exhibited. A large portion of the maize grown in the colonj
commands a higher price in the market than that imported from th(
United St.ates, both the soil and climate being particularly adapted to It!
growth. We had, next, specimens of plantain and plantain meal. Thi
pl.autain is used to a great extent among the natives as an article of foot
when in its green or imripe state. When boiled whole, the fruit form
a tolerably dense mass, of gi-eater consistency and toughness than tbi
potato, and when beaten in a mortar it constitutes what is known as th
foo foo of the negroes. The plaintaiu meal is prepared by the natives b;
drying it in the sun and then reducuig it to a powder. It has a fragran
odour, acquired in dryinz, somewhat resembUng fresh hay or tea, and i
largely employed as the food of infants and invalids. As food for childre:
and convalescents, it would probably be much esteemed in Europe, an'
it deserves a trial on account of its 'fragrance, and its being exceedingl
easy of digestion. In respect of nutritiveness, it deserves a preforenc
over all the pure starches, on account of the proteine compounds it cor
tains. Were the plantain meal to come into use in England, and to ber
a price in any way approaching to tliat of Bermuda arrowroot, it woul
become an extensive and very profitable colonial export. "

From 20 f

STOVE. — BY ROBERTSON, OARR, AND CO.

Tm.s is a very handsome stove — simple, but effective in style, and of
admirable workmanship, by Robertson, Carr, and Co., of Sheffield. The
upper part is of cast iron, the giate of polished iron or steel (Sec p. 329.)

25 per cent, of meal is obtained from the plantain; or 5 lbs. from a
average bunch of 25 lbs. ; and au acre of plantain walk of average qualit
producing during the year 450 such bunches, would yield a ton and JOlb
of meal, which, at the price of arrowroot, namely, Is, per lb,, would b
a gross return of 112?, 10s. per acre. A new plantain walk would gi-s
twice as much. Even supposing the meal not to command over half tl:
price of arrowroot, it -svould still form au excellent outlet for pl.antau
whenever, from any cause, the price in the colony sank unusually lo\
Specimens have been transmitted from the colonial laboratory to some
the principal authorities on dietetics in England.

Another description of meal is that obtained from the bitter cassav
Speaking of this product. Dr. Shier states, that " the roots might be ust
as au article from which to prepare cassava meal, casarecp, aud the vei
small quantity of starch wliioh is expressed along with the juice, leaving a
the rest of tlie starch to form part of the meal. It is of such meal that tl
cassava cakes of the Indians are prepared, and although by no means i
nutritive as Indian corn-meal, tliere can bo little doubt that in the Scoljc
and Irish markets the cassava meal would obtain a preference ; and wei
it exported in quantity it would pjvbably come into extensive use amoi
all classes,"

The following is the amount of nitrogen and proteine compounds co:
tained in the cassava, the plantain, and the maize meal, as shown upc

analysis : —

Hitrogen.
Per cent.

Maize-meal (unhusked) 1'73 . . .

Plantain-meal "83 . .

Cassava-meal (juice expressed) .... 'SS . . .

Ditto frnni the sliced and dried roots . '73 . .
The cultivation of the cassava, according to Dr. Shier
ccedingly remunerative. He says—" If an acre of well-tilled, thoroue-
drained land yield 10 tons of fresh roots— and I have every reason i
believe that such a return might be obtained— I have ascertamed th
the produce would be 3i tons of meal, 593 lbs., of casarecp, and 2 cw
of starch : and estimating the meal at Id. ner lb., the casareep at Is. 5
per lb., and the starch at 40s. per cwt., tlic gross amount would I
78/. 13s. id. per acre. In ascertaining these proportions very simp
machinery was employed, and had the pulp been better pressed tl
quantity of ca'iareep would have been considerably greater. But cassS,;
might be sliced, dried in the sun, and sent to Europe in that state. .
this case it would be the sweet variety that would be employed. In ai
weather the process succeeds remarkably well, and the dried slices tei
well. I have ascertained that when these sliced and dried roots are M
steeped and then boiled, they return to very neariy their original cotM
tion, and make au excellent substitute for the potato,"

Proteine Compounds.
Per cent.
. . 10-72
. . 5-45
. . 2-23
. . 4-33

woiUd be A'

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPyEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OP 1851.

327

Alllinii'^h tlio li;ni;iu;i i« not very cxtcnwivcly t-ultivutcd in Ili'lLiisii

• I 'ill Hovcnil HpooimcDB w«i'« i'ui'w;ii\loil witii tho view of iiHcer-

iv tlioy woulil »UuJ the voyugo, nnd tlio piolialiility whioli tlicro

cif their hccoiniii)^ ftu nrtieio uf export to thin country. Tlio

' III' II si'iit Imil hi'on dried without the aiil of fire ; and ailhovigh Mot
I il'lieiciH ii.s in tlioir ripo stiito in the trnpies, tlioy wore htill cxeeediiigly
|iiil iiidjlu. Tlie bauftiiii yiolda I'ruit very sliortly iilter tlie Huekers hiivo
" ' n planted. In eight or nino nionth.s the banana begins to form ha
■111 Li-rs: and tlio fmit may bo collected in the tenth <ir eleventh month.
U li'u the .stock is cut, tho fruit of which ha.s ripened, a Rprout input
III III, which again bears fruit in throe months. The whole labour of
nil I'.il hill which M reijuired for o plantation of banana.^ in to cut the

I ill> I Liiliii with tho ripe fiuit, and to (,'ivo tho jilants a slight nourish-
in iii, imco or twice a year by digging round tho roots. A spot of little
nil' than a thousand snuare feet will contain from thirty to forty banana
'liiii^. A clii.ster of banaiixs produced on a single plant often contuiuH
Voiii one hundred and sixty t" one hundred and eighty fruits, and weighs
Vciii seventy to eighty pounds. But reckoning tho weight of a cluster
inly at forty pounds, such a plantation would produce more than four
luiiisand pounds of nutritive substance. Huinlioldt calculates that, as
liii ly-three pounds of wheat and ninety-nine pounds of potatoes refiuiro

I I -Mine .space as that in which four thousand pounds of banauius are
I AH. the produce of bananas is consequently to that of wheat as 133
I I, and to that of potatoes as 44 to 1. This fruit is a very sugary

uiistanco; and in warm countries the natives find such food not only
ati.sfying for tho moment, but iiernianeutly nutritive. Yet, weight for
weight, the nutritive matter cannot at all be compared with that of wheat,
r even of potatoes. At the same time, a much greater number of indi-
iduals may be supported upon tho produce of a piece of ground planted
ritli bananas, compared with a piece of the same size sown with wheat,
lumboldt estimates the proportion as 25 to 1 ; and he illustrates the
act by remarking, that a European newly arrived in the torrid zone is
truck with nothing so much as the extreme smallness of tho spots under
ultivation round a cabin which coutiiins a numerous family of Indians.

Pas.sing on from tho edibles of tho colony, we were next shown spe-
imens of tho coflee-berry, coutribtited by ope or two of the estates which
till continue to, cultivate that plant. Owing to various causes, the culti-
ation of coffee is now almost extinct in this colony. Formerly it produced
U"ge quantities, the quantity retui'ned for taxation in 1842 amoimting to not
;ss than l,214,0101bs. Dutch. Some specimens of cocoa were sent ; but,
Ithough the climate is well adapted for the growth of the nut, its cultivation
exceedingly limited. There was also a very curious production of the
olony, known as the monkey pot — a very singular seed vessel, which
ontains a large number of oleaginoxis kernels, larger than almonds, and
phich are liighly esteemed among the natives. Capsicums of various kinds
gux'ed in the collection, which were sent over with the expectation of their
eing found to be a more piquant ooudiment than the article sold under
p ntime of Cayenne pepper. We next observed some jars of casareep, an
iiplo which is much used as the basis of sauces. It is the concentrated
lico of tho cassava ; one of its most remarkable proiierties being its high
atiseptic power, preserving meat or any other artiSe of food boiled in it
)r a longer period than can be done by any other culinary process.
Several specimens of starch were shown, as also of Muscovado and vacuum
an sugars and molasses ; the sugars being the produce of the Otaheite or
'ahiti cane, the variety generally cultivated in tho colony.
The materials exhibited as employed in the chemical arts or in medicines
icluded various specimens of karmau, used by the Indians for waxing their
ets ; milk from the cow tree ; and hyawa gum or incense, a veiy fragrant
ibstanee. suitable for pastiles and similar purposes. Some remarkably
ne laurel and crab oil — the former used by the natives in affections of the
lints, the latter as a hair oil — as well as various dyes, pigments, and tanning
ibstances, were exhibited.

Some of the samples of cotton were remarkably fine, and worthy of
otice on account of their great freedom from seed, dirt, and impurities,
otton has only been cultivated in the colony by the natives of the coast
igions, but its cultivation is now in a great measure abandoned, the eulti-
itors not being able to stand against the formidable rivalry of the United
bates. Sir Robert Schomburghk, in his description of British Guiana, states
lat " if, with regard to the abundance and cheapne.ss of laboiu-, ISritish
■uiana were put on the same footing as the slave states in America, an in-
thaustible supply of cotton of every description might be produced. There
no doubt that all kinds of cotton, from the best long staple down to the
lest short staple, might be cultivated in the colony, as the kind which
MS not thrive on one soil or climate might be produced in another. An
itent of sea coast of two himdred and eighty miles from the river Corentyne
the mouth of the Orinoko, would produce cotton vicing with the best iu
le world I doubt the opinion that the finest cotton will not grow at a
■eater distance than twenty miles from the sea. I have sent samples of
le wild cotton from the interior of the colony wliich were admired by
impetent j udges for their fine long staple and silky appearance. No cai-e
hatever had been bestowed upon the cultivation of these plants, which
■ew at a distance of three or four hundred miles from the coast. Although
;e gi'owth of the plant was not luxuriant, it was covered abundantly with
itton of the most excellent quaUty ; indeed, it woidd be highly advisable
the cotton-growers at the coast to exchange the seeds."
In addition to cotton, there were shown specimens of silk-cotton, exported
theUnited States and used in the manufacture of hats, It is a remark-

ably soft and glo>iy material, and wull adapted for that [.urpoHi-. 'I'ho
plantain fibre it an article which we believe might bo profitaldy emp'oyud
in niannfaeturcs in this country. It in proiluccd from tho dtim of
l)lantaiii and banana trees, and might be obtained in very large quantities
from tho plantain cultivation of the colony. It i.M calculated that ujiwardii
of lioiilb.s. weight of the hbro might be produced annually from each acre of
plantains, after reainiig the fruit crop. At prcnent, the Bt<;m» of tho plantain
trees, when cut down, are allowed to rot on the ground. If a remunerative
price could be realised for this fibre, a new brunch of industry would bo
opened up to tho colonies. A barrel of the fibre contributed waji Bent for
experimental purposes. It may lie proper to mention that, in 1840, a
gentleman visited the colony, and exhibited several specimens of cloth of a
beautiful silky texture, and Hpecimeuu of a paper of superior quality,
manufactured from tho fibre of plantains grown in the Jardin des Planter.

The specimens of woodii were remarkably fine, and a table-top made in
the colony, of eighty different kinds of wood, was tutticient to prove that
it possesses many kinds of wood highly ornamental, and which might bo
made exceedingly useful for cabinet-making and upholstery ; while varioua
other tranavi'iso and longitudinal specimens were admirably adapted for
building and naval purposes.

The manufactures of the colony wei'o reprceuted by hammocks, rofies,
Indian head-dresses, fishing-nets, baskets, the entire wai'drobe of a female
Indian, Indian war clubs, and the famous blow-pipe and quiver with poisoned
arrows, a canoe and paddles, calabashes, some very curious wooden door-
locks, and the model of an Indian house with the whole of the domestic
establishment.

We likewise noticed diagrams indicating tho temperature of the climate
of the colony during the years 1846-18.5U, as noted at the George Town
Obacn'atory. Mr. Itidgeway, who was appointed the agent and representa-
tive of the interests of the colony decorated the Exhibition with a series of
interesting, lithogi-aphic drawings from the beautiful work of Sir Robert
Schomburghk, which conveyed to the visitors a good idea of the natural
scenery of the interior of the colony.

ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE PRESENT SHEET.

STAND AND CASKET. — BY WERTBELMKR.

This exquisitely wrought work of art, engraved in the next page, is of the
most recherche character, being inlaid with malachite, which harmonises
perfectly with the rich or-iuolu of which tho casket is composed. 'I'he out-
line is very beautiful. The enrichments extremely varied, and fine in
workmanship. The stand is quaint in stylo, and has also chains and fes-
toons of metal work, inlaid with malachite, to correspond with the casket.
(See p. 328.)

PARQUET FOB FLOORS, FROM RUSSIA.

Russia seems to excel in the ingenious line of decorative art which con-
cerns the inlaying of floors in various coloured woods, in divers devices.
Amongst some very handsome specimens of the kind exhibited, was that
which we have copied iu our engraving. The design is extremely rich, and
the general flow of the lines, both straight and curved, very harmoniously
blended. It has been impossible, however, to represent iu the engi'aving^_
the almost endless variety of colours in which the design is worked out ; ~
the original must be seen to be appreciated. (See p. 3:;S.)

ornamental MIRROR. — BT KIDD.

This very elegant piece of furniture is a specimen of a new process for
illuminating, embroidering, and silvering flat surfaces in glass, adapted by
Mr. Kidd, and applicable to a variety of subjects of an ornamental cha-
racter. The designs are engraved on the under side of the glass, although
they appear to be embossed in high reUef upon tl»e surface. (See p. 329.)

JEWELLED FIGURE OF BRITANNIA. — BT S. B. AND D. GASS.
This brooch is of very elegant design, in the cinque-cento style. Under the
portico of a Gothic ai'ch, the figure of Britannia, holding with her right hand
a trident, and her left resting on a rudder, stands on a shell, emblematical of
her sovereignty over the seas. Beneath the shell is a winged dragon, repre-
senting the evil spirit of anaixhy bemg expelled from peaceful Britain. The
figure of Britannia is composed of upwards of 400 small brilliants, of old
English cut, of the remarkable size of 250 to the carat ; the comb of the
helmet .-uid rudder are set with small rubies : the two pieces on either side
of the figure are cut from a single piece of carbuncle. The remainder of
the brooch, with the dragon, is partly enamelled, and partly set with
brilliants. The whole contains nearly 1000 stones, and the workmanship
is of the most admirable character. (See p. 336.)

GROUP OF JEWELS. — BT BOUN AND AHJ.

The group of jewels displayed by Messrs. Bolin and Ain, of St. Petersburgh,
and which we have engraved, was justly an object of general admiration, both
with ai'tists in this line, and the general public. The principal piece is a
diadem, containing 1800 briUiants, weighing 260 carats, and 1750 rose
diamonds, in all 3500 diamonds, 11 opals, and 67 rubies. The diamonds are
all of the first water, the opals some of the most beautiful we have ever
beheld — the large one in the centre being, pei'haps, remarkable for its rich
and varying hues ; the rubies ai'e all well matched in colom-, a matter very
difficiUt to attain with this stone ; the workmanship is of a high order ;
there is no silver employed in the moimting. all the stones being set en griffs.
This, though a distinction which perhaps only a working jeweller -will
understand, deserves to be mentioned. The value fiied upon this diadem
is 4S00?, (See p, 336.) ^

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

ALBAyBnA STOVi.-. — STJiV.'AKT AND SMITH. SHEITIEI-D,

AN ILLTISTRATRD CYCLOPvEDI.V OF TIFF, f;ill':AT KXIIIinTION OF 18r,l.

32!)

^^>

MODEL OF BRTAN BOBOHrHEg HAEP. — BALL, DDBLIlf.

PATENT ORNANENTED MIRROR. — V:. KIDD.

wmwmsiWsmmf^^2i'M^ w

STOVE. — MESSRS, CARR A.VD BOBERTSOX.

330

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

FISHING-TACKLE AND FISH-HOOKS.
TF we -were asked to tell the quality of champagne or sparkling hock ere

the cork has iiowu, or to pronounce upon the originality of a Raphael or
Correggio yet encased in their mahogany cabinets, wo should be placed in
a somewhat similar position to that in which we iind ourselves with regard
to the fishing-tackle in the Crystal Palace. It was all under lock and key,
and enshrined in glass. A fishing-rod is not to be judged of by the eye.
ATc would have every joint put together, and, when complete, a heavy
weight attached by a line to the end. Thus loaded, it sliould be flung to
and fro, and if, after a severe test of this description, it proved its strength
of wood, cane, and ferule, it may be pronounced to have passed one ordeaL
But there are others to which fishing-rods are necessarily subjected by the
the side of the water — accidental circumstances which no foresight can
anticipate, nor previous trial wholly prepare for.

In good old Izaac Walton's time, the true angler would as soon fish with
a rod made by any other hand than his own, as set out upon his piscatorial
excursion without his black velvet cap — such as jockeys now wear — his
fishing coat with countless pockets, or the wherewithal to make a fly upon
the instant. Thus he would stalk forth, plainly aunouncmg liis purpose to
his neighbours : and, as if in fear that there might exist one who met him
m ignorance of his intent, he would shoulder a rod of a single joint of some
fourteen feet in length. Such a rod of all others is, perhaps, yet the best,
and is still used by those who live within a short distance of lake or
stream. As a fly rod it is incomparable, as it ensures the greatest freedom
of play, uninterrupted by metal ferules, which add to the weiglit, and are
most liable to caiLse fracture from theii' non-compliance with the elasticity
of the other parts. We noticed but one rod of this description in the
Exhibition ; all, or nearly all, of those placed there being what are termed
bag or jointed rods. Of these there was a goodly muster, showing a great
vai-iety — if not altogether pleasing, at least affording sufficient outward
evidence that in this branch of sport-manufactm-e Great Britain need not
fear rivaliy.

On the contrary, for fly-fishing (the trtie poetry of the art), there was a
very spare display, and that far from flattering to a land, the expei'tness of
which in securing fish by this elegant means is famed throughout the globe.
The greater portion of the exhibitors appear' to have forgotten, or to have
wilfully neglected, tlie more essential fact in this department — Truth —
truth to nature. It is not opposed to fact, that at times fish will rise at
any light noudescript thing thrown on the water — a tiny piece of red
cloth or pull of beaver from the hat : but these are exceptions, and to
accept as a rule that the instinct of fish is so low as to be so easily cheated,
evinces a very incorrect knowledge of nature. It is an axiom amongst
anglers (properly so called), if not amongst tackle-makers, that the closer
the imitation of the fly thrown upon the water, the greater certainty of
sport. It would seem, however, from what was presented to us in the
Crystal Palace, that the salmon and the trout, like men, are to be tempted
with made dishes, and that the more the natural thing be disguised the
greater their ;joiit for it. No greater fallacy can exist. If it be accepted,
how is it that the accomplished fly-fisher prefers to fashion his fly upon
the banks of the stream, and in the closest possible imitation of those most
in swarm ? It is not, we repeat, the scarce bait which contributes to the
success of the fly-fisher, but that which is most plentifuL

What has been said with regard to flies, equally applies to the numerous
attempts at imitating other entomological examples.

The "Engineering Department'" of the fishing tackle, such as winches,
&c., exemplified very little that is new, but that little was good. It has
more than once occurred to us, that an intelligent journeyman chronometer
maker might, in his leisure hours, turn his attention to the subject of
winches, with no little profit to himself and satisfaction to anglers.

Nos. 152, 153, and 154, were three cases containing hooks, flies, Ac,
from T. Parkins, J. Rowell, and Martha Nicholas respectively ; all of which
may be accorded a.s fair samples of the Carlisle manufacture. The flies in
the latter case were decidedly the best.

Nos. 156, ^y. Flyim, and 147, F. Allies, both of Worcester, exhibited
flexible and honi baits of roach, gudgeon, sand eels, smelts, &c. They all
involve the spu'al or Archimedean screw principle, but few of them can be
exempted from the imputation of being but sorry likenesses of the fi.sh they
are intended to represent. These baits are a modern introduction ; and
the increase in their number mainly arises from the desire of the retail
tackle-maker to have, from time to time, some novelty or other wherewith
to attract custom. On the score of usefulness they are below zero. They
might, mayhap, prove of sei-vice in some far-off" lake but just discovered by
man, and where to obtain a live bait would occupy aa much time as hooking
the larger fish itself; but in civilised parts, where the real thing is to be
had readily, it is a miserable waste of time to allow it to attach itself to any
other line than that of its maker.

No. 157 was an Aberdeen salmon net, wliich wo regret to sec placed
amongst the honourable weapons of legitimate angling.

No. 159. Kelly and Son, of Dublin, had a case containing several very
neat specimene of fly-rods, and flies carefully made, but yet lacking a closer
insight into nature. There was much, however, which is conducive to
sustain the high reputation of the Irish character for fly-making.

No. 161 was an assortment of liedditch, in other terras, Brummagem
tackle, famous amongst the disciples of Walton, for catching nothing °but

flat fish. And here a word upon cheap tackle may not be out of plac
Although it does not necessarily follow that cheap tackle is the worst, o
experience has tended to confirm us in the opinion, that in some instanc
the prices are much too low to be good, while in others they assume t
shape of positive extortion. As the finest chronometer, with the latest ii
provements, cannot be made to become intrinsically worth more than
certain price without the aid of additional and unnecessary jewels, so
fishing-rod, and other gear, do what you will, cannot be but of a certa
value. Indeed, in the opinion of the true Waltonian, all decoration is me
nonsense, and a good made rod, of a definite description, has as fixed
standard as that of gold. We have seen silk- worm gut, purchased at che;
shops, which would not sustam an ounce, and single-hair astonishing on
from its bearing the weight OTtho bait placed upon its hook ; while trollic
rods, procured at such placos, have, upon the fii'st cast, .snapped, as if th
had been rolled out of dough, and got crisp in the baking. It is, howev
but justice to add, that these cheap tackle sellers in general do not profe
this branch of trade exclusively, but intermix the tackle procured from t
country with umbrellas, parasols, walking-sticks, cigars, &c.

No. 173. Pearce. — (Omitted in the Catalogue.) — We have been' indebt
to Mr. Pearce for^ hearty laugh, and we "willingly give him the benefit
publicity for an invention as absurdly ridiculous in itself, as it serves
show that its designer has altogether mistaken the mission and charaet
of the real angler. Here it is from his own description : " A spring top
cntchfish without the aid of the anr/ler. Many lines can be attached to one rt
The trigger relieves the top when ihejish bites, which flies up and strikes it *
stanlaneously." So that we are to set lines for fish as poachers do wires I
game ! Mr Pearce would make an admirable president at the next Than:
Preseiwation Society's dinner — and would afford some rare sport there.

No, 174. Little and Co., sent a splendid collection of rods, three of whi
were remarkable for their exquisite make, great beauty, and choice
material ; and although tastefully decorated, such decoration being ma
wholly subservient to their utility. The first, a punt or roach rod, was
Spanish white cane, as straight and true as possible. The butt of hoUi
ivory, with gold mountings, bearing the Prince of Wales' plume in frost
silver. The knob is of pearl ; the ferules gold, and their stoppers t
thistles, carved in ivory, ornamented with the rose and shamrock ; the tc
are of North Carolina cane of exquisite taper, and hollow \vithin an in
or so of the extreme end. This rod is ten feet in length. The second v
a fly-rod of five joints. It bears the arms of H.R.H. Prince Albert, a
differs from the other in finish only, from the mountings being in silv
relieved in gold, and the stoppers being of pe.arl. The third was equa
deserving of notice for its high finish. These three rods, moreover, press
a novelty in t^cir ferules, whicli are so pierced as to relieve by a part
yielding of their parts that sudden check and stress upon the wood whi
we adverted to as an objection to ferules in general. This ferule has anotl
advantage. It can be readily adjusted to the wood-work without raspi
down or r.ibiting, or in any other way weakening or remo^^ng the enan
or hard portion of the cane at a p.art where strength is most required. T
plain rods exhibited by Mi'. Little are well calculated to sustain his rej
tation. Farlow, Bernard, Baziu, Ainge and Aldred, Le.adbeater, .Jones a
others, well-known houses, made a good display of serviceable ai'ticles.

In the United States department there were two salmon-rods from Halifi
roughly finished, but apparently capable of enduring work; and, fn
certain peculiarities, we are inclined to trace their birth to Ireland or
Irish hands. Beside these rods were two solitary salmon-flies — the o
tolerably well and neatly dressed, the other negligent and loose.

iVIr. Jones, of Jermyn-street, contributed for Norw.ay and Canada a b
fitted with rods, winches, lines, and flies for salmon-fishing in those countri
This tackle has been evidently got up with great care, and there are indi'
tions in the details sufllcient to prove that their manufacturer is devoti
his energies with much success to the requirements of the angler in the
interesting and now much visited sporting regions.

AVe ought to say .something about what are termed " general rods "-
rod that shall be made to do all descriptions of work. Such a rod is agrc
device, and, like a Jack-of-all-trades, is master of none. For trolliug
bottom-fishing they bend under their labours, and for the fly they are t
stiff and proud. You may send a line of invitation by them, but no fi
will accept of it. Indeed, with fly-rods alone, two, or eveu three, are abs
lutely necessary to the angler who throws over large as well as small stream
the lightness of fall as well as length of cast being points of the la
importance in different localities.

A few words, in conclusion, on the subject, of fish-hooks, and the moi
in which they are manufactured, may not be unacceptable to our readers

There are numerous varieties of fish-hooks; some small and delical
designed to be disguised with feathers, to sei've as the lure for the sdve:
fish in the meandering streams of our rural districts ; others, rude ai
large, to serve in all their " naked barbarity " as the grappler of the ocei
shark : but in all of them the same features are discernible — the mo
prominent of these being the sharp points and the barbs.

Previous to witnessing the manner of making the hooks in one of the be
factories in England, the way in which the barbs were made was always
mystery to us. Filing would do, but then the operation would be slow at
tedious ; whereas, from the cheap rate at which undressed hooks are sol
we knew that the operation, to be paying, must necessarily be a quick on
We shall endeavour to describe this process briefly.

The first operation in fish-hook making is cutting the steel wu'e of whic
they are foi'med into lengths; this must necessarily vary according to tl

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPiTlDIA OF THE GREAT EXIIiniTrOX OF ]8r,l.

',rn

!v of Uie lioofc: Uaia, fixnro i: U tlio liiiiHlicil wurk iaivil<3 uul- uf tlio

Tlio wii'oa arc tlicii Hoftfiioil by lieiiUng tliom in a Rriiall runiuoc.

II atamUi-il, aliuut two inclies in height, ia fu-stuiioil to llio bench at

h Llio workman Bits ; on tlio uiipei- faco of tliis, which ik (ihniit ono

ioiig liy lialf an ineli brcpad, there are tlireo hok;8, into whioli tlio emls

u. c! wires may he inserted. TIio holes arc ho made, that tho wires

I at tho same distance from each other, anil their suds in the sanio

Krom this miinagemont it results, that if a mark is made across

wires inserted in tho holes, tho mark is upon I'lu-h, at the same dis-

Iroiu the ends i it follows, then, that thousands of wires originally

same length can he mai'kod. all the marks being pcjiddistant from

lids, Alongside of this standard there is a contrivanoo on which a

may rest, ftnd exert a laverago in a certain direction. The work-

tluis provided, and seated nt tho benob, takes up three wires of tho

fastening used for uniting tho hook to tho fixhing tacklo ; boyn do thi»
with marvellous rapidity, by laying tho end on an anvil, and giving each
a smart blow with a light hammer. They arc ne.\t tempered and polished,
the latter operation performed by pl.acing them in a barrel witn water ;
tho barrel is made to revolve, and tho hooks rubbing againat cacli other
are soon polished. Tho delicate bluo tint which all hooka have when
j bought in tho shops, ig imparted to them by heating thorn, and partially
reducing tho tempering. They are, after this, put up in parcels for »ale.

jper length from a heap beside liim, inserting their points in the three
les ; he rests the point of a uarrow-bladed knife in the rest above-
intioned, and pushing tlie knife from him towards the point of the
res, and along their upper surface, beginning at a certain point near tlie
3s, lie cuts up a portion of the metal, in the manner shown in figure b.
.tering from the siu'face, and going gradually deeper, the barb is instau-
leously pointed. Taking out the three cut wires, he throws them aside
i takes up another three, and cuts thera as before. If a stranger were
try the operation, he would find a difficulty, fii-st, in inserting the three
res iu their respective holes ; secondly, in adjusting the knife so as to
Hmence the cut exactly in the right place : and, thirdly, in making the
t of the requisite depth, neither more nor less than sufficient to make the
rb of the exact length. These three distinct operations — following so
ise one upon another, tliat they may be said to form only one — are gone
ougli with amazing celerity, and with almost undeviating accuracy ; so
,ch BO, that out of many thousands made, it would be a difficult matter
find two unlike one another iu the length of their barbs, or " beards,"
tho hook-makers call them. The next operation to be performed is
luting the end of the hook (as seen in figure c ). This is done by round-
the point of each hook individually by means of a smooth file ; the
int being rested on a small block of box-wood, the other end grasped
a pair of small plyers or pincers. The hooks have now to be roimded,
it is. bent into the circular form so well known to the lovers of the
:entle art." A small round block of wood, some four inches long, and
the diameter as shown iu figure /. is provided with a piece of thin brass
into its surface, and projecting therefrom about a quarter of an inch.
s brass is bent into the form as shown iu figure /; at one end there is
sm.all notch made, into which the barb of the wire is placed. The
rkman takes up one of the barbed and pointed wires, and inserting the
ik of the barb into the notch above-mentioned, t^vists the wire round
outside of the slip of brass, thus giving it the circular bend seen iu
ires d and c. If the reader will take a fish-hook iu his hand, lie will
'ceive that the wire is not bent, as seen in the side view of a hook given
figure /. The bend is round equally, that is, it is not level, but rises,
is bent upwards ; the bend being given by the workman in a manner
ious as it is simple. In bending the hook round the brass slip in/,
tead of bending it round the whole of the slip on the same level, just
he approaches the end, he raises his hand ; this bends the wire upwards
that particular part, and thus the peculiar curve seen in all fish-hooks
^ven instantaneously. Such is the dexterity acquired by long practice,
it in thousands of hooks the degree of bending in all of them is so
lilar, that it would be a matter of difficulty to detect one more or less
it than another. The workman we saw operating, although an elderly
n, bent one in every second, or thereabouts. The ends of each hook
then flattened as at e and ff, to aftord a hold to the silk or other

PICTURK-PRINTINQ IN COLOURS.
"THIC present stato of this art, which has attained to considerable impor-

tance within the last few yeara, ws» admirably shown in the various
examples contributed to the Fine Art Court.

As long ago as the middle of tho fifteenth century wo find ornamental
initial letters, printed in two or three colours, by the Ocrmana ; and several
epecimons of picture-printing in chiut'-OKuru are now extant that were
executed early in the sixteenth century. These attempts wore continued
at intervals, and were improved on by an Englishman, John Baptist Jaclcson,
about the year 1740 ; and afterwards, aljout 1780, by another Englishman,
named Skippe : but these, it must bo understood, were mostly imitations
of sepia or India-ink drawings, and not, properly speaking, colour printings.
In the year 1818, William Savage published a quarto volume, entitled
"Practical Hints on Decorative Printing," which contained some bold and
clever illustrations of the art of colour-printing : but aa far as regards its
adaptation to tlie representation of pictures, we know of nothing further
being done with it, until Mr. Baxter took out a patent for printing in oil
colours from wood blocks and steel plates conjointly, and produced the
ilhistrations to the "Caliinet of Painting,".publisbcd by Chapman and Hall
in 183G. Since then, various book-plates, some good and some bad, have
been produced by the same process; and, in 1844, Messrs. C'oUms and
Ileynolds. pupils of Mr. Baxter, executed some veiy creditable colour-pic-
tures for tlie '• Old Story-books of England." These were done with wood
blocks only. Mr. Baxter's patent expired about a twelvemonth since, when he
applied for, and (thanks to Lord Brougham) obtained, a renewal of the
privilege, and since then has produced a series of small colour-pictures,
•ndiieh, we understand, have met with a very extensive sale. Many of these
pictures were exhibited by Mr. Baxter in oue large frame. They are meri-
torious iu their execution, pretty and pleasing, but most of them are
inartistic, and some of them are from very bad drawings. The best are a
copy of .Raffaelle's " Madonna," which has a very finished look, and a new
picture of the Great Exhibition Building.

Messsrs. Leighton, of Lamb's Conduit-street, were the next exhibitors of
wood block colour-printing, and we must say that the imitations of water-
colour drawings which they have produced rank much higher as works of
art. There are certain crudities and shortcomings which we would faiu see
corrected ; but, with all their blemishes, their copies of drawings by Wehnert,
Lee, Absolon, Weir, and Noble, must rank as the best contributions in
this branch of the art. Messrs. Leighton do not use an engraved steel
plate, as Mr. Baxter does, but gain many gradations of tone by means of
mezzotinted metal plates, worked in the same way as the wood blocks. In
each of the four pictures iu the Exhibition we find traces of about sixteen
to eighteen different printings.

Passing to the other side of the com-t, we found numerous examples of
colour-printing by the lithographic press. First, we came to Mr. Owen
Jones's exquisitely printed flowers and fruits. These were as near perfection
as we ever expect to see iu works of this class ; both the delicacy of tone
and the deep richness of colour of nature were most admu-ably presented,
and far surpossed in effect the efforts of ordinary water-colom- painting. We
should like to see Mr. Oweu Jones try an imitation of one of Lance's fruit-
pieces, or Mrs. Margett's flowers — not that we doubt his power of rendermg
thera beautifully, but that we wish to see how far the art can be carried.

We next came to a frame containiug Messrs. Hauhart's productions, and
these made tis linger long. The copy of Mi-. Creswick's " Forest Farm" is
excellent — in some parts as good as cau be hoped for, especially the sky,
the far distance, and the trees ; the farmhouse is not quite so successful ;
but we hear that Mr. Coventry, to whose hand-craft this work is attributable,
promises a more perfect copy at a second proving of the stones. But
Mr. Frederick Taylor's " English Squire," lithographed iu colours by John
Brandard, is Messrs. Hauhart's pride ; and well it may be. We do not
hesitate to award to it the highest praise.

Messrs. HuUmandel aud Walton showed excellent specimens of their
lithotint drawings ; aud then we came to Mr. Day's splendid contribution,
"The Destruction of Jerusalem," by David Roberts, lithographed by Louis
Ha::,'he. This is a very extraordinary production — the largest pictm-e we
believe, ever drawn on stone, and certainly a most successful one. It is
hardly an example of colour-printing, for there are but two or three tint-
stones used ; and it is more for its grandeur as a work of art than for any
application of a new art that we admire it. The pubhshed drawings of
Roberts's " Holy Land," lithogi-aphed by the same artist, are too well known
to need more than a passing word of commendation.

Of Mr. Kronheim's elaborate copy of " The Descent from the Cross," on
which it is said some large sums of money have been expended, we cannot
speak with praise. It may be mechanically — it certainly is not artistically
— good. Vvith most of tlie minor specimens of this interesting ai-t exhibited,
we are all sufficiently conversaat.

332

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

BEDSTEAP

T^OGERS AND DEA>

This bedstead is i
tlie Renaissance styli
of walnut-tree woo(
richly carved, with stu
fed panels, covered wit
quilted satin, and Enj
lish tapestry hanging)
The footboard haa
device of the guardia
angel watching over
mother and child. A
the carving is ably en
cuted, but, accordia
to our notion, there
rather too much of i
The tapestry hanging
also, have .too muc
mixture of colours, tl
tawdry effect of whi(
is increased by 0
strong contrast pr
sented by the sat
quilting and coverli
If there be any oi
article of furniture
which repose should
studied, it is sm-ely
bedstead.

inri

AN ITJ.USTRATED CYCTX)1M<;DIA OF TlIK GRKAT EXHTniTION ■()? 18r,l.

a^.i

LECTURES ON THE EXHIBITION.

;. WUKWELI, ON THE OENKRAI, BEAIlINaS OP THE (illKAT rXlil liri'HiN

ON THE rilOOnESS OV 90IEN0K AND ART.
'irri.Y aftor tlio closiiiR of the Groat Exliibitioii, I'liiico AUiert, nt
.iiilont of tlio Society of Arts miggostcd tliat a series of lectures shoulil
ivoroa befoi-e tliafc body, by able Professoi-s, ni)oii different braiiohos

luit uncultured life, yueeu I'ouiaro HcDd« uiutf and clotli, lieiuldrunncH and
female (,'ear, which the native art of her women fabricaton from their
indigcMons plants. I'Voni Labuan, the hwt 'K|)eciinon of Ravage life with
which this country him boeouie connected, we have also clothcBand armour,
weapons and musical instruments. From all tlio wide domains which lio
within or around our Indian Empire wo have rich and various contributionii ;
from Singapore and Ceylon. Celebes and .lava, Mengatal anil I'alembang.
The nider and moi-o primitive of these 'regions send us their native food

ce and manufacture illustrated in that great International Congress J ,1,1,1 clothing, their fishing nets and biuskets ; but art Boon goes beyond tbeM
4ry. TIjLs useful idea was at once adopted, and lectures announced I first essays. From Sumatra wo have_the loom and the plough, lacquered

uosEWOOD cABi::i;i. — rEioi.

Dr. Whewell, Master of Tiinity College, Cambridge ; Sir Henry de la
;he ; Professor Owen ; Dr. Lyon Playfair, and others, the first of which

delivered on November 26th. In order to give the more completeness
this humble record of the Great Exhibition, we propose giving some of

most remarkable and interesting passages from these diseoiu'ses.* Corn-
icing with Dr. Wbewell's lecture, we find the following eloquent remarks
in the general tendency of the Great Exhibition : —

Now, that which this scientific dream thus presents to us in imagination.

Exhibition of the Industry and Arts of All Nations has presented a.s a
ble reality : for we have had there collected examples of the food and
;hing and other works of ai-t of nations in every stage of the progress of
From Otidieite, so long in the eyes of Englishmen the type of gentle

• These lectures are iniblished in a cheap form, by B'l^nie, of Floet-street.

work and silken wares : .and as we proceed from these outside regions to
that central and ancient India, so long the field of 0 peculiar form of
civilisation, we have endless and innumerable treasm'es of skill and ingenuity
of magnificence and beauty. And yet we perceive that, in advancing from
these to the productions of our own form of civilisation, which has. even in
that country, shown its greater power, we advance also to a more skilful,
powerful, comprehensive, and progressive form of art. And looking at the
whole of this spectacle of the arts of life in .all their successive stages, there
is one train of reflection which cannot fail. 1 tliink, to strike us ; namely,
this : — In the first place, that man is, by nature and uuivei'sally, an artificer,
an artisan, an artist. We call the nations, from which such specimens
came as those which I first mentioned, rude and savage, and yet how much
is there of ingenuity, of invention, of practical knowledge of the properties
of branch and leaf, of vegetable texture and fibre, in the works of the rudest

334

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

tribes ! Hovr much, ajain, of manual dexterity, aoqmre'l by long and
pereevering practice, and even so, not easy ! And then, again, not only
how well adapted are these works of art to the mere needs of life, hut how
much of neatness, of prettiness, even of beauty, do they often possess, even
when the work of savage hands ! So that man is naturally, as 1 have said,
not only an artificer, but an artist. Even we, while we look down from our
lofty summit of civilised and mechtinically-aided skill upon tlie infancy of
art, may often learn from them lessons of taste. So wonderfully and
effectually has Providence planted in man the impulse which urges him on
to his destination, — bis destination, which is, to mould the bounty of nature
into such forms as utility demands, and to show at every step that with
mere utility he cannot be content. And when we come to the liigher stages
of cultured art — to tlie works of nations long civilised, thou£h inferior to
ourselves, it may be, in progressive civilisation and mechanical power, how
much do we find in their works which we must admire, which we might
envy, which, indeed, might drive us to despair ! Even still, tlie tissues and
ornamental works of Persia and of India have beauties wliich we, with all
our appliances and means, cannot surpass. The gorgeous East showera its
barbai-ic pearl and gold into its magnificent textures. But is there really any-
thing barbaric iu the skill and taste which they display ? Does the Oriental
prince or monarch, even if he confine his magnilnceuce to native manufac-
tures, present himself to the eyes of his slaves iu a less splendid or less
elegant attire than the nobles and the sovereigns of this our Western world,
more highly civilised ss we nevertheless deem it ? Few persons, I tliiuk,
would answer iu the athrmative. The silks and shawls, the embroidery
and jewellery, the moulding and carving, which those countries can produce,
and which decorate their palaces and their dwellers in palaces, are even
now such as we cannot excel. Oriental magnificence is still a proverbial
mode of describing a degree of splendour and aitistieal richness which is
not found among ourselves.

Wliat, then, shall we .say of ourselves ? Wherein is our superiority ? In
what d6 we see the effect, the realisation, of that more advanced stage of
ai't which we conceive ourselves to have attained ] What advantage do we
derive from tlie immense accumulated resources of skill and capital — of
mechanical ingenuity and mechanical power — which we pos.sess \ Surely
our imagined superiority is not all imaginary ; surely we really are more
advanced tlian they, and this term "' advanced" has a meaning; surely that
mighty thought of a progress in the life of nations is not an empty dream ;
and surely our progress has carried us beyond them. Where, then, is the
import of the idea in this case \ What is the leading and characteristic
dilfereuce between them and us, as to this matter? What is the broad and
predominant distinction between the arts of nations rich, but in a courlifcion
of nearly stationary civilisation, like Oriental nations, and nations whicli
have felt tlie full influence of progress like om-selves?

If I am not mistaken, the difference may be briefly expressed thus : —
That in those countries the arts are mainly exercised to gratify the tastes
of the few ; with us, to supply the wants of the many. There, the wealth
of a province is absorbed iu the dress of a mighty warrior ; here, the gigantic
weapons of the peaceful potentate are used to provide clothing for the world.
For that which makes it suitable that machinery, constructed on a vast
scale, and embodying enormous capital, should be used in manufacture, is
that tlie wares produced should be very great iu quantity, so that the
smallest advantage in the power of workii^, being multiplied a million
fold, shall turn the scale of profit. And thus such machinery is applied
when wares arc manufactured fur a vast population ; — when millions upon
millions have to be clothed, or fed, or ornamented, or pleased, witli the
things so produced. I have iieard one say, who had extensively and carefully
studied the manufacturing establishments of this country, that when he
begaahis siu'vey he expected to find the most subtle and refined machinery
applied to the most delicate and beautiful kind of work — to gold and .silver,
jenels, and embroidery : but that when he came to examine, he found tliat
these works were mainly executed by hand, and that the most exquisite
and the most expensive machinery was brought into play where operations
on the most common materials were to be performed, because these were
to bo executed on the widest scale. And this is when coarse and ordinary
wares are manufactured for the many. This, therefore, is the meaning of
the vast and astonishing prevalence of machine-work in this country : — that
the machine with its million fingers works for millions of purchasers, while
in remote countries, where m.agnificence and savagery stand side by side,
tens of thousands work for one. There Art labours for the rich alone ;
here she works for the poor no less. There the multitude produce only
to give splendour and grace to the despot or the warrior, whose slaves they
are, and whom they enrich ; here the man who is powerful in the weapons
of peace, capital and machinery, uses them to give comfort and enjoyment
to the public, whose servant he is, and thus becomes rich while he enriches
others with his goods. If this be truly the relation between the condition
of the arts of life in tliis country and in tho.se others, may we not with
reason and with gratitude say that we have, indeed, reached a point beyond
theii'8 in the sScial progress of nations ! "

After describing the principles upon which the classification of objects
was earned out, which he thinks an improvement upon the whole of that
adopted at previous expositions, the lecturer illustrates his position with
some pertinent and suggestive remai-k.s : —

" There is one other remark wliich I should wish to make, suggested by
the classification of the objects of the Exhibition ; or, rather, a remark which
it is i>ossible to express, only because we have .such a classification before
us. It i/j an important cliaractor of a right cla.ssification, that it makes

general propositions possible ; a maxim which we may safely regard as wi
grounded, since it has been delivered independently by two persons, i
less different from one another than Cuvier and Jeremy Bentham. No
in accordance with this maxim, I would remark, that there are genet
reflections appropriate to several of the divisions into which the Exhibitii
is by its classification distributed. For example : let us compare the Fii
Class, Ilininy and Mineral Prodtu-ts, with the Second Class, Chemit
Processes and Products. In looking at these two classes, we may see sop
remarkable contrasts between them. The first class of arts, those whii
are employed in obtaining and working the metals, are among the mc
ancient ; the second, the arts of luanufacturing chemical products on alai",
scale, are among the most modern which exist. In the former class, ae
have said. Art existed before Science ; men could shape, and melt, at
pm'ify. and combine the metals for their practical purposes, before thi
knew anything of the chemistry of metals ; before they knew that to puri
them was to expel oxygen or sulphur; the combination may be definite
indefinite. Tubal-Caiu, in the first ages of the world, was ' the instruct
of every artificer in brass and iron ; ' but it was very long before tiiere oau
an instructor to teach what was the philosophical import of the artifice:
practices. In this case, as I have already said. Art preceded Science ;
even now Science has overtaken Art ; if even now Science can tell us wl
the Swedish steel is still unmatched, or to what peculiar composition t!
Toledo blade owes its fine temper, which allows it to coil itself up in ;
sheath when its l-igid thrust is not needed. Here Art has preceded Sciem
and Science has barely overtaken Art. But iu the second class. Science h
not only overtaken Art, but is the whole foundation, the entire creator
the art. Here Art is the daughter of Science. The great chemical man
factories which have sprung up at Liverpool, at Newcastle, at Glasgow, c
their existence entu'clyto a profound and scientific knowledge of chemisti
These arts never could have existed if there had not been a science
chemistry ; and that, an exact and pbilosopihical science. Tliese nianufi
tories now are on a scale at least equal to the largest establishments whi
existamongthesuccessoisof Tubal-Cain. They occupy spaces not smaller th
that great buildingin which the productions of all tbeai'ts of all the world wt
gathered, and where we so often wandered till our feet were weary. Th
employ, some of them, five or six large steam-engiues ; they shoot up t
obelisks which convey away their smoke and fumes to the height of t
highest steeples in the world ; they occupy a population equal to that oi
town, whose streets gather round the wall of the mighty workshop, "i'
these processes are all derived from the chemical theories of the last a
the present century ; from the investigations carried on iu the laboratories
Scheele and Kirwan, Berthollet and Lavoisier. So rapidly in this ease 1'
the tree of Art blossomed fi'om the root of Science ; upon so giganti'
scale have the truths of Science been embodied in the domain of Art.

Again, there is another remark which we may make in comparing t
First Class, Minerals, with the Tliird Class, or rather with the Four
Veffctable and Animal Su.bstances, -used in manufactures, or as implnmcnis
ornaments. And I wish to speak especially of veffelaile substances. In t
class of Minerals, all the great members of the class are still what they wi
iu ancient times. No doubt a umnber of new metals and mineral substau(
have been discovered ; and these have their use ; and of these the Exhibiti
presented fine examples. But still, their use is upon a small scale. Gc
and iron, at the present day, as in ancient times, are the rulers of the worl
and the great events in the world of mineral ait are not the discovery
new substances, but of new and rich localities of old ones, — the opening
the treasures of the earth in Mexico and Peru in the sixteenth century,
California and Australia in our own day. But in the vegetable world t
case is difl'erent ; there, we have not only a constant accumulation and repi
duction, but also a constantly growing variety of objects, fitted to the nee
and uses of man. Tea, coffee, tobacco, sugar, cotton, have made man's li
and tlie arts which sustain it, very diS'erent from what they were in ancie
times. And no one, I think, can have looked at the vegetable treasures
the Crystal Palace without seeing that the various wealth of the vegetal
world is far from yet exliausted. The Liverpool Local Committee ha'
enabled us to take a starting-point for such a survey by sending to tl
Exhibition a noVile collection of specimens of every kind of import of th
great emporium ; among which, as might be expected, the varieties
vegetable produce are the most numerous. But that objects should "
reckoned among imports, implies that already they are extensively use
If we look at tlie multiplied collections of objects of the same kind, son
from various countries, not as wares to a known market, but as specime: l
and suggestions of unexplored wealth, wo can have no doubt that the li
of imports will hereafter, with great advantage, be enlarged. Who knpv
what beautiful materials for the makers of furnitm'eare to be found in tt
coUeotionsof woods from the various forests of the Indian Archipelago, or '
Australia, or of Tasmania, or of New Zealand? Who knows what we ma
hereafter discover to have been collected of fruits and oils, and medicini
and dyes; of threads and cordage, as we had here from New Zealand an
from China examples of such novelties ; of gums and vegetable substance
which may, in some unforeseen maijner, promote and facilitate the process*
of art '> How recent is the application of caoutchouc to general purpose
Yet we know now — and on this occasion America would have taught us
we had not known — that there is scarcely any use to which it may not I
applied with advantage. If a teacher in our time were to construct maxin:
like those of the son of Sirach in the ancient Jewish times — like him who say
(Ecclus. xxxix. 26), ' The princijial things for the whole use of man's life ai
water, fire, iron, and salt, flour of wheat, honej', milk, and the blood of th

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPyEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OP 1851.

335

"il, .iiiil ilcitliing' — ho couki lianlly fail In iiiultc .■uMitioin to thu
■ i tlicso would Ijo from the vogotablu worM. Axaiii, Ijow rccoiit in
i>vei'y of tlio USU3 of giitta-iioi'dia I In tlio great (.'0110011011 wore
f the original speeimons sotit Ijy Dr. Montgomory to tlio India Houso,
aco spcoimons wcri' <listributcd to varioiH exiiorinicntalists. Yet how
5US and poouliar aro now Its uses, such as no other suliHtanco could
ICO ! And i.s it not to hr. expoctod that our oontoniporarios, joining tho
ht of Rcionoe to tho instinct of arE. shall discovor, among tho various
cos of vogotahlo WPalth which tho Groat Exhibition has diadofed to
suhstanccs an peculiar and precious, in tho manner of their utility, as
e aids thus recently obtained for tho uses of life J
nd befort' we quit this subject, let us rollect, aa
impossible, I tliink not to reflect, when viewing
tho constantly enlai'ging sphere of the utility
ih man draws from the vegetable world, what
ew this also gives us of tlio bounty of Provi-
;o to man, thus bringing out of tho earth, in
y varying clime, endless forms of vegetable life,
liich so many, and so many more than we yet
tell, aro adapted to sustain, to cheer, to beneht,
elight man, in ways ever kind, ever large, ever
and of which the novelty itself is a new sourco
clighted contemplation."

Clt(JSKll,i;S KOOT-WASIIEIS.

This is n very simple ami conveniunt maciiino, in which tlio principle of
tho Archiniedoau screw, liaa been ingeniously apphed. The rooti aro
delivored into a hopper, aucl p.-ujseil themw into an inclined cyliudor, having
two chanilioig, in the first of which thoy are confincrl iinrl washed by
turning tlie handle in one direction ; when thorougldy cleaned, the motion
IS reversed, and they pass into the second ehuinber, which i< coiistnicted in
tho form of a spiral, along which they pa»8 until thcv drop into a spout
outside. It U well 0 I.iptc 1 for cinot», potato.ji, turiiip.s, and most other

BANKS' TWIN STAIRCASE.
B. Banks erected in one of the north-west ave-
; of the Nave, a double or twin staircase, which,
niunicating with tho gallery above, wa.s daily
ISO of by tho public. It was intended as a
imeu of what may be done in a small space
being here two staircases, one for parties
idiug. the other for those descending, in tjie ai-ea
laco, which would be devoted to one flight under
Di'diuary method of construction. This eontriv-
is considered particularly adapted for cabins
liips, picture galleries, show-rooms, and tempo-
erections, wliere a great influx of visitors is
y to attend ; being capable of being put up at a
t notice, and at comparatively small exjiense.
principle of construction is very simple, being
3ly an adaptation iu extreme limits of the
known properties of the spiral curve, or spring-
arch. The ascent is necessarily steep, there
g no loss than thirty-eight steps iu each semi-
ilar iiight, the diameter of the plane of which,
not exceed a dozen feet, whilst the height is
ty-three feet. The length of tho step is four
and the length of the outer string-board,
y-seven feet. Each flight lands on a circular
dor. which interseots two of the galleries of
building at right angles with each other. The
e continuous ones, so that a person ascend-
Mid placing either hand on the rail, may cou-
p with the same on the rail during the ascent,
.0 way across the corridor, and all the way down
he opposite fight. This invention exhibits con-
able iiigem(jty, and is likely to be extensively
il.

BEBOARD. Br THE GUTTA PERCHA COMPANY.

iE glass-frame and side-board, exhibited by the
a Tereha Company, is intended as a specimen
hat may be done in their material upon a largo
.s a substitute for wood-carving, &c. We
t bo excused from investigating its beauties as
Di-k of art ; as a piece of serviceable furniture,
3ver, we have om- misgivings about it or any
of the kind composed of this treacherous
irial. The card affixed to tliis sideboard an-
iceil that it is intended to exhibit the capabilities
his material for ornamental purposes, "parti-
ly the long-sought-for desideratum of a non-
le peud.int." Unfortunately, although this
ly-decorated structure in gutta-percha was care-
surrounded by a cordon, and had yet expe-
ed no wear and tear — -we discovered symptoms
^location in pai-t of the "peadant" foliage, and
ithing like a "split" m a pear of no ordinary
insions. (See p. 325.)

ROSEWOOD CABINET. BY TETOT.

is a very showy piece of furniture iu the Louis
style, made of rosewood and tulip-wood, richly
d with marquetrie and buhl. It is peculiarly
ch in style, and wants that solidity of appear-
at least, wiiich distinguishes the best English
iturc. (See p. 333.)

CROSSKILLS ROOT- WASHER.

BAXK3 TWIN tlilRCASE.

336

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS.'

ORNAMENTAL CHINA.— illNTO.N.

JEWELLED FIOUKK OP BRITANNIA.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

FAINTED SCnEEX. — r.lRLE.

lilt. Earle's contributiou being in encaustic, the painting found admission
to the Crystal Palace, as not coming within the rule excluding works of
pointing in oil, water-colour, and fresco. It is a production of ordinary merit.
The subjects are in imitation of antique gems, representing the story of
i-'upid and Psyche. 1 . Cupid stung by a bee, shows his wounded finger to
Venus. 2. Psyche contemplating the mm-der of Cupid. 3. Psyche and

Pan. 4. Psyche propitiates Ceres. .1. Psyche giving the soporific cakes, and Psyche in the bower.
„ No. 22, FEBIitTART 28. ]8.">2.

6. The Eagle giving the vase of black water to Psyche. 7. Psyche receiving
the casket of perfumes from Proserpine., 8. Psyche Tvith the casket of
perfume received from Proserpine. 9. Psyche presenting the casket to
Venus, which appeases her anger and extinguishes her jealousy. 10. Mercury,
commanded by Jupiter, bringing Psyche back to £)lympus. 11. Psyche
transported by Zephyr to a gi-ove. and placed in the arms of Cupid. 12. Cupid

PBir-E One Penny.

338

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

TEXTILE MANUFACTURES.

DYEING AND CALICO . PRINTING.

pOTTON is dyed in the state of fibre only to a very limited extent. It
is dyed black in this state for the manufacture of " wadding ; " and
small quautities are tinged pink or rose colour, by means of saffiower, for
the use of the jeweller. lu Class IV. Mr. Claussen exhibited some of his
flax cotton, dyed in the fibre in several colours, to show the capability of
his material for mixture with dyed wool in the cloth maniifacture.

Cotton is dyed extensively in the state of yarn for the manufacture
of thiead — sewing-thread, crochet-thread. &c. .Sewing- thread, in many
colours, was showu by Messrs. Brook, of Huddersfield, and Mr. W. Evans,
of Derby ; and very brilliant tints of the same were exhibited by Mr.
Thackeray, of Nottingham, but dyed by Mr. Townsend, of Coventry.
Excellent colours in crochet-thread were shown by Messrs. Marsland, of
Manchester. la the foreign department we may mention with deserved
encomium Messrs. Meischer, of Switzerland, and Ferdinand Taulen, of
Vienna.

Dyed cotton yarn is used extensively for woven good.s. such as ahirtiugs,
stripeil aud checked faucys, giughams, "Beugnl stripes," "Panos da
Costa," &o. &c. Mr. P. Dixon, of Carlisle, exhibited an extensive series
of dyed cotton yarns, and of the woven goods manufactured from tliem.
Nearly every description of the same class of goods was shown by Messrs.
Lowthian aud Parker, of the same city. It appears to us, however, that
the Carlisle dyers are somewhat behind their rivals north of the Tweed,
as regards the brilliancy of the colours, particularly of the reds. Nothing
can excel the beautiful checks anil tartans exhibited by the Messra. Ander-
son, of Glasgow, Messrs. II. Fyfe and Co., and other Glasgow houses.
Very brilliant cuttou dyes were shown on the woven goods exhibited
by Messrs. Tricot, Rouen ; Naef, cantou St. Gall, Switzerland ; and M
Kretscbman, of Eiseliberg, Prussia. The latter showed his peculiarly
brilliaut yarns, manufactured into a peculiar fabric for the making of
slippers, bags, &'c.

Cotton is also dyed in the piece ; numerous examples were shown la
calicoes, fustians, velvets, &c. Wo particularly remarked the very beau-
tiful cotton velvets exiiibited by Jlessrs. W. Andrews and Sous, Man-
chester. The success of their peculiar dye and finish is such as to render
the '■ patent cottoa velvet" nearly equal in colour and brilliance to silk.

In whatever stage of the manufactured fibre tlie dye may be applied,
the chemistry of the process is the same. The colours are fixed by
causing the substance wliich forms the dye to pass from the liquid to the
solid state within tbe pores of the fibre. Thus the deep blues which we
observed in the beautiful stripes of Messrs. Dixon, Tricot, and Naef, are
dyed with indigo. To fix this insoluble substance we first render it
soluble by brm^jing it into contact with lime or alkilis, and deoxidising
substances. If wo mix finely-powdered indigo with lime aud green cop-
peras dissolved iu water, the blue colom' of tho indigo disappears, and
we have a compound of indigo, deprived of a certain portion of oxygen,
and lime, which dissolves in the water, yielding a greenish yellow solution.
If we immerse cotton in this solution, the pores become filled by it, and
on bringing the cottou into the air, oxyg.!n is rapidly absorbed, the blue
insoluble indigo is again formed, aud becomes fixed within the cells of the
fibre.

The beautiful pink on cotton to be seen on many specimens of thread,
and on some of the velvets of the Messrs. Andrews, is dyed with oartha-
iniue, tlie red colouring principle of safliower. This substance dissolves
in alkalis, aud is again rendered soluble by the vegetable acids, and
we avail ourselves of this property to fix it upon tlie fibre. There are
iusfcaucea of " substantive " colours, /. c, of colours which afford dyes
without being combined with other Bubatanees ; but a large class of dyes
are called " adjective," aud require the aid of a " base " or " mordant, to
Ijecome fixed upon cotton. The valuable dye-stutf, madder, is of this
class. Cotton boiled in water to which madder-root has been added takes
a mere dirty tinge, which is removed by soap aud water ; but if the
cotton be first soaked in a salt of alumina or of iron, aud dried, the earth
or oxide is fixed within its pores, and constitutes tho base or mordant ;
:i;id if the cotton be now boiled with madder, a full permanent colour
results. If alumina lias beou used, the colour is red or pink, according
to the quantity of mordant employed ; if iron has been used, the colour
is lilac, or deep purple; aud if a mixture of the two bases has been
employe!, it is puco or chocolate. In fact, the colouring matter of
madder is not coloured aud insoluble until combined with tiic base, aud
this insoluble compound may be prepared separately, and is then called
a "lake." Very beautiful madder lakes— the substance We have been just
describing — were exhibited tiy Messrs. Wiusor aud Newton, in Class 11,,
and by other exhibitors in the foreign department. Crimson lakes may
be also prepared from cochineal, from Brazil, saffion, and other woods ;
purple and black Lakes from logwood; yellow lakes from quercitron,
tastic, weld, &c. ; and all tliese serve as more or less stable dyes by pro-
cesses identical with that described for madder— viz., by first fixing the
mordant or base, and then forming the lake by immersing the mordanted
cloth iu tbe soluble colouring matter.

Coloured mineral substances may be fixed on cotton by a very similar

process. The conditions necessary for success are that the coloured sub-
stance be insoluble, and that it be formed by the mixture of two or more
soluble substances. Chrome yellow and Prussian blue fulfil these condi-
tions, and the greater number of the brilliaut yellow aud blue dyes on
cotton (and by their mixture the greens also) have been produced by
fixing these substances. To fix the yellow, the cotton is soaked in a
solution of sugar (acetate) of lead, wrung and dried, aud then plunged in a
solution of bichromate of potash. Doui>le decomposition ensues, and, the
insoluble compound formed, yellow chromate of lead is precipitated, and
firmly adheres within the cells of the fibre. By substituting acetate of
iron and prussiate of potash for the lead salt aud bichromate, Prussian
blue is produced.

The greater number of the colours on cotton are obtained by these
simple processes, but there are others, aud one in particular, which require
more complex operations. We allude to the Turkey red, or Adrianople
red, as it is called by some of the foreisn dyers. On examining tbe very
beautiful goods shown by Mr. .Steiner, of Accrington, in Class XVIII., the
peculiar biilliancy of this colour was appreciated. Nor is it more remark-
able for its brilliancy than for its extreme stability and resistance to
atmospheric aud chemical agencie', for the tedious aud intricate opera-
tions by which it is produced, and for the mysterious nature of the che-
mical reactions upon which the success of these operations depends. So
greatly is this colour esteemed, that in nearly every European country
several manufactories may be found occupied exclusively with its produc-
tion, and specimens of the products of these were seen in various depart-
ments of the Exhibition.

As the name implies, we are indebted to the East for the origin of the
process. The peculiar stability of the colouring matter of nibiaceous
plants (madder, innnjeet, &e.), when combined with fatty matters, appears
to have been known in India fijr many centuries. The processes are said
still to remain unchanged among the Indian dyers, so that we may regard
the red-dyed cottons in the Indian collection of tho Exhibition as exam-
ples of the Turkey red process in its infancy. According to the descrip-
tions of Indian processes given to us by Le Joux de Flain, the essential
constituents of the Indian dye are buiialo's milk aud powder of myra-
bolaus, and au equally essential step in the mode of fixing these is expo-
sure to the sun's rays. The process appears to have undergone some
nioiliftcation before reaching us, as in the eaidiest recipes we find the fatty
matter of the milk rephioed by olive oil, and the animal matter, or caseine,
by animal excrement. The tannin and the exposure to the sun are still
retained, galls replacing myrobalaus. According to Persoz, the process
was introduced into Franco by Greek dyers, having been brought by
Messi's. Fesgaet, Goudard, and d'Haristoy, in 1747. It appears to hare
been introiluced into England at a later period; but as the French govern-
ment, recognising the importance of the process, purchased and published
it in 1765, it must have been generally practised soon after this period.

Let us examine the successive steps of this remarkable process. If
cottou be steeped in a solution of alum — or, still better, in acetate of
alumina — and be theu dried, washed, and heated iu water containing
ground madder, it is found to be dyed of a dull rod colour, as wo have
above remarked. By the aid of soap the colour may be brightened, but
it remains very inferior in point of lustre and fixity to the true Turkey
red. To obtain this colour tho dyer begins by difl'using oil (the inferior
olive oils are preferred) through watev, by means of an alkali, so as to
form an imperfect soap ; and by steeping the cloth iu the oleaginoiis mix-
ture. If the cloth so treated be then mordanted with alum and dyed iu
madder, no colour can be obtained, as the unchanged fatty matter prevents
the fixation of the aluminous mordant. But if the cloth be exposed to
the sun's rays, or heated in a stove, after impregnation with the oily
matter, the latter becomes modified ; and if the cotton be afterwards
treated with alum aud madder, a red of increased stability is obtained,
which will bear the brightening processes to a much greater extent than
before. If the alternate baths of oil and the exposure to tho sun be
repeated many times, the result is still superior ; it is also found that if
common alum be used, g.alls, or other astringent matter, should be em-
ployed, as iu the original recipe — the alumina being thereby more efl'ec-
tually fixed on the fibre. It has, moreover, been found that, iu order to
obtain a full rich colour, tho alum bath and madder should be repeated
a second time, aud that the brightening operations should be conducted
at a heat considerably beyond that of boiling water. In the greater
number of old recipes the oil baths are repeated at least eight times,
but by the improvements of late ycai's these have been reduced to four,
while the quantity of oil employed has been reduced in a stdl greater
proportion.

In Persoz's admirable work, " Impression de» TissUs," the following
process is given as that of one of the best French Turkey red dyers ; —

" 1. The cotton is saturated with the oil bath as described above.

" 2. Piled, and allowed to heat aud ferment for twelve hours.

" 3. Heated for several hours at a high temperature.

" 4 to 6. The above operations are repeated (second oiling).

" 7 to i>. Ditto, ditto (third oiling).

'• 10 to 12. Ditto, ditto (fourth oiling).

" 13. The superfluous oil is removed by steeping iu an alkaline bath.

" 11. Immersed in a solution of alum, mixed with decoction of galls.

" 15. Passed iu water containing chalk iu suspension.

" 16. Dyed with madder, the temperature being gradually raised t9
boiling in three hours.

AN ILLUSTHATKl) CYCLOPiliDIA Ob' THE GREAT EXIIIIMTION OF 1851,

339

■ 17. WoU washed, cleanerl, and liried.
IS. Piissod again in a ."ohition of alum and gall.'i.

' 19. Dyed an bel'oro witli inaildor.

-iO. I''ir^t elofti'lnB— Hoilcd lor oiglit hour.s willi a solution of Boup tind
rlash, ill a close vosscl, imdoi" proHSuro.

■Ji. Sooond clearing — LlUo the first, but with oridition of chloride of

' -12. Tlili'd cloaring like the firat.

■ 'J:J. K.xpomn-o to tlio air, and boilins with bran, after which the colour
'iiind to have attained its niaxinuini lustre."
Mhcr recipos ilid'or sllglitly from tliis. Many sky-rod dyers employ

I il o.xcroniout in a state of ]iutrosoonoe. mixed witli tlio oil and alkali,
is ."aid to hanton thi! cliange whieli takes place in the constituents of
"il. Others — and among them, it la (said, Mr. Steiner, of AeeriugtoU,
BO celubrntoil for his dye— use muriate of alumina inatead of alum ; ho
i« also said to u.se largo quantities of blood in the madder dyeing.

Clioniistry, which has olfeoted so much for llio topical application of
dyes on cotton, lias done nothing for the Turkey red dyer. Not ou]y has
the production of the colour been arrived at independently of tlio chemist,
but he is, we believe, still unable to atl'urd a satisfactory explanation of
the chemical changes whicli take place in the procesyoR.

In the British department, Turiioy red goods were oxhil.)ited by Mr.
Steinor, of Acerington ; by Messrs. Greenwood and Barnes, Manchc«tor ;
by Messrs. Montcith and Co.. Orr, Ewing, and Co., and Stirling and Sons,
Glasgow. The products of the ficst-nanicd goutlcmen occupy tho very
first rank, and will bear comparison with all others. Tlio yarus of Mes.srs,
Montcith arc good, but it appears to us that this firm no longer retain

that pre-eminonca in tlieir pieco dyed goods for which they were long
dihtinguiahcd. France hUbtains her reputation in Turkey red flyeing, in
the per.son of Mr. Steiner. Tho three coloured Turkey red exhdiited by
him was magnifici'nt. Wo believe that tlio peculiar beauty of the rods in
tho sjilcndiil chintfi furniture exhibited by the firm of .Iapui», Parin, is duo
to the 'I'ui'key rod [irocoss.

Switzerland haw long been celebrated for her Turkey red. I5«nutifid
tints, both in yarns and cloth, were ghowa by MeMra. Zeigler, Clumor, and
lenny, and tho brothers Loumann; and thrL-ad, in graduated tints, by
McB.trs. Miescher and Co.

Holgium — so far behind other European nations in printed cottons, if
wo may Judge from tho specimens shown — occupies a high piwition M
rcgai-ds tho Turkey nd dye. M. Idiei-s. of BruMtls, showed good speci-
tueus. His violets and chocolates struck ui as being very superior. In
tho Atistrian department tho dyes shown on^ yarn and cloth by M. liurl
Uroliman, Lindenau, Bohemia, were equal to tho very best in tho Kxhi-
bitiou ; those of the Imperial dye works of Pordonono, near Venice, were
also good.

In tlio department of tho Zollverein, numerous samples of Turkey red
yarns were shown. Tiiose of Miissrs. Zais, Luchdorff, SeliiiU, Wolff, hrinck,
Sehriiidt, Neuhoil', and tlie Turkey Itcd Company at Hague show that the
German dyors still retain thoir eminence in this branch of the art. Tlie
rods of Nculiofl', and tlioso of tho Hague Company, appeared to ua to
occupy the very fii'st rank.

Jn Russia Messrs. Pimtoloif and Lewis Rabeneck showed Turkey red
goods, but they were very inferior to tliose displayed by the majority of
tho other exhibitors.

■-:^-

WHITE A^D GOLD CABINET. — iW. IXURAM, BIKMIMGHAJI.

The cabinet of the Louis Quatorze period, manufactured by Ingram, of
Birmingham, and exhibited in the Fine Arts Com't, was certainly one of
the most rCchercM articles of decorative furniture in the Exhibition. It
is of white enamel and gold, the panels relieved by the introduction of

bird subjects very delicately painted. The recesses at each end ai'C glazed,
and at the back is a mirror. The enamelling is upon wood, laid on cold by
a new process. The ornamentation, which is rich without being redundant
^Yas especially noticeable for its beauty of style and finish.

840

THE CRYSTAL PALA(;E AND ITS CONTENTS;

STAINED WINDO^y. BY GIBSON.
The Norman tracery window, by Gibson, of Newcastle, the
upper part of whicli is engi-aved below, is a rich specimen of
the art. In the central compartment is represented the Na-
tivity ; and in the four principal compartments above and
below it, two and two, are the four principal prophets, Moses,
David, Isaiah, and John the Baptist. The arrangement is
simple and effective, and the colouring extremely nch.

KOTKE EAME, AT TONGBES — IKIEBIOK.

JIAPTINS. AT THUS.

STAINED WINDOW.— GIli.SON.

CHURCH MEDALS. BY J. WIENER.

JI. Wiener, of Binissels, exhibited a collection of very
beautiful medals, representing the principal cathedrals and
ether public buildings iu Belgium. One of these we engr,ived
in a previous number ; we now jniblish four others. In
these medals, in the case of religious edifices, the exterior is
given on the obverse, and the interior on the reverse of the
medal ; in the case of other edifices, the reverse is occupied
with a ground-plan of the building.

The church of Notre Dame, at Tongres, is a very ancient
foundation, which was devastated by the Huns, and rebuilt
in the time of Chaidemagne. The church of St. Martin's,
at Ypres, was founded early in the eleventh century. Botli
are veiT fine and interesting relics of antiquity.

Sr. MAUTINS, AT YPRES — INTERIOR.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPvKDIA OF THE GREAT KXIIIIUTION OF IH."

:;|]

TiiKSK siilt-cellan arc of a very pretty pattern, rather oljfaahioned per-
haps, but beautifully executed and tastefully engravcfl.

CENTRH PIECE. — BY LAMBKRT AND BAWLtKOS. — (sEE P. 352.)
This very handsome ohjoot is intended to be commemorative of the
Great Exhibition of 1851, for which it was produced. At the top is
Britannia, with the palm-leaf in one hand ; and below are figfures emblematic
of the four quarters of the globe, presenting the fniitfl of the earth.
Beneath are Tritons and the head.s of sea-gods.

FONTAINE A THE. — ByDUHASD.

This m a very magniBceut production — quite a work of fine art —
intended as a centre piece fur the tc!i or breakfast tabic. It is made of
silver, in parts oxidised, with enamelliug, iucrustationa, &c. It consiata of
a standard, of elegant design, supporting a tea-urn with four spouts ; and
corresponding with them, upon silver plates, are four tea-pot.s, and an equal
number of sugar-basins and cream-jugs. Around the base are places for
sixteen or twenty cups. The workmanship throughout is ol the most
elaborate and costly description.

■ f LECTERN. — C0T1 INGir.\5r.

This is a large piece of Church fm-niture, after the
I'dL-cval models, which are still in use in our
*thedrals as reading-desks. The material is brass,
; 1 the workmanship highly elaborate. It has been

■ \r for Hereford Cathedral, by Mr. Cottingham,
■ u U architect to the Dean and Chapter.

FONT.MNE X THE. — DUHAND.

31.3

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

POTTERS' CLAY.
N our previous artiole on Poi-oelain wo intimated that to those who
desu-ed to make the Great Exhibition a medium of instruction, it
■was important that the natural production and the finished manufacture
should be associated. Following out that idea, we commence our detailed
consideration of fictile manufactures at that point, hoping to show the
importance of developing to tho utmost our great natural resources in
this depai-tment.

That even so ordinary a production as clay 'is of great value to a
country, is proved by the very striking fact that, until Mr, Cookworthy, of
Plymouth, discovered the deposit of ka'ilin, on the southern side of the
Tregonning-hill, near Helstone, in Cornwall, no porcelain was made in
England. Cookworthy had obtained possession of some kaolin sent from
China by M. D'EntrecoUes, and of some from Limoges through the cele-
brated Reaumur, and industriously examined the decomposed granites —
r/rancn, as they are provincially called — which occurred in the neighbour-
hood of some property belonging to his family. He ascertained that the
clay which could be artificially separated from this substance possessed
all the chemical and physical properties of the clays of France aud of
China; and he accordingly patented its application for that pur|io6e,
established porcelain works at Plymouth, and eventually sold his patent
to Mr. Champion of Bristol. Since that time the use of this clay has
been most rapidly extending. Cookworthy commenced the preparation
of this substance about 175S.

We had in this section about twenty-four exhibitors of clays of various
kinds. These illustrate to a certain extent the varieties obtained in the
United Kingdom. There were specimens of kaolin, or China clay sent by —
Sir George Hodson, from Sugar-loaf Mountains, Wicklow ; Jenkins and
Courtney, from Great Bodilla china-stone quarries, St. Austel ; Sarah
Michell, from St. Austel ; J. Phipps, from ditto ; Wm. Brown, from ditto ;
C. Ti-uscott, from ditto ; Philip Wheeler and Co., from ditto ; E. Martin,
from ditto ; Rebecca Martin, from Higher Blowing House, St. Austel ;
W. Phillips, from the Morley Works, Diirtmoor.

Pipe Clay and common potter's clay were contributed by —
T. Phippard, from Carey-pits, Wareham ; J. Deei'ing, from Middleton,
Co. Cork ; North Devon Pottery Company, from Anner_v, neoi' Bide-
ford ; N. Burnett, from Black Hedley, near Newcastle ; Fale and Co., from
the Isle of Purbeck ; W. and J. Pike, from ditto.

Brick clay and clay for tiles and drain-pipes were exhibited by —
Lord Enniskillen, from Powerscourt, Ireland ; J. Grieve, from Preston-
pans ; G. King, from Gazeley, near Newmarket ; T. Ross, from Charle-
mont, Hastings ; F. Fisher, from Woolijit, Suffolk ; T. Simmons, from
Birmingham.

In all these vai'ieties the adhesive ba?e is alumina silica, the other iugi'e-
dients existing in very variable proportions.

The following analysis of a few of the clays employed by the potter will
convey some general idea of their composition : —

r^ilici. Alumina.

clay sediment is allowed to settle, the supernatant water being drawn of
from time to time as it becomes clear. By repeating this process manj
times the receiver becomes full of clay ; this is allowed to dry, so as tc
admit of being cut out into cubical or prismatic masses of sides of aboui
one foot, which are carried to a roofed building and placed on frames tc
dry. AVhen considered to be sufficiently drj^, the masses are carefully
scraped, packed m casks, and sent off to the potteries. The processes o
preparing and cutting out the clay is usually performed by men and hoys
women and girls being employed to scrape the dry cubes and prepare then
for packing. During the summer months the China clay-works on thi
St. Austel moors, aud in St. Stephen's, present a scene of active industry.

It appears that about 1,757 tons of this clav were exported from Charles
town, a port near St. Austel, to the potteries in 1809. In 1826 the expor
had increased to 7.090 tons from Charlostown, 400 tons from Pentuan,
from Porthleven, and 1 8 tons from St. Michael's Mount. Of late yeara thi
demand has greatly increased, and china clay is not now^ used in the maau
facture of porcelain only, but many thousand tons are annually employee
in calico bleaching establishments and in paper manufactories, the objec
being in both cases to give an artificial body to these substancGB. At leas
20,000 tons of the Cornish and Devonshire china clays are now annuall;
prepared.

In addition to this artificially prepared china clay, an inferior kind i
raised at Bovoy Tracey, probably about 25,000 tons annually. A sem
decomposed granite — which is of the same character as the clay, but in
less advanced state of disintegi-ation — is largely worked. It is quarried i
large quantities in the parish of St. Stephen, on Dartmoor, and in severs
other of the primary districts. This china stone is principally employed!
the potteries as a glaze ; the alkali wliich is present assists the fusion of th
mass into a glass, which is very thoroughly spread over the biscuit wan
and, indeed, interpenetrates it.

The other clays are found in beds in which they have been gi'aduall
deposited ; they undergo no preparation, aud their qualities vary with almo:
every change of geological conditions. Tlie processes adopted in tl
potteries to prepare these clays for the use of the potter, have been referre
to in previous articles on pottery and porcelain.

ARMS AND ARMOUR

Lithia

33
35
?,1

Lime.
3

Ir.in.
3
1

16
20

U
2

Common pottery cl.ay .... 60

Blue ball clay 84

Cracking clay C8

These clays are usually found

united with the coal measures.

Cornish china stone .... 68

Ditto clay . . - . . 71

The ordinary potter's clay is employed for oommon earthenware, and
always burns either yellow or red according to the quantity of iron it
may contain. The blue clay owes its colour to the admixture of earho-
naceous matter, and is always very white after burning. This clay varies
very much in composition, another sample having given — silica, 46;
alumina, 38. " Cracking clay " was first used by the Wedgwoods, and
from the peculiarity to which it owes its name it coidd ouly be used in
combination with a large quantity of flint, as in the Wedgwood stone-ware.
■ The Cornish and Devonshire china clay has been analysed at the Sevres
establishment by Brogniart, who has* given the following residt as com-
pared mth the best French kaolin of St. Yrieix : —

Lime,

Silica,

with Alnmin.T.

Kocky

Ma=tnnsifi,

Com-

Not com-

Alu-

rcsulue.

potash .

liiiifd.

bined.

mina.

Cornwall . 19-6

O'GO

1-27

43 3

24-0

Devonshire 4 '30

1-35

1019

34-07

36-81

St. Yrieix . 9-7

1-33

10-98

31-09

84-65

These clays which were exhibited were, with two exceptions, from the
neighbourhood of St. Austel, in Cornwall ; one of the exceptions being
a specimen from the Earl of Morley's property, in Devonshire, and the
other from the county of Wicklow. The conditions under which they
occur are precisely similar, and the mode of preparation is the same.

The decomposed granite, which contains much quai't?, and usually some
mica, is exposed on an inclined plane to a fall of water, which washes it
down to a trench, whence it is conducted to " catch-pits." Tho quartis
and mica are principally retained in the fir.st pit, the water flowing over
into the second, carrying with it only the lighter particles ; there is usually
a third * catch-pit," which receives the water charged with the fine clay only,
the result of the decomposition of the felspar of the granite. There the

TN treating of .arms and armour, a very natural distinction exists betwei

arms used for close quarters aud arms employed at a distance — tl
latter being usually denominated projectiles. Now the subject of arms to 1
employed at close quarters is far less interesting than the subject of pr
jectiles, as indicative of a less refined, less intellectual condition of man.

Treating the subject according to its development, we have first
remark the carved clubs presented to the Exhibition from Australia, Ne
Zealand, and certain other equally civdised lands. Clubs .ire, perhaf
the simplest form of all offensive .arms, and one might suppose they wou
have vanished from the equipment of warriors who had the means
acquiring cutting and stabbing weapons. AVe find, however, the rever
to be the case ; war maces continued to be \ised by knights and the
men-at-arms up to the very last days of chivalry, aud their disuse m;
he said to be coeval with the general introduction of fire-arms and tl
ab.andonmeut of coats of mail. Indeed, mere cutting or stabbing weapoi
were of but little use against the defensive arniom- of men-at-arms. Tl
lance — the favourite weapon of Norraau chivalry — should rather be r
garded .as an instrument for unhorsing a rider than for penetrating tl
well-tempered metal of his poitnnal ; against such a tortoise-like defeni
the battle-mace was possibly the best weiipon of attack that could be use
though, generally speaking, tho death stroke was usually given by tl
dagger, or miserlcorde, which, so soon as the knight was unhorsed, w
sprawling on the ground — being gently insinuated into tho undefende
space in the neck, where the helmet and the corslet joined — completed ft
work of death.

The use of the battle-mace was extended, too, by reasons of a religioJ
kind. The clergy were not limited in times of chiv.alry, ,as cow, to c
battle with their tongues. Tiiey turned manfully out in field of battle I
fight like other men. They were not permitted however, to shed blooc
and so the lance, and sword, and dagger, or misericorde, were to thei
unholy weapons. They were limited to the use of the battle-mace— a
instrument which, we have not tho least difficulty in understanding, deal
when wielded by t^eir briawny arms, blows of a truly orthodox kind.

Whilst on the subject of defensive armour, we are sorry to destroy th
romantic idea of danger which ladies arc so wont to associate with tl
idea of the ancient knights. But the heavy defensive armour of those warridi
reduced their immediate chances of death far below the limits of probi
bility ; and no sooner was gunpowder applied to the purposes of warfan
than those brave men turned themselves into human tortoises of steel an
brass, so gi-eat was their fear. In several battles .about this time not
single knight w,is slain. When uuhoricd it was difficult to penetrate th
joints of their armour by the mi«ericonle, and at the battle of Fernoui
under Charles VIII., a number of Italian knights having been unhoraec
could only be killed after they had been broken up like so many loljstM
with woodcutters' .axes. This circumstance justifies the remark of James I
that defensive armour was a double protection, preventing the beare
at the same time fi-om being injured, and from injuring others.

AN ILT.USTRATED CYCLOPiliBIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

843

I r. is curious to niiu-k tho effect wliicli Uio gciii>rul intruiluction of fire
III rjis proilucod on tlie Bj'Hteiu of <lef«iinivo armour. At first, protiH-tiun
\,in aounlit iu increaHL'il thiclineafi of mutiil plates— tiut tlio force of liiilluts
1 . iiig so great in conipiiriaon witli the power of inotiilH to resist, defon-iivo

iiour was at lengtli tlirown away nltogotlicr, until rB-iHtrotUicod by

imleon in the organisation of liis celebrated euiraaaiora. Unr heavy
I H.ps, at the iieriod of the battle of Waterloo, hud no defensive armour,

is well known ; nevertheless, they proved more tlian a inateli for their

I I I'.istplatcd antagonists; and when, subsoi|UOntly. lliu addition of breast-
I'l lies was proposed, and a guardsman being questioned ooncorning his
iHiUons on tlio improvement before a oomniittoe of the Lower House, was

II ked, " llow ho should like to bo clothed if he had to do another day's
\Miik of the same kind,'' very naively answered, " 'Jfl'i' ''^ thought ho
sliiidd prefer being in his shirt sleeves."

Uefensive armour h;i3, however, booome pretty general for all European

III iivy c.'walry. That it proves a defence against sword and lance, there
rill be no doubt; but against tlie modern improvements in firearms, eon-
( ining which we shall liave to treat by-and-by, it will bo henceforth totally
unavailing.

Whilst on the subject of weapons employed by the chivalry of ancient
times, we mu.st not forget to mention the battle-axe and the double-
handed sword. The battle-axe still lingers in tlia Bast, and specimens
were found amongst the Indian eontribiitions to the Bxhibition ; but the
two-handed sword is now quite obsolete — bani-ihed from the list of
weapons; of war in favour of swords of lighter make.

The Exhibition was exceedingly rich in the department of swords.
Beautiful specimens were to be seen iu the departments of India, Turkey,
France, and Spain, in addition to those of more barbarous make.

No one now thinks of making a sword of any other material than steel :
but a great deal of sangviinary work has been done by swords of copper,
bronze, iron, and even wood. Copper swords have been found in Ireland ;
and bronze swords were almost exclusively employed by the Greeks
during what is called the heroic age. Homer rarely mentions iron ; he
calls the Greeks by the general epithet, " brass-coated ;" and the word
translated by Pope " smith," is iu the original x"^'"'"! worker iu bronze ;
and even when the metal employed was iron (<rlSripo!), the artificer is still
called the same, a bra:^ier, proving that the two trades were then identical.
Nevertlieless, iron, and even steel, were known to the Greeks in plomer's
time, for he describes the method of tempeiing a Ijatchet by dipping it
when hot into cold water. This plan of tempering only applies to iron
and steel.

Nine hundred years after the epoch of the siege of Troy, steel must
have been exceedingly rare among the Greeks, as is evidenced by the fact
of the Indian chief giving, as a valuable present to Alexander, about
thirty pounds weight of this metal. We have no evidence that the
Komans, even at the earliest periods of their history, ever used any other
metal than iron or steel for their cutting weapons ; and the materials for
fabricating them they probably dei'ived from Elba or Spain. Neverthe-
less, for soma reason or other, bronze was commonly used by the Romans
for non-warlike cutting instruments, down, at least, to the period of the first
century of the Christian era. In Herculaneum and Pompeii, those tomb-
like records of ancient arts and manners, even surgical insti-uments have
been discovered, formed of bronze.

Turning our attention to Asiatic nations, we do not find any record of
the em2:)loyment of bronze for the manufacture of cutting instruments,
Wootz, or Indian steel, having been there employed from the most remote
period.

Some of the eemi-barbarous tribes, who so frequently did battle with
the Roman troops, must have been provided with weapons of a very rude
description. The Gauls used iron swords of such bad temper that,
accordmg to Polybius, they had to be straightened under foot after the
exchange of every three or four blows ; and in 222 B.C. an ai'my of
Insubrian Gauls having entered the north of Italy, were defeated by the
Romans chiefly from this circumstance.

Tlie sword is now, amongst all civilised nations, restricted to the use of
cavalry ; being found incompatible with the close order in which infantry
should march to the attack. The Roman legionary soldiers fought with
the sword, as is well known, but their weapon was very short — more like
a heavy dasrger than a sword, and required no great space for the per-
formance of its evolutions. Among modern tribes, the Highlanders relied
greatly upon the sword as an infantry weapon ; and a great deal has been
said about the good service done by our allies, the Ghoorkas. in northern
India, with their diminutive swords. Properly speaking, however, these
latter weapons are not so much swords as bill-hooks, and there can be no
question that, viewed in all its bearings, the sword is only adapted a» a
cavalry weapon.

The blades of many of the swords and daggers in the Oriental depart-
ment were observed to be covered with curious wavy patterns, very
similar to those frequently to be seen on the barrels of fowling-pieces,
and which, in the latter position, is denominated the Damascus twist.
These wavy patterns on Oriental sword blades are considered so great a
beauty, and are indicative of so fine a steel, that many endeavours
to successfully imitate the appearance have been made both in England
and abroad. Hitherto, however, these attempts have been unsuccessful,
and the prevailing idea seems now to be, that the Damascus sword
pattern is a casualty altogether due to that mottled appearance of the
Wootz iron,: from which the steel that entered into these swords was pre-

pared, and to tho imperfect means of hammering which the Kword

urtiliccrs po«HOH«ed.

Everyboily has heard of tho famed blruleH of Toledo. There were
some romarkubly beautiful Hpccimon* of thia manufacture in the Sjiani'^li
divi.iion of tho Exhibition, (one of which we engmved in No. S, p. 40).
Unlike many other branches of indiiHtrial art in Spain, tho manulacture
of sword-blades has not languished. At the present day weapons are
turned out of the arsenal of Toledo as good aa, if not bett< r, than at any
former period. Tho two epceiincna of Toledo bladci), which roll up in a
circular coil within their serpent like sheath, ai-a miracles of fine temper,
good steel, and artistic skill, and tho cavalry BWirda are beyond all pridrc.
We wonder that there was not exhibited amongst the Toh d i blades an
examjilo of the bullfighting sword, which is peculiar in its form and general
make, tieiiig slightly curved on the Uat, and altogether without a guiird.

AVhilst on the suliject of swords, it will bo tin well to remark, that steel,
of wliich such frequent mention has been made, 'u merely a compound of
iron with carbon, usually about the proportion of one to one and a half per
cent. Certain specimens of steel contain, moreover, a notable portion of
alumina and of silica.

Carbon and the diamond are, so far as chemical composition goes, one
and the same ; and hence it is, that If a hole be drilled in a rod of iron,
a diamond inserled, pjugged up with another bit of iron, and the whole
exposed to fire, the diamond will disappear, and tho iron will come out
steel. Wo make our s\0u\ by the far less expensive mode of heating iron
bars with charcoal : but the celebiated Polish traveller, Count Rzwruzchi,
informs us that he had seen an Arabic MS. in which it was stated that the
Turks in ancient times improved their sword blades by sprinkling them
while red hot with diamond and ruby dust, and beating them with a
mallet. The diamond would yield carbon, and the ruby alumina, and
thus the blades would acquire the properties of very good steel ; but
people are less extravagant in these calculating days.

The method of forming sword blades, as at present followed in Eng-
land, is very simple. The manufacture is almost exclusively confined to
Birmingham ; and the steel of which the swords are made comes from
Sheffield. Ca.st steijl is the quality employed, and each piece is sufficient
to make two blades. The operation is commenecil by drawing out each
end, by forging, to about half the thickness of tho bar, leaving a few
inclies in the centre the original size, each end in its turn serving as a
handle to hold it by while forging the other. Eventually f,he centre part
is cut through and fastened, by welding, to the piece of soft iron which
enters the sword hilt, and which is called the tang. The blade is now
raised to a bright red heat, and plunged into cold water, edge foremost,
by a cutting movement, which is immediately changed to a perpendicular
one. In this state the blade is quite brittle, and very often bent. It
has now to be passed through the forge again until a certain colour is
acquired, which practice alone can indicate ; and iu this state of the
operation it is set straight by the eye. Lastly, it is groimd, polished, and
embossed.

This slight sketch will suffice for our notice of swords, and now, before
proceeding to the subject of projectile arms, it remains to pass a few
remarks on the bayonet. This weapon, by which the musket is connected
with the pike, was of French origin, having been originally manufactured
at Bayonne, and hence its name. At first it was merely a dagger with a
handle made to tit into the musket barrel when discharged. Eventually
the present fashion of attaching it by a socket on one side of the muzzle
was adopted, the great advantage of which it is unnecessary to point out.

Bows and Arrows.— Vfe now come to describe the Projectile Weapons
in the Great Exhibition ; and our first remarks shall be directed towards
the various bows which are there found.

Most nations, civilised or savage, have, at one period or another of their
history, used the bow ; and we, amongst all toxopholites, have, perhaps,
been the most justly celebrated. In the Great Exhibition were to be seen
many bows of different kinds.

In the Indian department the visitor saw many specimeDS of bows—
some rude enough, and long, the caricature of the shape now used by
modern toxopholites ; others short, curved, and highly ornamented. Tho
first merit no description ; but the fecond kind should be pointed out as
the true Scythian bow, the instrument which has been employed from
time immemorial bv all the asiatic tribes from Persia to the West. Its
construction is peculiar ; the found.atiou of the instrument is wood ; but
it is not from the wood that the bow derives its elasticity. This is given
by animal tendons laid on the wood wet, bound tightly down, and allowed
to dry. This kind of bow is very short, but the arrosvs are taper and
long. In fact, the Scythian bow, though short in appear.ance, yet derives
fi'om its double curve a large expansive and contractile play.

Returning to the history of the bow, it is unnecessary to inform the
reader that it is mentioned in Scripture, even at so ea.ly a period as is
represented m the book of Genesis, where it is said of Ishmael, that the
" Lord wos with the lad, and he grew and dwelt in the wilderness and
became an ai-cher." The overthrow of Saul, it will be remembered, was
particulariy owing to the Philistiue archers ; and David commanded that
the children of Judah should be taught the use of the bow.

The Greeks had a tradition that tho bow was invented by Apollo, who
communicated the use of it to the inhabitants of Crete ; hence, in later
times, tho Cretan archers were thought superior to all others. According
to some authorities among the Greeks. Perses, the sou of Pei-seus,-had the
credit of discovering the use of tho bow ; others attributed this honour to

344

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

12;
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O
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w
te

AN ILT^USTllATKI) CYCLOlM'^DIA OF THE ORKAT MXHIBITION OK IB.",!. .Mr.

PISTOL.— M. I.IIAL.

SWORD HANDLE. — JI. LrPACE.

346

THE CRYSTAL P/\JLACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

Scythes, the son of Jupiter. All these traditions demonstrate the anti-
quity of the bow.

The Grecian bows were usually made of wood, but still commouly
enough of horn — or rather two horns joined together by a middle piece,
■which served as a handle. The latter form of bow presented a beautiful
combination of curve and ■ straight line, which a highly artistic people
preferred to transmit to posterity in then- sculpture. It is the real classic
bow — the instrument with which Cupid is always painted, but which
becomes a very troublesome instrument to make out of any other element
than horn.

There were various methods of using the bow. The ancient Persians
drew the string towards the ear, as was always the practice vl the Eng-
lish, and as is employed by British toxopholites at the present day. The
Gi'eeks, however, drew tlie bowstring towards the breast — and represented
the Amazons as doing the same. Tlie tradition of the Amazons cutting
off the right breast, in order to give greater freedom in drawing the bow-
string, is familiar to all.

With the Romans the bow was never a favoui-ite weapon. Their
daring soldiers always preferred the hand-to-hand pilum and doubly-
cutting sword.

Until the period of the second Punic war, the Roman ai'mies were
devoid of archers, save those who came witli the auxiliary troops ; and,
though subsequently to the period iu question, bows and arrows wore
more employed by this people, yet, so far as we can learn, their use wa^
limited to Orientals in Roman pay. Up to the period of the death of
Clovis, A. D. 514, the French did not employ the bow in their military
service ; but there is abundant testimony to jirove that its use was general
in Fr.ance in the reign of Charlemagne, who tlourished in the beginning of
the eighth century.

The fame of the bow as an old English militaiy weapon is proverbial,
though its antiquity in this capacity is not so great as' many are disposed
to believe. For the pm-poses of amusement or the chase, the bow was
undoubtedly employed both by Anglo-Saxons and Danes, having been
derived most probably from Scandinavia : but the military employment of
the bow in England dates from the conquest by the Normans. Harold,
it is well known, was shot by a Norman arrow ; but no mention is made
of arciiers on the side of the Saxons. The Sason bow, indeed, as we have
it represented in a JIS. of the tenth century, must have been altogether
unad.apted for militai'y purposes. Its size was that of a mere toy, and the
string, instead of being attached to each end, was allowed to play from
two points some considerable distance towai'ds the middle.

Although we know that the battle of Hastings was mainly detei-mined
by the Norman archers, we are not informed whether the bows employed
were cross-bows — such as are at present used for shooting rooks, being
mounted on a stock like a gun, and bent and dischai-ged by mechanical
means — or long bows. Grose, the antiquarian, who afforded such a theme
of innocent raillery to Burns, argued the long bow to have been the
Norman weapon ; other.s, and, wo think, ^\Tth much greater show of pro-
bability, imagine testimony to be iu favour of the cross-bow — an instru-
ment which was subseqn'^ntly employed by France and Continental nations
in preference to the loug bow, which latter became eventually the national
weapon of the English.

Guns and Gnttpou-dit: — Not to pursue the history of archery further, we
now proceed to notice the invention of fire-arms, by which the bow and
other old-fashioned projectile weapons have been superseded. And first,
a few words about gunpowder, without which our observations upon this
BuVject wovild be incomplete.

Polydoro Yirgd and Thevet attribute the invention of gunpowder to a
monk named Constantino Anelzen, a chemist of some celebrity in his
time. Others maintain that it was discovered by Bartholdus Schwartz,
in the year 1.320. There is not the le.ast difficulty, however, in referring
a knowledge of gimpowder to an earlier date than the above, our own
connti-yman, Roger Bacon, having distinctly mentioned it in 1267. He
describes its composition, specifics many of its properties, and enumerates
its explosive powers, as a means of destroying animals. He states that
when inflamed it makes a sound like thunder, and a flash like lightning, but
exceeding both in sound and brightness. He goes on to speculate on the pro-
bability of its employment by Gideon when he defeated the Midianites with
three hundred men, as described in the seventh chapter of Judges. We
English are in the habit of saj-ing that Bacon ''invented" gimpowder,
whereas a slight examination of his writings suffices to disprove tliis
notion. So far from laying claim to the discovery of gunpowder. Bacon
distinctly mentions it as a svibstance well known in his time; he even
goes on to tell us how to make a cracker.

It is quite clear, then, that the discovery of gunpowder dates further
back than the time of Bacon ; and M. Dutens, a gentleman who has
written a book to prove that the ancients knew many things which are
commonly attributed to the moderns, im.agiues that Bacon must have
derived his knowledge from Marcus Grsecus, who lived about the end of
the eighth century. This author not only had a general knowledge of
the properties of gunpowder, but ho gives a tolerably precise description
of the method of manufacturing it.

Various documents could be mentioned to prove that gunpowder was
known in India at periods of very great antiquity, and collateral testimony
exists in favour of its being known also to the Chinese. Citizen Langles,
in a memoir read before the French Institute, contends that gunpowder
was conveyed,. to Europe by the Arab.s, on the return of the Crusaders,

and says that the former people employed it at the siege of Mecca, in 6
The Arabs, he says, derived it from the Indians. Now, at the time wl
Roger Bacon lived, the Arab portion of Sp.ain was the favoured seat
literature and art ; and as we know he travelled iu Spain and was fami]
with Arabic, it does not seem improbable that he derived his knowlec
of gunpowder from some treatise in one of the Sar.acen libraries. T
supposition, at any rate, is just as probable as that he read the treatise
Marcus Gra'cus ; indeed, there exists at this day, in the Escurial, an Aia
treatise on gunpowder, written in the year 12i0. ■

If we are to believe Philostratus, (who, by the way, had a very I
habit of telling untruths), gunpowder was not only known to the natl!
of India in the time of Alexander's conquests, but even the application
gimpowder to the purposes of fire-arms. Referring to the Oxydraeai^,
says, " Those truly wise men dwell between the Hypharis and Gaagi
tlieir country Alexander never entered, deterred not by fear of the in
bitants. but, as I suppose, by religious motives, for, had he passed :
Hyphaiis, he might doubtless have made himself master of all the covm
round them; but their cities he never could have taken, though he 1
led a thousand such as Ajax to the assault ; for they come not out to
field to fight those who attack them ; but those holy men, beloved by
gods, overthrew their enemies with tempests and thunderbolts shot fr
the walls. It is said that the Egyptian Hercules and Bacchus, when tl
overran India, invaded this people also ; and having prepared wavl
engines, attempted to conquer them ; they in the meantime made
show of resistance, appearing perfectly quiet and secure ; but upon
enemy's near approach, they were repulsed with storms of lightning, i
thunderbolts hurled upon them from above." It is true that Philostra
was a story-teller in more senses than one, but, taken iu connexion with
fact that pyrotechny has been cultivated in India and China frum t
immemorial, the narration just quoted is at any rate probable.

Thus, notwithstanding our examinations, we find that the first oi
nator of gunpowder is still unknown. It is quite clear that Bacon did
discover it, neither did Schwartz, neither did Marcus Gra^cus ; and
endeavours to arrive at the individual to whom this honour should
attributed have only had the effect of carrying us back into the my
records of Asia, where, if we are to trust our documents, gunpowder
been known from time immemorial. This much is certain, its first applioal
to artillery in Europe dates from about the beginning of the fourthtenti

Having stated thus much about gunpowder, it is time for us to dil
our attention to guns : and, first of all, let us take a glance at the canfi
in the Exhibition. Conspicuous for these engines amongst all the associ*
nations are the Belgians, who sent us from Liege cannons of diffa
weight and bores, all of them demonstrating the high amount of excelU
to which our ueig'nbours have arrived in making heavy castings. Ti
Belgian guns, although good specimens, afford very little scope for gen
remark ; indeed, a cannon is so simple a weapon, that very little cai
said Uhout its construction or properties. At the present time, cam
are almost invariably made either of cast-iron or a sort of brass ten
gun-metal ; but before the ai-ts of easting and boring were brought to t
present perfection, cannons were made of bars of wTought-iron, confi
together with hoops : indeed, in many cases, even this amount of const
tive skill was too great fur the cannon-maker, who contented himself \
using hollow wooden trunks, and, on some occasions, coils of rope. As
wrought-irou, the attempt has often been made to weld it into canno
but, so far as cannons of largest size are concerned, the attempt has fa
invai-iably unsuccessful, for the reason that our means of welding s'
large masses of iron are imperfect. Some years ago, a large wrought-i
cannon burst on board of an American ship-of-war, the second or third^
of firing. " '

For small cannons wrought-iron answers well enough, but the pM| ^f
of manufacture is laboriou.s, and the gun, when made, is not better.8 *'
one made of brass. In the English service, small cannons, such as £j
pieces, are usually made of brass, but larger cannon of iron. In Fi
however, it is by no means uncommon for battering cannon to be mi
the latter material. The advantages of a brass cannon ai'e- lightness
strength : the disadvantages, softness of material — causing the touch-!
to enlarge, and the bore of the gun to be abraded ; pliability, which destr
the straightness of axis, and causes the muzzle, after a certain time to dro
and, lastly, a dull, heavy, painful noise on being discharged. In the Engj
service (we cannot answer for that of other nations), the balls intended^
fired out of brass guns are usually fixed in a wooden cup or basket, by lii
means their contact with the brass barrel is prevented, and their abr^
influence is diminished.

Large fire arms may be divided into cannons, mortars, howitzers,' i
rockets. Cannons are generally iutcnded for the pm'pose of projecting E(
balls; but, of late years, the practice of employing them for shells
become prevalent. The bore of a cannon is of the same size throughi
but mortars, howitzers, and carronades are chambered, or. in other woi
are smaller in the part which receives their charge of powder than in
rest of their bore — a contrivance which permits the charge to be igni
more centrally than otherwise would have been possible, and thus eual
-the powder to explode with increased effect. The chambering of la
fire-arms is analogous to the patent breeching of portable guns — a cod
vaiice which we shall speak of presently. The theory of the propulsiol
firearms missiles is almost too simple for remark ; the vast force of th
projectiles being dependent on the sudden evolution of an immense volu
of gas, generated by the combustion of gunpowder. Long after the disooT ^■

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AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOl'iEDLV OF TlIK GliEAT KXIIIBITION OF 1851.

.■J47

iMiioiirt, the flight of
vy — waa cuiiyitlcrud tu
of all otlioi' boilit'rt :

till- [iriijucliliH wiiH involvL'il in thr jjifat' -t
luUow a. (liU'uruut liiwfroiu that ivKnlatini; tin;
and aiitcrini- to the |H'rio(l of Tartaglia, the

uau artilluniit.s uiiivci-iially buliuvucl that the iirst ]iart of the lliglit of

ii-balla wad in an ftbsoliituly stmi(,'ht lino. The fallacy of this opinion

lia ilonionslratoil by allowing tliat even from the first instant of

u-gc (iroarin laishilcs ilesuribod aourvo: and soon after, Oaliloo proved

luvo to bo do'ived IVoni a parabola. We say dci'lntl from a pariibola,

Miio, contrary to what eohool books toll ns on this point, the turvo is

1> :i true parabola in vae.no. If the oannonballsbc fired at slow volocities,

' iirvu chiea not largely vary from the parabolic form, and the parabolic

V may bu applied with advant.ige as a basis of calcnlation to the law of

. (light; but it' they be projected at high velocities, the parabolic theory

u-ules.*j.

Tho Belgians gave us a eample of their ingenuity in making bomb-sliollo ;
e Russians did tlio same. Those terrible projeetilos, ulthongh veiy simple
loolc at, re(|nii'e groat delicacy in their manufacture. Thoy nuist bocait
ithout any Haws, and must poseess an equal thieknoaa in every part. To
eterinine the abseneo of flaws, each bomb shell is proved by forcing air
to it with hollows whilst under water : and rquality of thioknees is proved
gauging. Shells are nearly filled with gunpowder, into which is driven
fusee, timed to burn a given number of soconds, and to explode the charge
ithin the shell when the latter shall have arrived at the desired mark.
Formerly, shells were exchisivcly shot out of mortars and howitzers, but
lay aro now very generally shot out of long gun.*. The yhrapnoU-shell
similar to tlio liomb-sholls we have been describing, but much thimier;
d, instead of mere gunpowder, it contains a mixture of gunpowder and
lall iron balls, the former just enough to burst the shell and Bc.ittor tho
lis. The Shvapnellsbell is intended for doing execution at distances
eyond the range of canister ami grape-shot, both of which scatter immodi-
ely thoy leave the gun. The largest sized bombshell used in our service
lis a diameter of thirteen inches ; beyond which size they maybe made,
ut the mortars for shooting them would be not only unwieldy, but such
eavy eastings would be generally imperfect.

Carronades are short, light, large-bored cannons, made to be charged with
uich smaller quantities of powder than other guns of eq\ial bore, and
liefly designed for tho upper decks of ships, where the weight of ordinaiy
irge cannons would be a disadvaut.ige.
Congrevo i-ockets are only moditicationa of the common sky-rockets
•hich, far from haviug been apjdied to warlike uses by Sir A\'. Congreve for
le first time, have been used for that purpo.se by the Chinese from time imme-
orial. This faot is testified by Sir William Congrevo himself, in Ids
■eatiso on rocket practice.

REPEHENCE TO ENGRAVINGS,

In one of tlie bays of the East Indian Dopoi-tment the counters on each
ido were entirely occupied with a splendid assortment of arms and military
quipmeuts, comprising magnificent matchlocks (inlaid in silver or mounted
itli gold), blunderbuss-like guns, used by our fierce enemies the Sikhs, and
i-ass swivels, used by Malay prahus, with mortars from Lahore, and cau-
cus from Mysore, swords and sabres, and spears, of all siiapes and sorts —
11 keen, glittering, and sharp weapons — used by the Scindians and the
ikhs, the Mahrattas and the Burmese ; some with blades of dark steel, and
thers with light, inlaid with gold ; some with hilts entwined with pearls,
r exqiiisltely enamelled, or otherwise beautifully decorated. Nor was it
nly the weapons of modei'n warfare that were here, but those also which
lu'trate the mediaeval liistory of India, and which may have been wielded
y the chivalry of the East amidst the gleaming battle-hosts of Nadir .Sli.ah
r Ghengis Klian. Here, in short, were to be seen the armouries alike of
ippoo and Tamerlane. Here liung the glittering scimitar and tapering
,nco. Here we found the small circular shields suited to a former age of

arfare :^and here were siispended tho fine chain-worked coats of armour,
Imost as flexible and light and yielding to the form as the beautiful coats
f linen or silk of similar shape exhibited in the cross avenue of the'
ompartmefLt opposite, remindmg one of the chain armom' of our ancient
^orman chivalry. Here, again, were the bows and arrows, and the javelin
ilso recalling the ideas of our own early military histoi-y), arranged tasto-
.lUy in circles, presenting all around a terrible close array of keen-looking
oints. Here likewise was the battle axe — most beautifully inlaid — and a
uperb suit of steel armour inlaid with gold, together with a shield of deer-
kin, transparent and with enamelled bosses. And lastly, here were some
urious specimens of most murderous ingenuity : such a-s a shield, with gold
osses, evei-y boss concealing a pistol ; a double sword dividing at pleasure
ito two longitudinal or lateral sections, each constituting a complete

eapon ; and strange conical caps, having round them sharp-edged discs of
irass. hurled most dexterously and dangerously by some tribes as weapons
f offence — little knives and daggers being very engagingly stuck all round,
nd giving an appearance to the whole far less graceful than grim.

The French gimmakers and armourers pay great attention to the deco-

,tive department of their business, such as sword handlo.s, fancy pistols,
Dd 80 forth, which they really render very beautiful, almost inviting in
ppearance.

M. Jlonitier Lepage exhibited some remarkably fine armour and arms,
rnameuted in the richest manner with reliefs, done by the process of
ching, known as repousse workmanship, as well as by embo.ssing, chasing,

id engraving, of which we have engraved a few specimens.

The sword handle, richly ornamented with bronze and or-molu, by

, Delacour, is a handsome specimea of decorative workmanship,

FOREIGN AND COLONIAL DEPARTMENT.

■♦..- -

FBANCB, Ko. Ill— FBENCil DEOOIUTIVE ART.

HKN walking through tho eonrtu and gallcricfi of the RxhibitioD, wo
found ourselves surrounded on every hand by evidence of tho intimate
relation subsisting bolwoon the growth of art and the development oflhoBc
qualities which stamp the character and aflirm the position of natioiu in
history. France reveals on aotivity of imagination, indicative of a highly
developed social and politiual vitality — a universality of gracefiilnc«8 in
ovory article, for tho use even of tho poorest, demonstrating tho Hprcad of
tho.so sentiment* wliioh make taste a humblo luxury for all, if not an
indisponBablo accessory tu the enjoyment of life. Tiji'Oughout the French
com|rartmont no one oould fail to notics tho Protean shapes and styles in
which tho same objeota praaeiitcd thoinsolvos. One Sevres vase was
Oriental : another was antique ; a third recalled the breakfaat-table of
Mesdnmos Pompadour or IJu Harri : a fourth imitates the Majolica of Quid'
Ubaldo of Urbino ; a fifth recalled the tazzo of Joan Courtois or Liotard.
One fragment of ornament was I'ouipoian, another pure Italian, another
Loviis Quinzo ; and thus the flowers of all time are combined in the modem
Parisian lH)U(piet, All this variety of style — springing rather from impres-
sions and floating recollections than from any desire to copy with servility
— bears testimony to tho spread of a popular knowledge of the history of
art ; and it could only becomo universal in a country ia which models of
art had booa popularised through every imaginable variety of graphic
reproduction. So long as France is likely to retain her title of "Queen of
Fiwhiou," so long mu<t she continue to be the clevorest adapter and
remodeller of old designs. Tho vivacity of her artists checks any approach
to facsimile copying ; and so skilfully ai'c her revivals made that, while
they seldom fail to recall a pleasing original type, they yet possess all the
freshness of novel, and generally appropriate, design. Thus, in the ebony
caViinot exhibited by llnig\iet lo Prince, the mind is carried back to some
of the charming pieces of furniture still to be met %vith hero and there in
the old palaces of Italy — and yet the whole is composed and modelled with
so much taste and freshness, that no doubt is eutertaiaed as to the clever-
ness of the artist, or his merits as an original designer. Again, in Marcelin's
imitation of Indian iul.aying in minute mosaic work, there is just sufficient
departure from the original (pi-incipally in point of colour) to determine
the work to be very clever French, instead of Oriental. To cite examples
of a similai- nature would be au almost endless labour; it may suffice gene-
rally to notice, as illustrative of the principle, the revivals of enamelling
on copper in tlie Sevres ooUeotion — the reproduction of the processes of
Florentine and Milanese mosaic work by Theret — the examples of quasi-
Indian embroidery of Billecoq; and the revivification of the spirit of
Ghiberti and his Florentine suoccssoi-s in the "bronzes artistiques" of
Barbedienne, and many otliers. It is a fact almost peculiar to France, of
all the nations of the earth, that there appears to be scarcely a style or a
process ever naturalised upon her soil which the Frenchm.-m of today
cannot produce in as great or greater perfection than that to which his
ancestors were wont to carry it.

In the stained glass of Gerente, Marcschal, Laurent Q'sell, Hermanowska,
and Lusson, the old glories of Suger and the Sainte Chapelle are still trans-
mitted to us. In the productions of Ponssilgne Russand, Villemseus, and
Rudolphi, tho Limoges enamels, with which Frimce supplied the world in
the 13th and llth centuries, are still elaborated with a spirit equal to their
prototypes. In the royal manufactory at Sevres every variety of preparing
ahd painting enamel on copper, which was in use in the 16th and 17th cen-
turies, by Leonard Limousin, Jean Courtois, Penicault, Luzsnne Court,
Nouailhier. ftc, down to Toutin, and Petitot of Bordier, is still performed
with a zeal and spirit worthy of the industry and talent of the great
Limousin. The charming vases, dishes, and figures in " faience," with
which the indomitable Bernard de Palissy was wont to gladden the eyes of
his royal master, the great Francis, are reproduced in the highe.st perfection
by Avisseau. Many a frequenter of the old curiosity-shops on the Quay
"Voltaire has been taken in by tlie modern ivoiy carvings of Normandy, which
simulate the medifcval "retables," triptics, and cots de chasse, with a spirit
and exactitude calculated to deceive all but the most knowing in s'uehmatters

Diverging from a consideration of those arts in which the perfect imitation
of ancient forms or processes constitutes a chief merit, we may revert to
others, in which modern improvements or changes involving the substi-
tution of one material for another, have effected so great a revolution as to
have created altogether new branches of industry. In such we shall find,
o-s a general nile, that the French artist, deprived of direct precedent, has
fallen back upon nature — whence he has drawn motives which his taste
generally enables him to treat with just the amount of direct imitation, or
of conventional ai-rangement, suited to the material in which he may
be called upon to work. Thus, in the fine piece of chintz printing on a
marone groimd, exhibited, we believe, by the celebrated house of Kccclilin,
the designer has introduced a m.aguiScent group of flowers, in which r.mnd-
ness and the most brilliant colouring have been attained, without in any
wav carrying the imitation of nature sufficiently close to make apparent
the inapplicability of the material as a medium for the expression of com-
plete representation.

348

The CkVSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS

Thus, again, in silks, and ribbons, and in paper-hangings — while nature
generally furnishes the base — flowers and other objects are indicated so
gracefully, and are relieved from one another with Ruch delicacy in each
case as to convey no sensation of imperfection. It is in the almost universal
exercise of a judicious taste — retaining for each object its peculiar and

BEDSTEAD — WILKINSONS.

appropriate style of treatment — that the great strength of the French ai-list-
manufacturers (for so they must be called) consists.

Taking, for example, so common an object as the rose, how gracefully we
shall find its treatment varied ! On a Sevres vase it is painted " up to "
nature — or to Constantine (for they are nearly the same thing). , On a
paper-hanging of Mader's, or Delacourt's, a few bold touches of "chique"
serve, at a little distance, to convey almost as perfect an idea of the flower
aa was given by the elaboration of the China painting. The flo^ver trans-
ferred to Lyons silk is the same in form, but changed in chiar' oscuro —
the dark is gone, and all is light and brilliant. On a ribbon of St. Etionno
the foi'm is simplified ; delicate white lines mark the stparation of the rose

leaves from each other, and the nltimatum of conventionality is attained :
carried but one step farther, the thing would become a meaningless red
blotch.

Our readers may possibly think that we are regarding French industrial
art a little too much en coiilenr dc rose ; but we would remind them that it

is not only more difficult to find
out beauties than "defects, but
much more improving. Let it
not be imagined, however, that
we are not alive to the tempta-
tions to which French artists are
exposed by that very fertility of
fimcy, and that ready access to
invaluable ; material in the
way of precedent, on the pos-
session and right use of which
so much of their success de-
pends. While, side by side upon
the artist's book-shelf, stand
severe works on antique art —
Percier and La Fontaine's singu-
lar decorations of the old days of
the " Empire," Le Pautre's ano-
malies, a set of JuUien's clever
extravagancies, Fexichere's fan-
cies, Gu'ault de Prangey's Orien-
tal and Moorish works, and pe^
haps half a dozen vohunes ol
Didron or VioUet Leduc's cruel'j
mediEeval style ■ — how, unless
some guardian angel in the shape
of good sense protect him, can
any man avoid the whole herd
of dilemmas by the horns oi
which he must find himself sur
rounded ! If Le Pautre is right
it must be evident to him thai
the antique is wrong. If Viollel
Leduc and Didron are writers o
truth and authority, what is t(
become of JuUien, or even Fou
ch^re ] If Percier and La Fon
taine's style is perfection, whal
can be said for Girault de Pr.au
gey's Moorish enthusiasm. Tin
very supply to artists of sucl
groups and amounts of materia
— the very means which :
taken by the State, througl
museums and gratuitous exhi
bitious of the most varied ob
jeots, to inform the artist's mine
— determine the conditions
his ipractico, and leave him u(
alternative but either to degene
rate into a servile copyist anc
devotee of one style, or to thinl
for himself and become an Ec
lactic — selecting, and acquiring
a mastery over, those elementf
of any style which he may o;
his] own experience perceive U
be productive of beauty, oi
which he may believe to accord
with the common-sense con
ditious and limitations of th€
objects he is called upon to de^
sign. In France, the system ol
education of art-workmen (ii
class much wanted in England)
is essentially good. In the first
place, the artizan is made a good
practical hand — is taught some-

. thing of geometry — and, gene-

~ ^ rally, in the schools of design,

becomes an efficient draughts-
man or modeller. Being thus
qualified, liiljour and practice from day to day improve him ; and whether
his occupation be to set a group of diamonds, to carve a sideboard, or to
chase a bronze, his hand acts in unison with his head, and each day renders
him more completely master of the specialty of his manufocture and qualifies
him to judge how far, and in what manner, the generalities of art can be
made applicable to the improvement of the branch of manufacture upon
which he may be engaged. In this way the education of the workman acts at
once as a check upon, and a stimulus to, the artist. It was rather the general
exteusiou of the art of design than its perfectiim which was most striking
in the French department. While the State maintains its protected manufacto*
ries, regal splendour may be ministered to by Sevres chiuaand Gobelin tapestry.

AN ILIAJSTRATKI) CYCL0i'71':DIA OP THE GREAT EXIII15ITI0\ OF 1851.

.319

RAILWAY DEPARTMENT.

LOCOMOTIVK ENGINES.

Ni ILAND, Franco, and lielgium, aro tlio only couiitrios which contributed

spc'cimon.s of tho locomotive engine of 1851. Unlike some other invcn-

lis of great iitility, the locomotive in its present state is the joint

iiliu'tion of many minds. In its infancy it was a comparatively insigni-

ml iiiacliino ; in its present condition, however, a single locomotive engiii

tlio firat class represents in power many lunidrcds of horses. When

ir.Im'h, tlie gi'cat frieml of Watt, produced his tliroewheelod loco-

iiiv(^ eiigiiio to nm on common roads, a model of which was exlii-
1 liy tlio celebrated firm of Messrs. James Watt .and Co., ho little

II. 'lit of tho gigantic strides in locomotion which were in store for

'I who should come after him — when travelling by public convcy-

- , instead of being comparatively slow, irlisome, and very fatiguing,

luld become easy, swift, and positively luxurious. For many years after

■ ippearance of Murdoch's mechanical novelty, tho improvements in tho

I'liiotivo engines were few and far between: and it w.os not imtil the
■ictors of tlie Liverpool and Manchester Railway — most appropriately

11 the grand experimental line — directed tiie attention of engineei's to
iiportant .subject of the safest and most economical method of moving
I in the railway, that anything like velocity was obtained. Hitherto a

I'll of a few miles per hour, on the Killingworth ColUcry line, and tho

I Idon and Darlington Railway, had been founii sufficient for the trans-
ri I if coals : but when it was determined to convey passengers as well as
nliandise by railw.^y, it became quite essential, in order to eclipse tlie

I coaches of those days, to ensure a velocity above the high i-ate of speed

). h distinguislied the Devonport "Quick.tilver," the Cheltenham "Hirou-

' I," and the Slirewsbury " Wonder." The directors of the Liverpool and
iiester Railway, however, in giving their invitation to mechanical
iltb to compete for a premium to be awarded to the builder or inventor
the best locomotive engine suitable for th^-ir railway, were satisfied, in the
it instance, with a speed equal to that of tlie fast coaches already men-
ned, viz., ten miles an hour. The competitors for the prize were Robert
iphenson, of Newcastle ; Timothy Hackwortli, of Sliildon ; and Eraithwaite
i Ericson, of London. The " Rocket," the " Sanspareil," and the
fovelty " were the three engines sent by the respective competitors to the
sat trial railway. -i

The " Rocket " had outside sloping cylinders of 8 inches diameter,
th a stroke of 16^ inches : the driving wheels, placed towards the
int, were of 4 feet 8 ^ inches diameter; while the trailing wheels ^ ^
jre three feet in diameter ; the boiler, at the siiggestion of Mr. =^|gtf|":|f
lOth, the treasurer of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway Com- ^
ny, was multitubiUar, and is said to have been the first of the I
id used in this country ; the tubes were each of 3 inches dia-

iter, and altogether 25 in number : the heating surface of tubes

3 equal to 117'75 superficial feet, and the fire-box surface to 20
it; the area of the fire-grate was equal to (! feet; the chimney
a placed in front o£ the engine, as in all modern locomotives ;

exhaust steam was discharged into the chimney, the beneficial
ects of which were soon discovered.

The " Sanspareil " was mounted on four coupled wheels, of i feet
nches diameter, the driving-wheels in connexion with the piston-
being towards the back part of the engine ; the cylinders were
rtical, and of 7 inches diameter, with a stroke of 18 inches; the
ite and chimney were situate in front of the lioiler, connected b}-
iue tube having one bend, the diameter of the tube being 2 feet

the grate and 1 foot 3 inches at the chimney. The surface at

3 grate was equal to 10 superficial feet ; the pteam "was discharged
io the chimney by means of a blast-pipe, whereby the draft was
iterially increased. The tube surface was equal to 74-6 feet, and
at of the fire-box 15'7 superficial feet. The weight of this engine
iS about 4 5 tons, while that of the "Rocket " was only 4| tons.
The '■ Novelty " presented, upon the whole, the least cumber-
me appearance, and its constniction differed essentially from that

each of its competitors. The fire-box was circular, of 18 inches
imeter, and surrounded by the water of the boiler ; it was sup-
ed with fuel by means of a hopper. A single tube, of 36 feet in

igth, with two bends, passed from end to end of the boiler three
bellows placed near the chimney served to keep the fire
ve. The " Novelty " had only one cylinder, of 6 inches diameter,
th a stroke of 12 inches; the wheels, four in number, were each

4 feet 6 inches diameter, the driving-wheels being connected with
B piston by means of bell-cranks. The heating" surface of tube

only 33 feet, and a fire-box 9h feet, the surface of grate being
aal to 1-S foot. The weight of this engine was not much more

three tons, and during the experimental trip there was no In the vestibule of the Austriqji Sculpture Room, were two or thi-ee showy marble
ider attached to it. The average speed of the " Rocket," di'awing ' chimney-pieces, which it was impossible to pass unnoticed, but which it is impossible
iss load of 17 tons, was upwards of 13 miles an hour ; and the ) to admire. In any ease, over-ornamentation of chimney-pieces should be avoided,
ispareil," with a gross load of rather more than 19 tons, 14 [ and in all cases the ornamentation should be of an architectural character in harmony
lea per hour ; and of the Novelty, with a gro.ss load of nearly 10.^ i with that of the rest of the apartment. In the example before us. we have a full-grown
IS, 15 miles an hour. The " Novelty," however, broke down more I Cupid with his bow and arrow pointed at a young nymph on the opposite side, who
m^ once during the experiments ; and the" Rocket' alone accom- i seems to receive the attack very complacentl}- ; in other pai'ts are other figures,
shed the distance of 70 miles, the whole length of the trial run. doves, &c., in consonnance with tlie same idea. The ornamental parts of this affair
wo other engines, with several improvements, were afterwards are executed by Giuseppe Bottinelli : the figures by Dominico Gandolfi.

MARBLE CHIMXET AND MIUROR FKAME, FRO.\I MILAN.

350

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

built by Mr. Stephenson, after the plan of the " Rocket,'' each having an
extent of heating surface more than doable that of the "Rocket." Mr. Nicholas
Woocl. of Killingworth, was also engagetl in altering the boiler of one of the
old Killingworth engines ; and, at the some time, Mr. Timothy Hackworth
was making vast improvements in the boilers of the Stockton and Darlington
Railway engines ; and it is reported that Mr. Hackworth's engine, called the
"Globe," was the first to run at so high a speed as 60 miles per hour.
Mr. Bury, Messr.?. Fenton, Mufl'ay, and Jackson, Messrs. Hawthorn, Messrs.
Mather, Dixon, and Co., Messrs Tuylour, Jlessrs. Sharp, Roberts, and Co.,
and Messrs. G. Forrester and Co.. followed the earlier locomotive engine-
builders ; and supplied a vast number of engines, from time to time, not
only to the Britisli, but also to the foreign lines of railway. The British
locomotive engine-builders of the pre.9ent dayi who sent samples of their
productions to the Great Industrial Exhibition, are Messrs. Hawthorn,
Mr. Crampton, Messra. Stephenson and Co,, Messrs. Kitsou and Co., Mr.
England, Slessi'S. Fttirbairn and Sons, Messrs. Bury, Curtis, and Kennedy,
Me3srs. K. B. WileoB and Co., and the Great Western and North-Weetern
Railivay Companies respectively.

Taking the engines in the order adopted by the compiler of the Official
Catalogue, we found the monster engine of the Great Western Railway
(No. 506, Claps 5) placed on a piece of permanent w'ay, as a sample of the
Great Western line, towards tlie west end of the Railway Department of
the Great Exhibition. This eughie was built at the company's works at
Swindon, under tho direction of Mr. Qooch, the locomotive superinteudent.

WATTS MBBT locomotive ENUINE.

and is altogether a fiuo specimen of the work turned out at that extensive
and interesting establislirueut. It is mounted on 8 w-heels, -1 of which arc
in front of the engine ; tlien the driviug-wliecls, of 8 feet diameter ; and,
lastly, the trailing wl;eeU, corresponding with those in front : the diameter
of cylinder is 18 inches, and the length of stroke 2 feet. The number of
tubes running through tlio boiler is 305, giving a radiating surface equal to
1750 feet, wliile the heating surface of tho fire-box is equal to 156 feet, the
maximum pressure of steam being 1 201b. ; tho actual power of this machuie,
as ascertained by a dynamometer, is equal to tliat of 743 hbrses. At an
average speed of CO miles au hour — the flight of the pigeon —this steam
monster is able to draw the enormous load of 120 tons. Tlie weight of the
engine without fuel and water is 31 ton', and with complement of fuel and
water 36 tons. In addition to which, the tender, which is mounted on 0
wheels, weighs D tons empty, b>it charged with water and coke, 17 tons 13
civt — making the total weight of engine and tender at starting 62 tons 13
cwt. The consumption of cbke, witli an average load of 90 tons and average
speed of ^9 n^ilcs per hour, iias been found with tlxe ordinary mail trains
to amount on an average to 20'8lb. Most pei-sons who have been accustomed
to travel in the first-class carriages of the Great Western Railway, especially
by tho express train, will allow that nothing can be more luxuriou.s in the
shape of locomotion than to leave London with a morning paper damp from
the press, and be transported rapidly into the beautiful county of Devon,
almost before you have finisliod tlie news of the previous twenty-four hours.

Next in order we find Mr. Crampton's express locomotive "engine, the
" Folkestone," built for tho South-Ea-^tern Railway Company. The pecu-
liarity of this engine is the position of the driving-wheels, of 6 feet diameter,
beliind the 6re-box. wliercby an intermediate shaft is rendered necessary.
We have heard that great things are accomplished by this fdrm of engine ;
but having no p.'U'tioulars nor accurate information on the subject, we are
unable to enlighten our readers as to the true state of the case.

"Speed, safety, and economy," in gilt letters on a blue flag, suspended
over tlic " Little England," attracted the attention of the visitor to
Mr. England's comparatively diminutive locomotive engine, mmibered .'J09 :
the driving-wheels, in middle, are 4 feet 8 inches in diameter, and the leading
and trailing wheels 3 feet ; the boiler is multitubular, and only of 30 inches
diameter. The tank and coke receptacle are on the same frame as tlie
engine — a plan which was successfully used 10 or 12 years ago, and
which is now likely to come into vogue, especially for brand) lines of railway.

"Ariel's Girdle," No. 510, constructed by Messrs. Kitson and Compan
of Leeds, according to the patent of Mr. W. B. Adams, is another samp
of a light tank engine. It has, however, only four wheels — the hind pa
of the engine being connected with a composite carriage, underneath whjt
one of the tanks is suspended. The cylinders are of 9 inches diameil
with a stroke of 15 inches ; driving-wheels of 5 feet and leading wheels 2 fe
6 inches diameter, respectively; multitubular boiler, containing 83 tilbi
each of If inch diameter, giving a heating surface of 450 feet euperflob
in addition to 39 feet for the iire-box — giving a total radiating surfaoo
496 feet. The coke receptacle is over the fire-box, and is capable of holdii
6 cwt. The tank under the engine holds 304 gallons of water, and th
under the carriage, 533 gallons ; together 837 gallons. The compo^
carriage in connection with the engine is also mounted on 4 wood wheSi
with wrought-iron tires. This description of locomotive and carriage,
especially calculatediorbranoh railway passeugertrafl[ic — hasljeeusliccessnil
tried on the Eastern Counties Railway.

Tlie London and North-Western Railway Company exhibited their cxptt
locomotive engine, called the " Liverpool," built according to CramptW
patent principle. It is mounted on 8 wheels — the driving-wheels, of 8 ft
diameter, being, as in tho case of the "Folkestone," behind the fire-box ;t'
leading wheels being each of 4 feet diameter; the cylinders, placed outsit
are of 18 inches diameter, with a stroke of 24 inchest the total aro4
radiating surface is equal to 2290 feet superficial, of which 154 feet is .lerlr
from the tire-box ; the total weight of engine, with fuel and water, is
tons, being 2 tons more than that of the Great Western engine, nh'etu
described. According to the Official Catalogue this engine was exhibit
for its great amount of heating suri^ce and its general construction.

The same Company exhibited the "Cornwall," built by Trevethick, i
no doubt, named by himself after his native coimty. The novelty'' of 1
engine chiefly consists in the boiler being suspended between the wheels,
was built at the company's locomotive estaljlishment, Crewe, in 1S47, a:
was shown at the World s Fair for " improved construction." The cylindi
are outside, and of 17,V inches diameter, and stroke of 24 inches, T
driving-wheels are 8 feet 6 inches in diameter; the weight of engine 27 toi
Tlie celebrated firm of Fairbairu and Sons, of Manchester, also exhibit
a tank-engine, whose boiler is 8 feet in length, and 3 feet in diameter, havi
88 brass tubes, cacli of 2 inches diameter. The effective heating surface
equal to 480 square feet ; the fire-box of copper 2 feet 5 inches long, 3 f(
broad, and 3 feet 5 inches deep. The cylinders are of 10 inches diamet
with a stroke of 15 inches. The driving-wheels, in the middle, arc o)
feet diameter, and the leading and trailing-wheels of 3 feet 6 inches diame'
respectively. Tlie tank is placed underneath the foot-plate, and conta;
400 gallons of water. The ascertained consumption of coke by this eugi
is 101b. per mile ; and in working condition the weight is 13 tons : use
load, 6 composite carriages, with 250 passengers. Similar engines are
work on the railw.ay from Lancaster to Skipton, and on the Belfast a
County Down, and Newry and Warrenpoint lines respectively.

A double boiler-tank engine was exhibited by Messrs. E. E. Wilson a
Company. As its name to a certain extent implies, tlie principal uove'.
consists of introducing two multitubular boilers side by side instead of oi
as in all other locomotives of the present day. It ha? 0 wheels, 4 of whi
are coupled, including tho driving-wheels, of 5 feet diameter ; while t
leading-wheels are 3 feet 6 inches. The outside cylinders, placed horiz<
tally, are 12i inches diameter, with a stroke of 18 mches. Tiio whc
length of engine is 24 feet 3 inches ; breadth, 8 feet 3 inches ; and lieig
from surface to top of chimney, 13 feet 6 inches; the whole weight
engine, exclusive of fuel and water, is 16 tons ; and the additional weigl
[ with complement of coke and water, 3 tons 17 cwt.; making together
i tons 17 csN't. The tubes, of IJ inch diameter, are altogether 136
number, giving a radiating surface of 694 feet superficial, fn addition
which the heating surface of fire-box is 61 feet ; together, 755 superfic
feet. The tanks will hold 520 gallons of water, which is found suffieif
for a journey of 25 niile^. The coke space is equal to 42 cubic feet, or
cwt., equal to 26 bushels of coke. In addition to the above particulars, i
are enabled, owing to the intelligence of the attendant, to furnish ti
following : — Buffers, 5 feet 9 inches apart, and 3 feet 3 inches above tlieti
surface of rails j the centre line of boiler is 4 feet 9j inches above tho san
level; length of the boilers, 10 feet; and diameter of each 21 inches. Tl
fire-boxes, 2 feet 2 inches by 1 foot 9 inches, .and 4 feet 9 inches high ; flr
box shell, 4 feet 4 inches by 2 feet 9 inches ; front and back water spaci
3 inches; middle ditto, 3i inches; sides, 2.^i inches; collective areas of cro
section of tubes, 289 superficial feet ; area of fire-grate, 7 feet 5 inche
length of connecting-rod, 4 feet 9^ inches ; diameter of pump ^alve,
inch; length of slide block, 10 inches; diameter of crank-axle in centre,
inches; size of imder-bearing, 7 inches; and of outside-bearuig, 5,^ in
diameter of trailing-axic, 5 J inches ; size of bearings, 7 inches by 6^ in
diameter of leading-axle in centre, 4 inches ; bearings, 7 inches by 3| incha
breadth of tires, 5^ inches; thickness, 2g inches; spring plates, 3^ iuobi
by 5-16ths. inch.

Messrs. Kitson, Thompson, and Hewetson, of Leeds, tho builders of tl
little engine on Adams's principle, called " Ariel's Girdle," also exiiibited oi
of their own tank engines on 6 wheels, the drivers being in the middle, as
of 6 feet diameter, wdiile the leading and trailing-wheels ai'e 3 feet 8 incl«
diameter respectively; the cylinders, placed outside, are of 11 inchi
diameter, with a,22-inch length of stroke; there are 105 tubes, each of 1
inch diameter, giving 536 superficial feet of heating surface, with a
addition of 62 square feet for the fire-box. making together 51i8 I'cet. Tl

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOl'yEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIHITION OF 1851.

351

will lioIJ tdgcUn^i' I'ldO uaUiiiis of wator ; tho c;oni|>luinont: of coko
].U ovvt. Tliu wlii>lu U WiiW tiiiixhuil, and tliu uimui wu find atlacUod

IB " Aui'olito," miiul)ciX'd in C'atalogno .OiJ-l.

it, though not thoK'ast important of tho locoiijotivo cn^inea cxliibitofl
rioiiM celobiutud nuikiii's at tho WHrld'n Induatrial Kliow was a hand-
paHHOnf^ur-ongino iVom tho work-* of Messrs. U. and \V. Hawthorn, of
lastlo, whose house has now boon famous for so many years. It is
ted on (J wheels; the drivers being (i feet (i inohos, and the foro and
wheels ol'ij feet 9 inclies in diameter respoctively. The cylinders arc
inches diametur, and the .stroke of piston 22 ineho.s. The number of
, of brass, is t.'JS, oaeh of 2 inehes external diameter, giving a radiating
10 of 8lir)'4 Buporlicial feet, in addition to 110 feet of fire-box, making

I of DT.'il suporlieial feet. There is abridno across tlio firo-box, having
dilional nator space. All the framings, both inside and out, extend

II li ngtli of the engine, and are firmly connected together by strong
duuble-kuee bracket.s. Tho wliole of the machinery was fitted and
entirely indoiicndent of tho boiler, and, when completed, tlie wheels
xlos being put into their proper positions, tlio boiler was fixeil in its

uiul liriuly soeurcd by bolts to tho brackets already moutionod luid to
itside frames. There lU'o four novelties in this engine; viz., Messrs.
horn's ])atont double-compensating beams, their patent slide valves,
patent link niotion, and their patent steam-pipe. Instead of the l!
;s ordinarily used in locomotive engines, the builders of the
i'tluirn " have introduced on each .side of the engine 2 beams nud 2
ys, by whicli a direct action is communicated at once to all the axle
igs, so that an uniform weight is constantly maintained on each of the
,s and axles, thereby securing a constant amount of weight upon the
ig-»heols for adhesion, a matter of considerable importance. Secondly,
ateiit sllile-valves are placed vertically between tho cylinder.? in one
•chest in tho usual manner. One slide-valve has a plate, oast or
1 upon tho baek which is accurately planed so as to be perfectly
el with the face of tlie valve. Tho other slide-valve has a box cast
the back, into which is fitted a projection or piston, the face of which
> planed so as to bo par.allel with tho valve; it is packed in the most
e manner and made steam-tight, and then put into tho steam-cbest, as
Unary valves. A passage is formed between the exhaust-ports through
idc-valves, thus giving afree discharge to the steam. These valves are
ed from one-half the pressure of steam, and. consequently, one-half
■ictiou. Thirdly, tho patent link-motion is also introduced into the
inery of this locomotive. The expansion link, instead of b^iiig con-
d to the ends of the cxcentric-rods, and having to be continually raised
d down with them, is directly connected by on eye-joint to tho slido-
md there suspended ; hence its weight is removed from the reversing
Having a fixed centre, the link requires less power to move and
ate the slide-valves : the link is also much more durable, .as the slidiug-
is more than three times the length of the ordinary block. Lastly,
patent steam-pipe is substituted for the domes and cumbrous pro-
US on the top of the boiler ; this pipe is fixed into the tube-plate of the
e-box by a ferule, as in the ease of an ordinary tube, ^ and extends
the whole length of the boiler, being placd near to the top ; it is
rated along its entire extent with small slits, so proportioned as to
; tho steam into the pipe directly above the place of generation. This
.anifcst improvement on the ordinary method, where the steam has to
from all parts of the boiler to one or two orifices, as it is now cou-
to tho cylinder iua pm-er state : motoover, priming ig, to a eonsider-
!xteut, avoided.

ving completed our survey of the British locomotive department, we
low briefly describe the locomotive engines sent by our Belgian and
:h competitors respectively. From Belgium we find only two engines,
■om France only one. Tlie first Belgian contribution came from the
be de Conillet Belgiquo, and is a 6-whcel engine, constructed after the
■dopted for some time by Messrs. R. Stepheu'son and Co. of Newcastle,
wheels of 5 feet diameter each, are all coupled ; the boiler is multt-
ar, and contains 185 tubes of If inch diameter. Tho workmanship
nish are altogether inferior to the manner in which all tho Eritish
otives are turned out. A 6-wheel tender is attached.
1 second Belgian locomotive engine came from the celebrated house
ickcrell and Co., of Seraing, near Li^ge, one of the most extonsivo
Isliinents of the kind in Europe, where the coal and iron are raised on
)0t. and the latter converted, by powerful machinery, into the various
of locomotive and fixed engines, which are turned out in considerable
lers. Having had an opportunity of going over the Seraing works, we
labled to speak of the interesting establishment in which the "Vallee
Vesdre " was constructed.' This engine is mounted on eight wheels,
of which, including the drivers, of 4 feet dinmetcr, are placed behind,
our bearing wlieels, of 2 feet 8 inches in diameter, iu front; the
lers are placed outside, and in a sloping position. The novelty in this
otive appears to be a " donkey," or auxiliary pump, with, however,
i deal of work about it.
8 solitary locomotive engine fi-om Fr.ance named the '' Lahore," came
the firm of Messre. J. F. Gail and Co. being somewhat similar to that
Belgian Company, Couillet, having 6 coupled wheels of 5 feet diameter.

BEDSTEAD. BY WILKINSONS. — (SEE P. 348.)

is one of the four specimens of the genuine four-post bedsteads
ited. It is of walnut wood ; rather heavy, perhaps, in its proportions,
sry magnificently carved. The draperies were of rich crimson damask.

UAJlDIiN FCitNITUUii.
THR two great troubloB of amateur garth-nern, oaptcUlty Indlcit, ar«
blistered hands and aching backs, Tho fiiitt of thcuo may bo connidcr-
ably lessoned by wearing gloves, whoro tho nature of tlio operation will
admit of it; but, for the pains induced by inccss.int vtuopiug wo kea no
remedy, and can only look for relief by tho invention of tooU which, by tlioir
peculiar construction, shall ren<lcr frequent Htoojiing unnecusnury, boyonU
a certain " graceful bend " — at leaat with regard to tho operations of digi^ing,
hoeing, raking, weeding, drillimr, dibblinir, watering, atickiog peiw, towing
seeds, transplanting shrubs, cleaning garden-rollers, &c. How for tho various
invontiouH intended to lighten and facilitato these garden operations will
accomplish so desirable a result, it would bo temcritouH to iifiirm, without
first obtaining some special experience ; suflicu it to say, that, in vevonil
ca.ses the promise bore a very fe.osiblo look, and, in a few inxtances, wo feol
no doubt of tho advantages to be derived from tho use of such tools or
imjilements.

One of the first things that attracted our attention in the department of
Agricultural and Garden Imphinents in the Groat Exposition was Hoyd'g
jiatcnt double-action or self-adjusting scythe. It was not merely the scythe
that caught our admiring eye, but tho ingenious device of a little figure of
Saturn, or Father Time, with (wo scythes, one of these being the old original
scythe, which was carried over his shoulder, the edge of the bhuio being so
close to his neck as to suggest tliat if he happened to stumble it would cut
his head off, while in his right hand ho holds Boyd's scythe, carefully shut
up like a long clasp-knife, and so safe as to be incapable of doing injuiy
cither to tho bearer or to anybody passing near him. This is evidently a
great improvement. It is so miu:li better than leaving such a dangerous
instrument at all times open to do mischief, or else bundled round clumsily
with whisps of hay or straw. Mr. E. James also exliibited a patent self-
adjusting tcytlie, which can bo put together without any a&sistaaco from a
blacksmith, and shuts np like a knife.

Mr. B. Ebbs oflers a very remarkable garden implement for tho use of ladieB.
It comprises a hoe, spud, and rake, all in one tool, and i.s»very light to
handle. It is proposed, by means of this, to en.able a lady to root up weeda
growing round strawberries, or other plants, hoe the earth round them, and
rake it clear .ind smooth, and all this without any necessity for stooping
down or changing the tools.

Kenton's garden-roller is a very ingenious and excellent inventiiu for
lightening tho weight of tho draught. Every amateur gardener has felt
how hard a labour it is to drag a garden-roller for any length of time,
especially after rain or over heavy gi-ouud. On the usual plan, you have
the full weight of the roller to drag; but in the pre-'ant invention of
Mr. Henton it is cleverly contrived that the weight of tho roller shall con-
tribute to its own motion, and, iu fact, assist in rolling itself over.

AVe must call attention to Deane. Dray, and Co's stock of Udies' garden
tools, such as hoes, rakes, and spades. They also presented to our notice
the " fruit-gatherer " (a staS' or pole, with an apparatus at the top for cutting
a stalk, and a little net bag, like an angler's landing-net, underneath, to
catch the fruit that falls) ; and the " averuncator," which is an instrument
for pruning the higher portions of fruit trees, plants, and shrubs, without
the need of mounting steps or ladders. It is a pole, with a cuttuig-instru-
meut at the top, like a bending forefinger, or a pair of semi-circular scissore,
.and seems quite likely to perform its ofiice, to admhation, provided its
machinery does not get entangled in the houghs. But why call it by so
pedantic a name as the " averuncator ! " The " pruning pole " would bo
worth a thousand of it.

Clayton's spades for gravel, or clayey soils, and adapted to different works
of a laborious kind, or in a confined space, seem to be valuable additions to
our stock of agricultural implemeuts.

Dr. Spurgus's hoes are of very novel formation, presenting a shape not
unlike that of a sharp aco of clubs, the tops of Gothic windows, or like
some of the apertures and ornaments in Gothic arcliitcoture. One of
them rather resembles a bird standing upright, with his head cut ofl".
They are light, curious, and we are disposed to believe thej' may be turned
to fxccUeut use in garden work.

The cast-iron garden-seats, tables, and chairs, of W. Dray and Co., have
a very handsome bronze like appearance ; they are strong, yet of elegant
design, and are not expensive.

Mr. Fr.mcis Parkcs exhibited a variety of spades and forks, the chief
peculiarity of wliieh seemed to be their thinness, shai-pness. and lightness.
One of the spades for instance, is so thin, that we should fancy the act of
digging would very quickly be brought to a stand still by tlio pain it would
cause the foot, if it did not shortly cut through the boot; but perhaps the
tool is not intended for digging so much as to be used as a shovel.

A refinement, amounting, we think, to dandyism, has of late made its
appearance among our garden furniture, iu tlie shape of delicate white
porcelain labels for flowei-s and plants. There were likewise metallic labels
for gardens and conservatories, which are very good ; and we especially
commend Mr. Restell's invention of flexible pegs, props, and wall-holders.
The pegs we have found very useful indeed, during the present season, iu
pegging down verbenas, petunias, &c.

Toby and Sou exhibited tho model of a greenhouse, with potting-shed
and friiit-room attached^ and showing the boiler and hot-water pipes, with
improveuieuts in ventilation. This is a very good model indeed, and con-
veys a complete idea of what is intended. Their horticultui-al implomouts
were likewise deserring of attention.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS.

The omameutal ironworks of Edwai-d UpfiU are ai'ticles of great impor-
tance in garden furniture. We much admire the beauty and durabihty |
of their garden-seats,
arches, entrances, al-
coTes, and general trel-
lis-work for the training
of roses, clematis, and
other creeping plants.

Thomas Smith's

strawberry pan is an
excellent invention.
It is in form some-
thing like an inverted
hat with the crown
knocked out, and the
broad brim turned
do\vn, or rounded over.
Two or three straw-
berry plants being en-
closed in the hat, their
leaves and fruit will
rise and roll over the
broad brim, receiving
heat from the surface
they lie upon, which
also protects them
from the dust and
dirt, and from being
spoiled by lying in the
damp after rain.

The sticking of peas
is often found to be a
fitiguing operation to
amateurs ; an^, besides
blistering the hands,
the whole row is not
unlikely to give way
with the 6rst good
windy gust that sweeps
across the garden, if not
strongly fixed in the
ground. To obviate
this.Mr.'W. Stenthas in-
vented a new pea sup-
porter, which we com-
mend to all amateur
gardeners, more espe-
cially the ladies. Hence-
forth, so far as the
growth of peas is con-
cerned, they may con-
sider tliemselves quite
independent of the help
of man.

For a ".'tingle seed
planter "and a " single
seed dibbler" we are
indebted to Mr. T. Eevis,
of Stockwell.

Everybody who has
ever engaged in the de-
lights and t lils of a gar-
den of any dimensions
■ must knowwhat it costs
to transplant large
shrubs and good-sized
trees. But here again
the Great Exposition
offers us a helping hand,
imder the auspices of
Mr. W. Seaward, of
Oulton, 'Wakefield, who
ha.s designed a tree re-
mover, ** for transplant-
ing large shrubs and
trees." He also offers
a " conifera supporter,"
to prevent cypresses,
nrhor ritfp, &c., from
being broken down by
the weight of the snow,
which, from the form
and position of the foliage of these and other trees ot the kind, often
loads them to excess, and, breaking off a large bough, frequently'destroys
the symmetr}' of the tree for ever.

To all those who have lawns, we beg to suggest that the invention of
Mr. J. Watt, of Scotland, deserves attention. It consists of a machine

ou an improved principle for '
grain and for all graso seeds.

broadcast sowing," and is intended
Nothing looks worse on a lawn tl
a number of b:
patches. Here the:
the remedy.

Ml'. P. Green,
Leeds, exhibited
aviary and garden si I
made of wire. TI
light and airy appeil
ance of these will pjr'
bably render them
vourites to those w
once possess the
Garden seats and plai
stands were also ex;
bited by Mr. J. Holm
of Newcastle-on-Tyn
Aphides, caterpUla
and other insects, i
dreadful pests of flow
and foliage, as ey(
one who has a gard^
or even a few plac
but too well kno"
Behold, then, a remt
in Mr. D. Brown's
tent instruments {or
migating, intoxicati
and rendering all th
insects either uttc
helpless and at yi
mercy ("such as it n
be), or reduced to
many little dead i
specks upon the lea'
according to
strength of the d'
Mr. Epps, of M.iidstc
likewise oflfers us
" sulphurator." an
strument for throw
flower of sulphur i
diffused state u
gT,apes, hops, p
roses, &c., for '
purpose of destroj t
mould or mildew, ' J
antagonists that I
sometimes as voraci
and fatal as the W(
insects.

But who shall ev i
digging? Who t ■
" gardens " shall e
escape the labour
the spade, with hot ;
blistered hands, ani
b leaking back! V,
shall ever be ablo
shirk his spade ! AV
evei*ybody may do
now, since Mr. J. 1
sons, of Stamford-1
has invented a "dig^
machine." It is cl
that we shall soon h
the means of escaj
from all manual labi
of every sort, in
gardens. We may
in our seat of oruaui
tal wire, or Gothic Ci
ing, or of rustic 1
and branches, and
Mr. Parsons' macli
dig; Mr. G. Flemii
machine destroy wet
moss, lichens, &c,
our gravel walks ; ■
W. Keene's machine I
pare seeds for sowii
Mr.jW. Padwick's drills and^dibbles make the earth ready to receive the
Mr. J. Watt's machine sow" them for us; and the garden engines of .
Crump, of Derby, or Dr. Kennedy, of Dublin, water them after they h;
been covered over by the vai-ious patent spades and rakes of numeii
other meritorious exhibitors. .n

(I NTIIK PIF^F. — I,.\MBr.RT AND RAWLINfiS.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GEEAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

PAOLO AND FRANCESCA. — A. MUNBO.

GIRL PRiTlSG. — J. A. M'DOWALL, R.A.

LASTER GROUP— PAOLO AND FRANCESCA. BY A. MUNRO.

MuNRO, in this little gi'oup, seeks to realise the incident described
Dante, or rather by his heroine, Francesca, for she is supposed to relate
own sad story to him, in the following passage, as translated by Gary : —

- One tiny,

For our delight, we read of Lancelot,
How him love thralled. Alone we were, and no
Suspicion near ns. Oftimes by that reading
Our eyes were drawn together, and the hue
Fled from our alter'd cheek. But at one point
Alone we fell. When of that smile we read,
The wished smile, so rapturously kiss'd
By one so deep in love, then he, who ne'er
From me shall separate, at once my lips
All trembling kiss'd. The book and writer both
Were love's purveyors. In its leaves that day
We read no more.

re need hardly say a word to point out the difficulties ■which too obviously

|ound the treatment of such a subject in sculpture ; at least, if it be

opted to represent all that the poet conceived of it. One point referred

I the passage, " the hue fled from our alter'd cheek," it is impossible to

Xn. 23, March 6, 1852.

render through this medium, because it is a material always colourable
and even to express the idea of strong emotion as conveyed through the
eyes, is a thing which has never been attempted in the plastic art. Never-
theless, Mr. Munro, who is a your'g artist of very considerable promise, has
produced i\ very pretty and graceful composition, though at the same time
one which, costume, accessories, and all considered, would have been better
adapted for a painting than a work in plaster. As regards expresfion, he
has certainly accomplished a great deal — much more than we would have
been prepared to expect ; the face of Paolo is earnest and impassioned in
the extreme ; it tells of a devouring passion long pent up, now first reveal-
ing itself; that of Francesca confesses a reciprocity of feeling, but with a
modest hesitating reserve, which is admirably true to the more delicate
poetry of the situation. Since this group was exhibited, we are glad to
understand that Mr. Gladstone has commissioned the artist to execute it in
marble.

GIRL PRAYING. BY M'DOWALL.
This very graceful production reflects the highest credit upon Mr. M'Dowpll's
talent. The expression is extremely charming, and the attitude simple and
effective. It stood in the southern transept, where it was greatly admired.

Price One Fexxt.

354

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

TEXTILE MANUFACTURES.

TJEFORE proceeding to give a report upon our silk manufactures, we
extract the following able historical account of the raw material from
the Lecture of Professor Owen, on the " Baw Materials from the Animal
Kingdom.''

SILK.

"From a product of the most gigantic of animals I next proceed to
notice one derived from a seemingly insignificant insect ; yet it is the most
costly of all raw materials for textile purposes, — I allude to silk. The most
valuable kind of silk, and that which is the subject of the most extensive
and pains-taking culture, is a secretion of the larva of a species of moth,
indigenous to China, called, par excellence, the "silk-raoth," and by ento-
mologists Bombyx mori, from its native and fovourite food, the leaves of
the mxilberry-tree.

" Raw silk was imported into Europe long before the insect which
produces it ; but the antiquity of this raw material for the richest of our
textile fabrics, by no means goes so far back as that of wool.

" There is no certain reference to silk in any ])art of the Old Testa-
ment ; the Hebre* word so rendered by King .James's translators (Ezekiel,
xvi. 10. 1.3) may signify "iino flax;" and the learned Braunius concludes
tb.at silk was unknown to the Hebrews.

" The first definite mention of silk, with a notice of the creature pro-
ducing it, is in the fifth book of the ' Historia Animalium ' of Aristotle.
He indicates the island of Cos as the place where silk was woven into
cloth : and he mentions (cap. xix. p. 850, Duval) four states of the insect
which produces silk, under the terms (TkwAt)!, kcJ^itij, 0ofiSi>^'os; and
vcKuSaAor ; and tiiese terms were understood by ancient writers after
Aristotle, end no doubt eon-ectly, to signify the states which modern
entomologists would call the 'young larva,' the mature or 'spinning larva,'
the 'pupa* with its cocoon, and the 'imago,' or perfect insect.

" In the New Testament, the Use of silk is mentioned once uumistake-
ably (Revelation, xviii. 12).

" The beautiful illustration of the Christian doctrine of the resur-
rection, which Rasil, in the year of oiu- Lord 370, drew from insect-meta-
morphoses, shows plainly that he had obtained his facts by a perusal of
the famous zoological treatise of Aristotle : — ' What have you to say, who
disbelieve the assertion of the Apostle Paul concerning the change at the
resurrection, When you see many of the inhabitants of the air changing
their forms ? Consider, for example, the account of the horned worm of
India, which, having first changed into a caterpillar (ernca or reriica),
then in proceste of time becomes a cOcoon {bomh>iliu~^ or bomhulio), and does
not continue even in this form, but assumes light and expanding wings.
Ye women, who sit winding upon bobbins the produce of these animals —
namely, the threads which these Seres send to you for the manufacture
of fine garments — bear in rtiiud the change of form in this creature,
derive from it B clear conception of the resurrection, and discredit not
that transformation which Paul announces to us all.'

" Galen judiciously recommends sHk threads for tying blood-vessels
in .surgical operations. The Roninn poets and satirists made frequent
mention of the luxurious silken clothes and attire, which were introduced
at enormous Expense during the period of the Empire. The silk so
obtained it:\a exported from Persia and India ; but whether the Bomhy.r
mori had been introduced into those countries at that period, or whether
the raw material fl-as obtained from China, is imcertain.

" That silk was most abundant in China we learn from the oldest
records of the singular people inhabiting thiit country, where from an
early period, not only the mandarins, liut all persons in easy circum-
KtAnces, as well male as female, have worn silk, satin, or damask clothes.
l']ven the uniforms of the soldiers were made then, as now, of this else-
where considered so valuable material.

" Of the wild original of tlie Bamhyx mori there is the same incertitude
as with regard to most domesticated animals. The description which is
given by M. Bertin in his work entitled ' China, its Cost\nnes. Arts, and
Manufactures.' seems to refer, as M. Latreille remarks, to the large Pha-
Icena atlas. The wild silkworm is there said to curve a leaf into a kind
of cup. and then to form a cocoon as large and nearly as bard as a hen's
egg. These wild cocoons are so strong and so compact, that the insects
have great difiiculty in extricating themselves, and therefoi-o remain
enclosed from the end of the summer to the spring of the following year.
These moths fly well. Tlie domestic silk-moth, on tlie contrary, soon
extricates itself, and ha? very feeble powers of flight. The wild silk-moth
feeds indifferently on the ash, oak, and nagara ; the Bomhyx mori, as its
name implies, feeds by choice, if not exclusively, on the leaves of the
mulberry-tree.

" I have now to speak of the introduction of the silk-worm into Europe.
According to Procopius, the Bomhyx mori was first introduced into Eiirope
in the reign of the Emperor Justinian, by two Nestorinn monks who had
travelled in Serinda, — which, whether it be India or China is uncertaiu.
— and who succneded in bringing a quantity of eggs, — secured (according
to Photine), in a hollow cane, — to Constantinople, where they were hatched,
aud t!ic Larva fed and roared on the leaves of the lilaek mulberry. The
breeding of silkworms in Europe was confined for six centuries to the
Greeks of the Lower Empire. In the twelfth century, the rearing of

silkworms and the maniifacture of silk were introduced by Roger, king
of Sicily, into Palermo, whence this important branch of industry was|
rapidly and successfully established in Italy, Spain. France, England, and
subsequently in most of our colonies possessing a suitable climate.

" .Silk is a secretion of a pair of long glandular tubes, called ' scric
teria,' which terminate in a prominent pore or spinnaret on the undo
lip. Before their termination they receive the secretion of a smallei
gland, which serves to glue together the two fine filaments from the tw<
•sericteria ;' the .apparently single thread being, in reality, double, and iti
quality being effected by the equality, or otherwise, of the secreting powei
of the ' sericteria.' The silkworm commences spinning when it is ful
grown, in some convenient spot affording points of attachment for th(
first formed thread, which is drawn from one part to the other until thi
body of the larva becomes loosely enclosed by the thread. The work i
then continued from One threttd to another, the silkworm moving its heaj
and spinning in a zig-zag way, in all directions within reach, and shifti
the body only to cover the p.-ut which was beneath it. The silken oi
so formed is called the ' cocoon.' During the period of spinning
cocoon, which usually t.akes five days for its completion, tlie silkwo)
decreases in size and length considerably ; then casts its skin, becom
torpid, and assumes the form of the chrysalis. ,

" The main object of the silkworm-breeder is to obtam cocoons of
large size, composed of a long, strong, very fine, even, and lustrous thread
These properties of the silk were found realised in the highest degre
in the specimens transmitted from France, in wliich country the develoj
ment of the silkworm has for a long period exercised the care and pain
of many able silkworm-breeders, and of late years has been the oVijee dl
of systematic advancement by the Central Society of Sericicultm-e (
France.

" Much skill is exercised — I wish I could add without cruelty — in tl:
art of killing the pupa aud extracting it from the cocoon, and in preparin
the latter for unwinding the delicate thread ; heat being the agent
destiaiction in most of the processes, as it seems to have been in tl
remotest historic times in China. The method there employed, accordir
to the old French missionaries in China, is as follows : — " The extremitiii
of the cocoon are first cut off with a pair of scissors ; they are then pi
in a canvas bag and immersed for an hour or more in a kettle of boilir
lye, which dissolves the gum. When this is effected, they are taken fro;
the kettle, are pressed to expel the lye, aud are left till the next momir
to dry. AVhilst they are still moist the chrysalis is extracted from ea(
cocoon, which is then turned inside out to make a sort of cowl. They a
then easily wound into thre,ad.'

" An accomplished author, who has celebrated the Great Exhibition
a work full of apt and striking allusions, beautifully .apostrophises tl
* wondrous worm, self-shrouded in thy silken tomb ! Anon to emerge
lirighter form, on higher life intent ; but that stern man thy mystic trac
formation intercepts, with fatal fires, consuming tenant for the sepulchre

" The results of all the most approved modes of rearing the silkwor
and preparing the cocoons were exhibited, and might be studied wr
advantage, in the Crystal P.alace.

" The Bomhyx mori having been bred and reared under the special ca
and man.agement of man during a long siiccossion of ages, may be regardi
as a domesticated species of insect ; and it has become the subject, as
the higher domesticated races, of varieties, of which those called ' Sin
' .Syi'ie,' and ' Novi,' in France, are examples.

'' The 'Sina' variety of the silkworm is known and esteemed for tl
pure whiteness of its silk, the thread of which is fine, but weak, and n
very lustrous. The 'Syrie' variety is of large size, produces a cococ
.abundant in silk, but the thread is r.ather coarse, and inclines to a greenii
tint. The ' Novi ' race is small, but the cocoons are firm and well mad
and the silk has a yellowish tint.

" The specimens of cocoons aud raw silk exliibited in the Frenc
department were mmierous, and tlie degrees of excellence hardly to 1
discriminated in the finest examples selected for the award of the pri
medal. AVith regard to the superior quality of these raw silks ai
cocoons, the Jury, by their recommendation of the award of the Counc
medal to the ' Central Society of Sericiculture of Fr.ance,' desired
testify their admiration of the specimens exhibited by many members
that Society, and their appreciation of the important influence which
has exercised in the improvement of this beautiful and valuable produ
of the animal kingdom.

" The Jury, however, justly gave the honour of their first notice to tl
beautiful specimens shown under No. 782, by Major Count de Broni
Bronski, exhibitor of unbleached silk and silk cocoons from the Chate;
de St. Selves, near Bordeaux, Department de la Gii-onde. The cocooi
were remarkable for their large size and regularity of form, and the si
for the unusual length of the thread, its natural pure white colour, i
fineness, and lustre. The circumstances under which this superior quali
of silk was obtained are certified in a report by a Committee of tl
Agricultural Society of the Gironde, d.atcd 28th April, 1847, to be
follows : — 'In 1836'M.ajor Bronski reared separately the eggs of the thr
v.arieties, 'Sina,' ' Syrie,' and ' Novi.' In 1837 he set .apart the cocooi
of the varieties ' Syrie' .and ' Novi ;' and on the exclusion of the imag
or perfect insect, he associateil the males of the ' No\i ' with the femal
of tlie ' Svrie ; ' and the hybrid ova were hatched at the ordinary perif
in ]8:?S, the operations being repeated in 1839 .and 1840. V\"ith regal
to the race 'Sina,' M. Bronski, in 1837, separated the white from the blai

■t

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OP THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

iTOrms as soon as tlioy wcro hatclicil. Ho tlioii Koloctod the I;ii->;Mt :in.l
lest Bliapcd conoonFi, mvl made a special collection of tbo cgfjs fn>m tlio
lotlis excluded from tlioso cocoons. This procedure waa ropoated in
1838 and 183U; but in 1H40 ho associated tlio males excluded from tlio
argo cocoons of the black worms with tlio females excluded from thoso
if the white worms. In 1841 ho .a-SHOciatod the males of tlio ' Sina' raco
rith tlio hybrid foinalcs obtained from the uliove-dcserlbcd crossings of
Novi ' and ' Byrie " breeds.' By these and similar experiments M.
ironski at length appcai-s to have succeeded in obtaining a race of silk-
TOi-ms not subject to disruBe, producing larne and equal-siy-cd cocoons of
pure white colour, the silk of which was e(|u,il in all its length, strong,
ind lustrous, an. I pre.senting an average length of thread of 1057 metres.

• Very beautiful examples of raw silk were also transmitted from dllTe-
■en t parts of Italy; and amongst the Italian silks tlio first mention was
hie to those exhibited In Tuscany, which showed well all the desirable
[ualities of the cocoons ahd thi-ead. From these the Jury selected for
ho award of the prize medal No. .01, exhibited by Professor Savi, of I'isa.
(ir_ the Bpeeimons of raw Bilk from silkworms fed upon leaves of the
■"hilijipine mulberry. In tlie depat-lment of Sardinia the Jury selected as
eserving, for their crcellcnt qualities, tlie prize medal, the silks exhibited
ly Messrs. H. Jacijuct knd Co., Messrs. Casissa and Sons, and Messrs.
tigiion and Co.

Ibiuy (.f the gilk.s exhibited in the department of Turkey were of a
ery fine character, eililbiting a good length of thread, with the qualities
f fineness, strength, elasticity, and lustre. The Jury had great pleasure
1 awarding the prize medal to the School of Scriciculturo at Broussa, as
el! as to some private exhil)itoi-s from Turkey.

" ^'ery fine eiKimples of silk were shown in the Indian department,
i-om whieli the Jury selected, as meritiuf; tlie prize medal, the following :
D. Jardine, of Calcutta; Watson, of Sunlah, Bengal; Mackenzie Ero-
acrs, of Bengal ; Jennings, of CommercoUy ; W. M'Nair, of Surdah,
lengal. Besides the silk from the ordinary silkworm (Bombyx mori),
Uled in India pat. specimens of stronger and coarser kinds of 'silk were
lown, from the ^u.s.«(r-moth iSaiurnia mi/liUa), which feeds on the leaves
f tlie Imninalia calappa and zisijphm jujuba. The clotli woven from this
Ik is called ' tussm-cloth,' and is made at Miduapoiv. The moonga silk
from the Bombyx saturnia, which feeds upon the same trees as the
issur. A piece of moonga-silk cloth, made in Assam, was exhibited,
e Phaltma cyntlda produces the cri sdk. This species feeds upon the
c'mus^ communis. The eri cloth is .also woven at Assam. It is observed
India, that the pat. or true silk, from larva; of the Bombyx m.ori fed on
lulberry-trees grown in a strong clay soil, is generally better, the cocoons
ig larger and of better colour.

In the Chinese department the quality of the silk developed in the
ve country of the silkworm was worthily illustrated by the specimens

to whom the Jury, therefore,

ibited by Yun-kee, of Shaug-hae
ljudt;ed the prize medal.
' I must not quit the subject of silk without, finally, offering a tribute
praise to specim»ns of silk, from silkworms reared on loaves of the
hito mulberry, at Godalming, Surrey, and exhibited by Mrs. Catherine
odgo, which, considering the unfavourable conditions of elirnate. showed
lalities that deservedly elicited the award of Honoiu-ablo Mention from
IT .lury."

SILK MANUFACTURES.
BERE were few departments of the Exhibition which were es.amincd with
ore interest than that of the silk manufacture, since it was one of those

winch the well-known reputation and long tried skill of our French
■isirooui-s promised to subject us to the severest test. Manv woll-meaning
1 mtelligent people believed that, as regards our silk trade, if in no other
partment of manufacture, the Exhibition would have had a fatal ten-
ncy : since it would inevitably have shown us the poverty of our o\vn
eductions, especially in an artistic point of view. Spitalfields was luke-
u-m. if not positively hostile. Macclesfield could not see its way until the
veiith hour ; and it was only the fear of being absent, and thus sufFerinc
Igment to go by default, that led to any movement in either of these
jalities. Manchester and Coventry had some hopes that there might be
ints in which they might excel, and consequently set about the work
th more spirit and determination, and the fullest possible intention of
nmng if they could, but. if beaten, that it should not be for want of a ti'ial.
Witliout claiminf! for our silk manufacturers any super-excellence either
taste or judgment, it is not too much to say that there are points in which
y certainly stand preeminent; and when the question of quality is
cussed, no one need fear for the results. Of late years there has been
onstant tendency to avoid the production of decorated silks, .and to pay
ire and more attention to those of a plain character. This h.as arisen
ce the period at which the restrictive duties were taken off French silks •
i the manufacturer, who formerly depended upon his clandestine means

obtaining p.atteras of these foreign productions, and using them as
iigns for his own trade, was compelled to forego his piracies, and depend
Ju some origmal source. Now, unfortunately, he had altogether neglected

cultivation of the taste and talent around him ; and in his hour of need
> slender artistic means wliich he had been compelled to provide for the
pose of copying, failed him as a source of that originality by which alone
could hope to st.and.

^hc disquietude, therefore, of the silk manufacturers of thisconntrv and
re particularly of Spitalfields, is to be accounted for in the fact thaVthey

culled upon to take part ; and having been so long used to depend upon
others rather than upon themselves, they were certainly not in tho beat
jiossible condition to exert thumKelves with any effect.

The display aetually produced, however, only Urred to prove how much
inoro might have been done had this habit of «clf-relianc8 been cultivated a
littlo earlier, and the iunovatioua of taitte been regarded rather M a means

SHAWL PATTERN. — JAMESON AND B.INKS.

whereby an extension could be given to trade, th.an as ruinous to certain
exclusive interests which were never, after all, really benefited by the so-
called protection afforded by antique restrictions.

The examples of British silk manufacture occupied the gallery immedi-
ately at the head of the first stairc^ise on the south side. The Spit,alfield3
or metropolitan silks, and the Coventry ribbons, were dispLiyed in glass
cases next the nave, and the Macclesfield and Manchester productions in a
parallel line on the other side of the staircase. Nearly every class of silk
goods was represented, and manufactm-ers, wholesale and retail dealers,
were strangely enough found in competition, or at least in cordparison, with
each other. Messrs. Campbell. Harrison, and Lloyd, of Friday-street, City,
exhibited some excellent specunens of figured moire antique 'damask, rich
brocades, and velvets. Stone and Kemp, Spital-sqnare a rich a.ss6rtment

totally unprepared fbr such a competition as that m whi^ th;^;.4 ^f^^M^fi^^Slks^^^W ^0^^^^^^^^?^ t^^t^T^S^

356

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

DESIGN ■WOVEN W SILK. — HO0LDSWOKTH AND CO.

furniture damasks : and other houses kept up the reputation of Spitalfields
for parasol silks, gros-de-Naples, satins, and velvets. Two specimens exhi-
bited by the Spital-
il I i|||i|ii 11 III fields School of Design,

11 I llllliliN as the production of

.■■■limiih,. p^py^ pf that institu-

tion, were practical il-
lustrations of its utility
when properly direct-
ed. The crowning re-
presentation, however,
of Spitalfields, was the
silk trophy, set \ip by
Messrs. Keith, in the
central avenue. This
richly-clothed and de-
corated object formed
a decided featiire of
the Exhibition, and
consisted of a parallelo-
gram of mirrors with a
wing at each of tlie
angles, on which were

li 'll!lillii''/'l^)IrSiiS^VS^^ y^^f'f^Slliililliilll' draped the richest fur-
niture damasks in well-
selected and eifective
colourings. The struc-
ture was divided into
three tiers, and rose to
the height of forty feet,
above which were
placed the flags and
banner. The lower
tier displayed the
broad silks of the larg-
est patterns ; and at
certain angles these
were reflected in the mirrors ; whilst selections of silks were arranged apon
a plinth which supported the whole, an ornamental /mcia completing the
first compra'tment. From this rose the second tier, in which, however, too
many silks were
crowded, and the
effect was impaired
in consequence.
Great credit is due
to Me.5srs. Keith
and Co. for the
spirit and energy
they displayed in
taking up this cost-
ly illustration nf
their trade sinsle-
handed ; and the
examples of silk of
which it was form-
ed are, with a few
exceptions, equally
creditable to their
skill and taste as
manufacturers.

Messrs. James
Houldsworth and
Co. were the exhi-
bitors of silk from
Manchester. Their
specimens were all
of a very high cha-
racter. The large
silk banner which
occupied thecentre
of their compart-
ment was executed
specially for the
Exhibition, and was
composed of silk
grown and manu-
factured in Eng-
land. It was in-
tended as a memo-
rial of the late Mrs.
Whitby, of New-
lands, Southamp-
ton, who devoted
BO large a portion

of her time and fortune to tho promotion of the growth of silk in England,
and was manufactured by Messrs. Houldsworth for her friend, Mrs. Wist.

The embroideries by machinery, for which Messrs. James Houldsworth
and Co. have been so long noted, were here displayed in all their accuracy

of " repeat " and brilliancy of 'effect. Indeed, in all departments of th»
manufacture, this house sustained its reputation in a most satisfactory
manner, the arrangements of the display being at once tastefvd and effective,
Messi-s. Whitworth and Proctor's specimens, of a totally different class
from those last quoted,

DESIGN WOVEN IN SILK. — HOULDSWORTH AND CC

were very admirable,
Messrs. Harrop, Taylor,
and Pearson's goods,
which filled a glass case
of similar design to that
of Messrs.'Whitworth and
Proctor, thus balancing
the arrangement on each
side of Messrs. Houlds-
worth, were of a class for
which Manchester is
noted — plain silk goods
of excellent quality at a
comparatively low price ;
and it was as specimens
of this class only that they
were exhibited.

At the back of the Man-
chester specimens, a mis-
cellaneous collection of
examples in silk and silk
manufactures was placed.
In the centre, and occupy-
ing the largest portion,
were some very excel-
lent examples of furni-
ture damasks, manufac-
tured and exhibited by
Mr. William Grosvenor,
of Kidderminster. The
other exhibitors com-
prised those from Leek
and Derby ; and an interesting case of illustrations of the growth and pre
cess of silk manufacture, from the eggs of the silkworm to the fimshei
goods by Messrs. Hadwin and Sons, Heyroyd Mills, near Halifax ; wit

specimens of dyei
silks by Holdforti
and Sons, of Leedl
The MacclesfielJ
exhibitors wea
grouped togethe
in a large glass cas
at the head of th
stairs ; and the spi(
cial productions <
that town wer
worthily represen'
ed by Messrs. Broi
klehurst and Son:
H. and T. Wardl
andCo.,andCritol
ley, Brinsley, ani
Co. ; ladies' sil
handkerchiefs an.
small silk shawj
being the leadin
features. Of th
colouring of man
of the specimen
we can speak in tb
highest terms
commendation.

til

fEF

SILK TATTEEN. — HOULDSWORTH AND CO.

RIBBONS.
The staple prodm
tions of the anciet
city of Coventr;
as already statet
occupied a prom
nent situation i
the Central Sout
Gallery, next i
the nave, and we)
displayed in a loc
glass case, of moi
pretension to arch
tectural beaut
than was realise '*^
in its constructioi
Of the display here made it is only right to premise, that Coventry hs
hitherto aimed at manufacturing cheap ribbons, in which great effect
obtained at the smallest possible amount of labour and the minimum quaii
tity of material ; and the examples here shown were, with very few exoef

fei

AN ILIiUSTRATl'M) CYCLOPil':DIA OK THE GREAT EXIIUUTION OF 1851.

357

fw.:, iiiti-ntled to illiiHlrato tlio rcj^uljir ma-
nir.Kiuro of tho vuriuua iioimcB wlio united
(I iiiiiko tliis oxpositioii of tho ribbon trade.
i-Iacli of tlio leading firms wan reiiresoutc<l,
kuil eaeh liad evidently endeavoured to dis-
lilay tho leading teatiu'es of its own spceial
i.ule. Tims, Mesars. Sturdy and Turner
■xliiliited saini)leH of nbbonH remarkable for
■laiity of denigu and tho application of steam
i^mr to their nianufaeture : and Jlessrs.
■iliupy, Odell, and Jur exhibited illustra-
ioiis of a medium (juality of goods manufac-
nii.l at Coventry. In order, however, to
<Im'vv how far tho ribbon weavers of Covcn-
r\ are capable of going beyond the ordinaiy
liiiii. Ii 1' iif goods upon which they are usu-
illy riii[.loyoil, and by tho mauufaeturo of
.\lii(li tiio commercial statu.'i of that city is
.cpt up, it was wisely resolved, V>y a few
i|iiiiUd iudividual.i, that a ribbon should be
II liiulactured, and tho cost of its production
II' ilrli'ayotl by subscription, in order to en-
iiiii' tho production of such a specimen as
.Miiild prove tho capabihty of tho Coventry
.Milkmen to produce better things than they
isnally have credit for, and to show that tho
■hntcut of price was always to be considered
u tho production of excellence. The rib-
Dou thus manufactured, under the especial
lUperiutendence of a committee of mamifac-
;uroi'S appomted for that purpose, was exhi-
lited in the central compai-tment of tho
lass case which was set apart for its dis-
play, in a variety of colourings. Uufortu-
lately, wood-engraving would give no ade-
|uato representation of the special beauties
af this example ; an illustration would, there-
'ore, be useless, as its colourings, and the
arrangement of its paits for the purposes
)f weaving, constitute the primary elements
)f its excellence; and, without believing
that it is the very perfection of design
ind workmanship in libbon manufacture,
,t was extremely in-
teresting, as showing
how far the energies
and talent of our
countrymen may be
developed by judi-
iously-exorcised en-
couragement, and the
itimnlus of an extra-
ordinary circum-
tance, such as this
Exhibition has proved
to many of our ma-
nufactures. Let tho
Coventry men tidce a
lesson from this, and,
indeed, the Spital-
fields men might do
the same ; and let
them take care to
produce at least one
tirst-ratc specimen of
their skill every year
for the future, as a
point of perfection at
whicli their artisans
should aim as far as
possible, even in theii-
ordinary produc-
tions.

SHAWLS.
TuF, valuable and in-
teresting display of

ENAMELLED COLD VASE. — SEYMOUR AND SON.

HEH MAJESTY S MNQDE-CENTO JEWEL-CASE. — DESIGNED BY UKUNEB; MANUIi'AOrUUED BY ELIONGIOM.

liriti.sli kIihwIhwuh most judiciouriy arr.-mged
in the guilui-y on tho HOuth-weijteru eidc of
the truuHcpt, the London aud Norwich contri-
butions being placed in a RericH of elegantly-
designed glass casts ; aud those of Paisley in
Buitablo couipartucnts, cither covered witii
glass or opou, according to the character of
tho good-". When the great variety of pro-
duction in this department of textile fabrics
alouo is taken into connideration, and it iH
remembered that tho design may range from
the most intricate India pri/e patteiTis to tho
most prinjitivc of plaids, and yet present de-
cided features of excellence p^r w, the im-
portance of its complete iliustration will be
at once acknowledged. Nor is this applica-
tion of the arts of design to be confined
exclusively to the production of the pat-
terns by the loom alone, since, of late ytar.^
most important improvements in the deco-
ration of shawls have been effected by the
application of printing by blocks ; and the
success which has attended this method was
fully exemplified by the veiy beautiful and
unique specimens exhibited by Mr. Charles
Swaisland, of Crayford, Kent, one of the last
of tliose London printers whose reputation
has been eclipsed by the mechanical contriv-
ances and rapid methods of production of
their Lanca.shire rivals. The barerje shawls
of this unrivalled printer have long held tho
command of tho market : and the selection
exhibited w ill only serve to enhance the re-
putation acquired by the experience of nearly
half a century.

Messrs. Kerr aud Scott, of St. Paul's
Church-yard, exhibited largely and in
great variety, alike in printed and woven
fabrics. Messrs. Webber and Hairs, of
Milk -street, City; and Messrs. Keith
and Shoobridge, of Wood-street, also dis-
played an admirable selection. The Nor-
wicli exhibitors, too, made a most interest-
ing display in both
shawls and figured
poplins, brocades and
chinas. The Paisley
contributions were
very extensive. The
Indian long shawls
of Mr. R. Kerr have
been held in high
esteem for many
years past, and the
specimens he exhi-
bited sustained his
reputation.

The gay colours of
many of the tartan
shawls and phuds
grouped well with
the more sober hues
of the fancy plaids in
which tertiary tints
aud neutrals are ad-
mirably contrasted
with the vivid colours
of broad borders and
fringes. Many of the
printed shawls were
very excellent ; and
the embroidered

ones, though out of
place here, served to
give effect to those
around.

JEWEL-CASE, IN- THE CINQUE-CEXTO STYLE.
Tnis m.ignificcut jewel-case, tho property of her Majesty, was designed
by L. Gruner. Esq., and executed at the manufactory of Mr. Henry
Elkington, at Birmingham. The material is bronze, gilt and silvered by
ilectrotype process. Upon this case are portraits on china of her Majesty,
H.R.H. Prince Albert, and H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, copied from minia-
tures by R. Thoruburn. Esq., A.R.A. The small, medallions, representing
profiles of their Royal Highnesses the Princes and Princesses, were modelled
from life by Leonard Wyon, Esq.

GOLD VASE. BY SEYMOUR AND SON.
This vase beai-s enamelled portraits of the Queen and Prince Albert,
in imitation of cameos. The tr.^nsparent enamel colours on the body
of the vase are the red or ruby-coloured enamel, green, and blue; in
the neck is the turquoise-coloured enamel. These colours are all made
by the exhibitors, and may safely challenge comparison with anything
of the kind ever produced ; the i-uby colour in particular is perfect-
The portraits are painted by J. Haslem.

358

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

THE RAIl-VyAY DEPARTMENT.

RAILWAY PLANT.

J^ LARGE outlay is required annually in providing the plant or furniture
of every railway, and for keeping the same in repair, as almost every
kind of railway appendage i3 subject to a considerable amount of friction,
and, consequently, daily deterioration in point of value. To illustrate this,
we need only call attention to the wheels, the axles, and, indeed, to almost
every other part of the engines and caiTiages used on the " iron way ;"
added to which, the rapid decay of the sleepers, fences, and other wood-
works partially buried in the ground, not\vithstanding the kyanising and
other supposed preservative applications, as well as the great amount of
friction to which the raUs are continually subjected, render it quite neces-
sary that evei-y improved and more durable form of rails, wheels, and other
parts of the stationaiy and rolling-stock respectively, should receive the
utmost attention of railway directors, whose especial care it should be to
remember continually that the shareholders' half yearly dividends depend
a great deal on this important branch of railway economy.

In addition to the locomotive engines, which we have already described,
there were upwards of one hundred contributions in this department,
including railway carriages and models, different kinds of permanent way,
various patterns of wheels, besides new forms of turntables and traversers,
and several new modes of giving signals and applications of the break,
besides switches and crossings, lifting-jacks, and locomotive fittings
generally.

RaUway carriages, with regard to internal arrangements, have undergone
but very little change since 1836, for we find, in Whishaw's "Analysis of
Railways," the following with i-egard to the carriages at that time employed
on railways : —

" The most approved forms of carriages are the first-class on the Man-
chester and Liverpool Railway, which are divided into three compartments,
each containing ample room for six persons; the extreme length of each is
14 feet, and the width 7 feet. The second-class carriages are open at the
sides, and have seats for twenty-foiu' persons. The Stockton and Darling-
ton Railway carriages are divided into three compai-tments ; the middle
one is closed, and the other two are open : the extreme width is 5 feet
9 inches ; the internal height, 4 feet 8 inches ; and the width of each seat,
16 inches ; the wheels are four in number, and 2 feet 7 inches diameter.
Some of the carriages on the Greenivich Railway are of the size usually
adopted, but are without the divisions, having seats all round, except
where the doors intervene."

For the narrow-gauge lines nothing certainly could have been more
comfortable than the first-class carriages of the Manchester and Liverpool
Railway, as above described. The second-class, however, were anythmg
but luxurious in bad weather, and people were inclined to compare them
with the outside seats of a stage coach, and to prefer the latter, which were
at any rate free from the cutting draughts of air rushing violently through
the side openings. In this respect a groat change has taken place for the
better, as we find the comforts of second-class passengers more attended to
on some railways ; and, instead of the open sides, windows have been added.
The " composite carriage "of the Stockton and Darlington line of 1836
served as a pattern for the cai'riage builders of 1851, and is a particularly
convenient and indeed economical form for branch lines ; the midiUe com-
partments being for first-class, and the two end compartments for second-
class passengers respectively.

The general form of the Greenwich R;iil\vay carriage of 1836 is still pre-
served by the South-Eastem Railway for the North Kent line, with a
different ai-rangcment, however, of the seats within, which enables the
gi'asping managers of the line to cram the diilerent carriages to suffocation,
without regard to the class of passengers. The South-Easteru carriage,
built by Adams, and exhibited in the railway department of the World's
Fair, is, however, on the old and more convenient plan, giving to evei*y first,
class passenger his own seat, and also allowing a fixed space for so many
Bocond-class passengers. The peculiai-ity of this carriage, which has been
styled the " carriage of all nations," is, that it consists of a vertebrated
body, running on eight wooden wheels, of Mansell's patent construction,
and affording accommodation altogether for eighty first and second class
passengers. The panels and doors, &c. are of teak-wood, varnished. Adams'
patent springs and grease-tight axle-boxes have also been adopted ; by a
mechanical arrangement, the fore and hmd parts of this lengthy vehicle,
the one for first and the other for second-class passengers, may be so
placed in passing curved portions of a line of railway, that tho two pairs of
wheels on each side, instead of being in one and the same plane, move at
an angle to each other according to the degi'ee of curvature. Tliis carriage
was built by Brown, Marshall and Co., and is according to Mr. Adams'
patent, who exhibited also a carriage, in connexion with his light passenger
engine, as a specimen of his mode of economically working branch lines :
tUu.-(, he dispenses with one pair of wheels, and underneath the carriage he
places a tank of water for tlje supply of tho engine boiler.

Mr. Williams, the well-known railway-carriage builder, sent a very hand-
some first-class passenger carriage, the great novelty of which is the entire
absence of paint ; all the panels, doors, and other parts of the body being
constructed of East India Moulmein teak, well coated with varnish, which
brings out the grain of the wood, and altogether produces an elegantly
neat appearance. This style of external construction has been adopted for
the Royal carriages of the Great Northern Railway.

Mr. M'Ct'Unel, the locomotive superintendent of the North-Western
Railway Company, contributed a novelty in carriage building to tho Great
Show. He makes the body of corrugated iron, whicli must be very strong
and durable, and we should imagine, on the whole, economical. This
cai'riage is mounted on six wheels, and is of the composite order ; consist-
ing of two first-class compaitments ; five second-class compartments, and
one guard's compartment ; a foot-boai"d extends the whole length on
either side ; it is furnished with Brown's patent buffers ; and the exhibitor
states that the whole is fire and water-proof — a most important consi-
der.ation.

H. H. Henson, also attached to the North-Western Company's extensive
establishment, exhibited a luggage van on four wheels, the body with
sliding doors, being of similar construction to that of the carriage last
described, which is certainly a step in the right direction, as we often iiear
of sad havoc from fire among the merchandise waggons of railways.

We have heai-d of sheet iron panels for carriage bodies, for such were
adopted for the Belgian railways long ago, but, until now, ])uj>icr miichC
p.anels have not been introduced. The framework of a railway carriage
with panels of this material was exhibited by J. C. Haddon. There is no
doubt but that papier mdche is a most convenient material for moulding
into any particular form that may be required, and when painted will
resist wet ; but as fire must now be guarded against in the construction
of railway carriages, we shoiild certainly prefer the construction adopted
by Mr. M'Connel and Mr. Henson, or the flat metallic panels of the Belgian
railway carriage builders.

G. Grey, of Birmingham, exhibited an "improved railway break and
signal v.ins." consisting of three small vans separated from each other by
spring buffing apparatus, and having also terminal buffers ; the whole
mounted on six wheels. In cases of collision such a carriage placed in
front, and a second one in the rear of a train would, no doubt, prevent
many broken noses and shattered foreheads.

In addition to the full sized carriages, we found six contributors of i
model carriages — exhibited either for novelty of design or some ueij
arrangement of parts. The names of the exhibitors of these models arj
— B. 'Tennant, W. N. Cripps. W". Macbay, C. Chabot, the zincograpliej]
W. Green, and R. Welling, jun., the well-known cai'riage-builder, of Ma
Chester. The only one of them which we shall notice is the last-mei^
tioned ; as at this- time Royal progresses are so frequent, that it becomei
necessary to provide every accommodation possible for those so beloveq
as the Queen of England, her highly-gifted Consort, and their illustrious!
chikh'cn. The external design of Mr. Welling's model of a Royal statq'1
railway carnage is far better than the internal arrangements. A prome-
nade extends entirely round the carriage, properly railed in — thus afford-
ing an opportunity to the 'Royal travellers, occasionally, to enjoy the
picturesque while getting a breath of fresh air. The interior is spoiled
by the irregular shape of the saloon — owing to the entrances projecting
within the sides of this compartment; while the accommodation iu tlie
shape of retiring rooms seems to have been little thought of.

In connexion with carriages, there were several contributions iu the
shape of improved buffers, breaks, couplings, axles, wheels, and tires.
The names of the contributors of the articles included in this classification
are — Fossick and Hackworth, of Stockton-on-Tees, C. De Bergue, ;uid
T. C. Clarkson, who severally exhibited improved buffers; aud the first-
named, an improved draw-spring. Buffers are made in a vai'iety of ways;
for waggons and common carriages they are often made of wood, neatly
covered with leather, and padded ; then for better kinds of carriages they
are constructed of India-rubber, metallic springs, and various kinds 01
material, according to the pai'ticular notion of the inventor.

Next to buffera, we found six exhibitors of breaks, including W.
M'Naught, J. Lee, J. Dillon. W. Handley, W. W.alker, .^nd H. Stoy. Moat
of our readers will have experienced, travelling by railway, not only the
unpleasant sensation produced by the vibrations of tho carriage, owing to
the sudden application of that useful appendage to a railway tr,ain, but
also an unpleasant effluvium, arising from the charring of the wood chock.
Of late these distressing effects have been much diminished ; and it should
be the endeavour of all managers of railways to produce the necessary
breaking or scotching of the wheels uniformly throughout the train,
which is thus more easily and speeddy brought to a state of rest. Most
of the breaks in ordinary use produce not more than an inch of friction,
or rubbing surface on the rails, which must speedily destroy the wheels
and rails.

Mr. Lee's breaks possess a power of stopping the triuns of 18 to 1 over
those breaks to which we have alluded, and act directly from the ;ixlo
and box of the wheels with a wedge-shaped shoe, which present :? one
surface to the wheel, and another to the rail, the latter extending to 18
inches. These breaks are brought into action by the application of a
powerful screw by one revolution, while by au additiouial half turn of the
screw, the whole weight of tho ciu-ri.ago is thrown upon the weilge-block,
thus raising the wheels one sUkcnIh of an inch above the rails, but nu
more ; thus the wear of the tyre and rails is avoided.

360

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS; AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OP THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

361

THE GREAT EXHICITION" WESTIiKN NAVE- -LOOKING WEST; Imcluding the Coalbhook Dale Dome, Debts Toehet Clock, Mbs. Rose's Siohe Ckoss, &t.

362

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OP 1851.

359

LECTURES ON THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

— ♦ —
WE resume our perusal of the Lectures delivered before the Society of
Arts on the results of the Great Exhibition, aa regards different
branches of Induatty ; extracting s few passages which are interesting from
the novelty or force of the lessons contained in them.

ALLIANCE OF SCIENCE WITH INDUSTBY.
DB.'LyON Platfair, in his Lecture " On the Chemical Principles involved
in- Manufactui-es, as indicating the necessity of Industrial Institutions,

^"V have shown iB my former lecture, that a rapid transition is taking
place in industi-v; that the raw material, formerly our capitd advantage
over other nations, is graduaUy being equalised in price, and made avail-
able to all by the improvements in locomoUon ; and that mdustry must m
future be supported, not by a competition of local advantages, but by a
competition of intellect. All European nations, except England, have
reco-nised this fact; their thmking men have prockimed it; thew govern-
ments have adopted it as a principle of state ; and every town has now its
schools, in which are taught the scientiBc principles mvolved m man;tfac-
tures while each metropolis rejoices in an industrial university, teachmg
how to use the alphabet of science in reading manufactures anght. Were
there any effects observed in the Exhibition from this mtellectual tramiug
of their industrial populations 1 The official reserve, necessarily imposed
upon me as the Commissioner appointed to ^d the Juries, need exist no
lont^r. and from my personal conviction, I answer without qualification, m
the^ affirmative. The result of the Exhibition ^vas one that England may
well be startled at. Wherever— and that implies in almost every manu-
facture Science or Art was involved as an element of progress, we saw, as

an inevitable law, that the nation which most cultivated them was in the
ascendant Our manufacturers were justly astonished at seeing most of
the foreign countries rapidly approaching and sometimes excelling us in
manufactures, our own by hereditary and traditional right. Though cer-
tainlv very superior in our common cutlery, we could not claim decided
Buperiority in that applied to surgical instruments; and were beaten in
Bome kind of edge-tools. Neither our swords nor our guns were left with
an unquestioned victory. In our plate-glass, my own opinion— and I am
sure that of many others— is, that if we were not beaten by Belgium, we
certainly were by France. In flint-glass, our ancient prestige was left very
doubtful, and the only important discoveries in this manufacture were not
those shown on the English side. Belgium, which has deprived us of so
much of our American trade in woollen manufactures, found herself
approached by competitors hitherto almost unknown ; for Russia had risen
to eminence in thia branch, and the Gorman woollens did not shame their
birthplace. In silversmith work we had introduced a large number of
foreign workmen as modellers and designers, but, nevertheless, we met
with'vorthy competitors. lu calico-printing and paper-staining our designs
looked wonderfully French ; whilst our colours, though generally as bril-
liant in themselves, did not appear to nearly so much advantage, from a
want of harmony in their arrangement la earthenware we were masters,
as of old ; but in china and in porcelain our general excellence was stoutly
denied; although individual excellencies were very apparent |n hardware
we maintained our superiority, but were manifestly surprised at the rapid
advances making by many other nations. Do not let us nourish our national
vanity by fondly congratulating our-iclves that, as we were successful we
had little to fear. I believe this is not the opinion of most candid and
intelligent observers. It is a grave matter for retiection, whether the Exhi-
bition did not show very clearly and distmctly that the rate of industrial
advance of many European nations, even of those who were obviously in
our rear, was at a greater rate than our own ; and if it were so, aa I believe
it to have be'-u, it does not require much acumen to perceive that in a long
race the fastest-sailing ships vriW win, even though they are for a time
behind- The Exhibition will have produced infinite good, if we are com-
pelled as a nation to acknowledge tliis truth. The Roman empire fell
rapidly, because, nourishing ita national vanity, it refused the lessons of
defeat, and construed them into victories. All the visitors, both foreign
and British, were agreed upon one point, that, wliichever might be the tii-st
of the exhibiting nations, regarding which there were many opinions, that
certainly our great rival, France, was the second. Let us hope that in this
there is no historical parallel. After the battle of Salamis, the generals,
though claimint; for each other the first consideration as to generalship,
unanimously admitted that Thenustoclcs deserved the .second ; and the
world, ever since, as Smith remarks, hag accepted this as a proof tliat
Themistocles was, beyond all question, the first general. Let us acknow-
ledge our defeats when they are real, and our English character and energy
will make them victories on another occasion. But our great danger is,
that, iu our national vanity, we should exult in our couqueata, furgotting
our defeats ; though I have much confidence that the truthfulness of oar
nation will save us from this peril. A competition in Industry must, in an
advanced stage of civilisation, be a competition of intellect The influence
of capital may purchase you for a time foreign talent. Our Manchester
calico-piintera may, and do, keep foreign designers in France at liberal
salaries. Our glas*-woiks, may, and do, buy foreign science to aid them in
their management. Our potteries may, and do, use foreign talent both iu
management and design. Our silvcramiths and diamond-setters may, and
do, depend much upon foreign talent in art and foreign skill in execution;
but is all thiA not a suicidal poUcy, which must have a termination, not for

the individual manufacturer, who wisely buys the talent wherever he can
get it, but for the nation, which, careless of the education of her sons, sends
our capital abroad as a premium to that intellectual progress which, in oiu"
present apathy, is our gicatest danger!

*'It is well to iu quire, in what we aro so deficient, and what is the
reason of this deficiency. Assuredly it does not consist in the absence
of pubUc philantlii-opyor want of private zeal for education, but chielly
rests in that education, being utterly unsuited to the wants of the
age. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries classical learning was,
after its revival, highly esteemed : and its language became the com-
mon medium for expression in all nations. A thorough acquaint-
ance vrith it was an absolute necessity to any one with pretensions to
learning. It had a glorious literature, one as fresh as when it grew on the
rich soils of Rome and Greece. Its truths were eternal, and were received
by us in their traditional mythology, as Bacon beautifully says, like " the
breath and 'purer spirit of the earliest knowledge tloating to ua in tones
made musical by Grecian flutes." And why was that bewitching literatm-e
made the groundwork of our educational systems i Does it not show that
literature, like art, may have a standard excellence ; and that we are con-
tent to imitate where we cannot surpass. If the main object of life were to
fabricate literati, I would not dispute the wisdom of making classics the
groundwork of our education. They are not utterly dead, but, like the dry
bones of the valley, they may come together, and have breathed into them
the breath of life. In the world there is a constant system of regeneration.
Theories exist for a time, but like the phcenix, are destroyed, and rise yet
more glorious from their ashes. Animals die, and by thuir decay pass into
the atmosphere, whence vegetables derive their nutriment, and thus death
becomes the som-ee of life. But in all this there is no incongruity. A
phcenix does not from its ashes produce an eagle, but a phcenix as before.
The dry bones of dead Literature may vivify into new forms of literary life.
Classical Literature and exact Science are, however, wholly antithetic. If
Classical Literature be sufficient to construct your spmning-jennies aud
bleach your cottons, your system of instruction is right ; but if you are to
be braced, and yoiu- sinews strengthened, for a hard struggle of industry, is it
wise that you should devour poetry, while your competitors eat that which
forms the muscles and gives vigour to the sinews! "With such different
trainings, who in the end will win the race? Science hai not, like Litera-
ture and Art. a standard of excellence. It is as infinite as the wisdom of
God, from whom it emanates. All ordinary powers decrease as you depart
from the centre ; but tiie power of knowledge avigmeuts the farther it is
removed from the human source from which it was transmitted. God has
given to man much mental gratification in trying to understand and apply
to human uses His laws. The great philosopher of Scriptm-e has said, ' It
is the glory of God to conceal a thing, but the honour of kings to search
out a matter,' The poet-prophet of the Bible ha^ also told us, that God
'tumeth wise men backward, and maketh their knowledge foolish.' Aud,
therefore, as surely as He is infinite and man finite, until earth passes
away, you will have no human standard of scientific knowledge. As this
is so, how can we as a nation expect to carry on those manufactures by our
sons of Industry, when we do not teach them tho nature of the principles
involved in their successful prosecution'? Sulaceoui'^elves as we will with
vain thoughts of our gigantic position among nations — Greece was higher
than we are, and where is she now! It does not require a lofty statm'e to
see the farthest; for a dwarf on the shoulders of a giant sees farther than
the giant, — not that be is less a dwai'f, but that he has added the giant's
height to his own. The Exhibition showed us many small States which
had thus raised themselves on the shoulders of Science within the last few
years, while we are merely hovering about its skirts. Let us take care that
our excess of pride in the so-termed 'practical ' power of our population
may not be punished as Arachne was of old. Arachne was wonderfully
skilled in needle-work, but presumptuously challenged Minerva to a trial
of skill. What chance was there in such an unequal contest ? Minerva
united Science to her handicraft skill, and this combination insured success.
Arachne was justly CJist from her proud position among mortals by being
changed into a gpider, ever epinniug the same web in the same way, — the
same for wintry blasts as for gentle summer zephyrs,

" ' You have excelled all uthcr people in tho products of Industry. But
why] Because you have assisted Industry by Science. Do not regai'd aa
inchflerent what iS your true and greatest glory. Except in these respects,
in what are you superior to Athens and Rome 1 Do you cany away from
them the palm in literature aud the fine arts'! Do you not rather glory,
and justly too, in being, in these respects, their imitators! Is it not demon-
strated by the nature of your system of public education and by your popular
amusements! In what, then, are you their superiors! Iu everything con-
nected with physical Science ; with the experimental arts. These are your
characteristics. Do not neglect them. You have a Newton, who is the
glory, not only of your own country, but of the human race. You have a
Bacon, whose precepts may still be attended to with advantage. Shall
Englishmen slumber in that path which these great men have opened, and
be overtaken by their neighbours'! Say, rather, that all assistance shall be
given to their efforts; that they shall be attended to, encouraged, and sup-
ported.' "' — Davy.

AUSTRALIAN WHEAT.
Frou Prop£860B Lindlsy's Lecture on " Substances used as Food."
" If we take the subject of Wheat, which, periiaps, will be regarded by
many as pai-amouut to all others, I think it will appear that there are some
circumstances connected with this' Exhibition which particularly deserve to

Mr. James Dillon's breaks are somewhat similar in their effect to those
of Mr. Lee, but different in form — consisting of a long friction slide on
each side and between the respective wheels. When the guard applies
the necessary power, the slides are brought immediately to bear on the
rails, and tho carriages are slightly raised therefrom.

Handley's patent i-ailway break is of wedge-form, and is applied to each
wheel of the carriage to which the apparatus is fixed ; so that the cai-riage
may be brought to a stand when going in either direction.

G. Knox, of Tottenhall, near Wolverhampton, contributed a model
of his break carriage, the buffers of which are formed of strong spiral
springs. The chief object of this invention is to destroy or modify the
efl'ect of collisions by the interposition of ono or more of such carriages
in every train — each of such carriages being calculated to sustain a shock
of 60 tons before any mischief could be done, either to itself, or any other
carriage guarded by it. The breaks are readily applied by the guard iu
charge.

Many of the accidents which have from time to time happened to rail-
way trains have been owing to imperfect axles; of late, therefore, much
attention has been paid to producing axles of gi-eat strength, and which
may be relied on.

The Patent Axletree Company exhibited specimens of their patent
axles, and also contributed illustrations of the different stages of the
manufacture.

The other exhibitors of axles were Messrs. Q. B. Thomycroft and Co.,
the well-known Wolverhampton firm ; Beechcroft, Butler, and Co. ;
Messi-s. Woi-sdell and Co., the carriage builders of Warrington ; J. Squire
and Co. ; and Messra. Beechcroft and Co., in particular, exhibited not fewer
than twenty-eight different kinds of axles steeled with hard metal bushes,
case-hardened with milled bushes, &c.

There was a large display of railway carriage wheels, in most of which,
however, we recognised the well-known double spoke pattern of the old
house of Losh, Wilson, and Bell, GJateshead ; or, at any rate, modifications
thereof, though the mode of manufacture iu some of the cases is entirely
different from that practised by the Gateshead firm as above.

On our survey of the British railways some twelve years since, we
found the wheels principally used throughout the kingdom were those
of Losh, Hawks, Cottam, and Bramah respectively, all of wrought iron ;
Warrington's, of cast U'on ; and the Liverpool and Manchester wooden
wheel, with wro-jght iron tires ; there was also a perforated cast-iron disc
wheel, but it was not extensively used.

The exhibitors of railway wheels were Sandford and Owen, of Rother-
ham; T. Spencer, of Tipton; Beechcroft, Butler, and Co., of Leeds;
Banks and Chambers, of Manchester ; F. Lipscombe, of London ; East-
wood and Frost, of Derby ; W. Wharton, of the Euston Station ; and
R. C. Marshall, of Ashford ; J. C. Haddon, of London, whose papier
mdcke panels we have already mentioned, contributed railway wheels
with wrought iron naves; and Greaves sent his patent wheels, having
eight wooden spokes let into tho nave at one end, and into cast-iron
sockets forming part of the rim at the other. The appearance of these
wheels is very similar to that of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway
wooden wheel, already alluded to.

Messi*3. Sandford and Co.'s wheel is of wrought iron, 3 feet in diameter,
welded into one piece, and executed by machinery — a neat and safe
production. Contiguous was one of their 3-feet fj-inch wheels, the spokes
of which ai'e welded to an inner rim, which is turned, and the tire shrunk
on and secured in the ordinary manner.

Mr. Spencer, the manufacturer, exhibited Chamber's patent wrought-
iron wheel, of eight spokes, four projecting from one side of the nave to
the rim, and four on the other. This form possesses novelty, and is not
deficient in strength.

Messrs. Beechcroft and Company, of the Kirkstall Forge, near Leeds,
made a great display of wheels and axles in Class V. of the Great Exhi-
bition ; and in Class I, many specimens of railway tire-bar, bent cold, in
forged state, to show toughness, soimdness, and strength of material; to
show fibre iu fractm'e; to show mode of manufacture and soundness. Iu
the same class they also exhibited the best double fagoted carriage axles,
bent cold, to show toughness, soundness, and strength of material ; aud
other axles, to show manufacture and soundness. But to return to their
wheels in Class V. This firm contributed a variety of wheels for the
purpose of showing those mostly used on railways at the present time ;
thus, we find wheels entirely of wrouglit iron 3 feet in diameter, some
having single, and some double spokes — the boss, spokes, and rim being
forged solid in one piece ; these wheels m'e especially calculated for the
carriages of fast aud express trains. Then there were compound wheels,
made of wrought iron and cast iron, of various constructions, calculated
We also found wheels with wrought-iron disc centres.

run without noise." Even if these advantages could be obtained, the
additional expense will prevent their general adoption,

Eastwood and Frost exhibited a segment of a r.ilway wheel produced
from a rolled bar, with the boas, arms, and tire complete.

Mr. Mansell states that his wheel, which he designates a safety-wheel,
has its tire so secured that no part of it can leave the wheel in ca&e of
breakage.

Mr. Haddon showed different kinds of wheels ; those of nine gpokefi,
made of straight bars turned down at their ends, to form a solid nave—
the other end of each spoke being turned down to fonu a solid rim.
Wheels of this patt«m are manufactured by Fox, Hender-on, and Co.
Secondly, those with segmental bars ; and, thirdly, compound radU of
wrought iron and wood, the nave being of wrought iron, formed by swell-
ing the ends of the spoke bars, the wood consisung of wedges driven in
between.

DESIGN FOR A MOKTIMENT.

Mr. Baker, a young artist, of Southampton, exhibited a new design for a
monument, intended as an improvement upon the ordinary run of tomb-
stones and mural tablets so much in vogue. It ia a Gothic compositioa,
intended to stand some 20 feet high, though the model is only 4 feet 3
inches high, and is of Caen stone. In form it is triangular, and at the

for ordinary trains.

disked, flanged, and punched all at one process, by liydraulic pressure, .

the bosses beiug of solid wrought iron, aud the thes dovetailed to the the name of the party to be inserted. . ---.

rims, which aro Hanged; thus the use of rivets is superaoded. find some patrons amongst those who aave atasto tor tms sort oi y

corners are figures of the cai-dmal virtaeg— Faith, Hope, and Chanty: with
appropriate texts from Scripture underneath each. On the pnucipal panel
the usual formulary— " In memory of '^— is already iuacribed. leamg omy
'Mr. Baker will, wo have no douM,

The pecuHavity of tho wheels "of Banks and Chambers is the insertion humous display : but.for ourowu part, weconfesswethink that arthasbwu

■ - ■ ■ . ■ . ■ , . n . , . , i _ _ 1, -„: |-yj

lowe
lea.^
silent" wheels of Mr. Lipscombe consist of the ordmary spokes ; sentiment In a sanitary point ^^^^'^"'^^^j";*;^,''^^,* '^"^nfh.c^'oT trees .^i

and uiiamoers is tne insertion numous uispiay ; vu.\., loi uui u«u i™«, ..« ,,««.«« ..-

of steel segments in that part of the tiro which is most exposed to fric- i already too much misappHod ia these mattere; whilst "^^"'■*;*," ,. - p,

' ^ " „„^ i i«,.h t.hi^V «„rl «rA l«k ■ simple everlastings and flowers, would afford a tribute from tbo iivm^ j"

I the dead much more plea.^ng in effect, and much more '••'^«SJ^n'« J"
' sentiment In a sauitarv point of view, also, such a change ^^'o"''' ''f„"1

tion ; these segments are 2J inches wide, and j inch thick, and are let j simple everlastings au'
into dovetailed chases.

Tho "silent wheela ui an-, j^iuauomuu t;ouBi3b oi mo wiuiu^iij opuiht^o ^ (»juviu^^»» -■- ——--.- — .■ i- — - • ■ ■ t't\ir nf trecs-'uit

feeing enclosed with slieet iron on either aide, and the intermediate spuccs i unimport-ant, it being now well ascertained that the r'a^""« °^ ' "^j j,,
filled in with wood. The inventor says tho object he has iu view ia to i ttowers in bnryingsrounds u of positive sorvico to mo iiou>"
prevent vibration while the wheels ai-e in motion ; " thus causing them to j neighbom-hood.

AN ILLUSTllATI']]) CYCLOPAEDIA OP THE GREAT EXIIUMTION OP 1851.

:u;::

U),'Iit iiinler public noMsiilonilioii, luid (•Kpiiciiilly oiio wliicli, iiltliougli
I cninriictorH ill Maik Lanu aro familiar witli it, in \>y iiu iiiuaiw ii uiattur
iiiiviraal iKitiiriety — tlio liigli clianictur ami oxcoUuiico of tlio wheat that
iiM ti) us from our South Australian colouios. Thero is now bufoie us a
iplii of wlioat froui Ailelaiilo, for which wo are iuilobtoil to the kindness
Messrs. Heath and Jiurrows, wliich is probably tlui must beautiful speci-
u of corn that has over boon broutjlit to market in any country. It is a
ill! wheat, in wliicli every grain appears to bo liko every other gi-iin —
ini]i, olear-skinncd, dry, and heavy weighing, what may scein incredible
Ihnso wlio aro only accustomed to comiui>n wheal, seventy jiounds a
iliel. And it appears that Adelaide is capable of yielding vast quantities
corn of this description, which takes tbo lead iu tho markets of this
mtry over all other whito wheats.

' It is very true that from S|iain tlicro has como a similar kind of wheat,
i^reat excellence also, .as is seen by this beautiful sami)lc from Castile, from
^ mayor of Medina del Canipo, the weight of wdnch is unknown, and not
y to oatimato, because it is not a clean sample. This is cort.iinly of great
;ollenco also ; but, independently of its being the produce of a foreign
nili'v, it is almost inaccessible to us, and, therefore, a matter of curiosity
ire than of practical value, because, owing to the difficulty of transport,
:'annot at present como into the markets of this kingdom. If it could,
isidering that it sells in Old Castile at 24«. a quarter, it is not easy to say
at might bo the eft'ect upon the English market of the introduction of
1' large quantity of it. We find moreover, that similar quantities of wheat,
)wing in the same rich country of Spain, are vendible at much lower rates.
' I liave already said, that among the wheats produced in the Exhibition.
vt from our South Australi.au colonies is the best — that it is much tho
it. And hero let me make a remark on that subject. It has been sup-
5eil that all we have to do iu tins country, iu order to obtain on our
glish farms wheat of the same quality .as tins magnificent Australian corn,
io proc\ire tho seed and sow it here. There cannot be a gi'eater mistake,
c wheat of Australia is no peculiar kind of wheat; it has no pecvdiar
istilutioual characteristics by which it may be in any way distinguished
ni wheat cultivated iu this country: it is not essentially different from

fine wheat which Prince Albert seufc to the Kxhibitiou, or from others
iich we grow or sell. Its qualitj' is owing to local conditions, that is to
:, to the peculiar temperature, the brilliant light, the soil, and those other
cumstauces which characterise the climate of South Australia, in which
is produced; and, therefore, thero would be no advantage gained by
.roduciug this wdicat for the purpose of sowing it here. Its value consists
what it is iu South Australia, not in what it would become in England,
reality, the espei'iment of growing such corn has been tried. I myself
taiued it some yeai's since for the purpose of experiment, and the result
,s a very inferior description of corn, by no means so good as the kinds
Qcrally cultivated with us. And Messrs. Heath and Burrows, in a letter
ich I have received from them this morning, make the same remark,
ey say, ' For seed purposes it has been found not at all to answer iu
jland, the crop therefrom being ugly, coarse, and bearded.' The truth

as was just observed, the peculiarities of South Australian wheat are
t constitutionpJ, but are derived from climate and soil. It appeai-s,
reforo, that wheat may be afl'ected by climate, independently of its con-
tutioii.il peculiarities: but it does uot follow tliat wheat is not subject to
istitutioual peculiarities like other plants. Thero are some kinds of
cat which, do what you m.ay with them, will retain a certain quality,
ying but slightly with the circumstances under wdiich they are pi-o-
ced ; as, for example, is proved by some samples here, especially of
vitt wheat, of a very fine description, exhibited iu the building byllr.
ync, and which is greatly superior to the ordmary kinds of Revitt tnat

car at market. This clearly shows that Revitt wheat of a certain kind
I quality is better than Revitt wheat of a different kind, both beiu"
Dduced in this country; so that, circumstances being equal, we have a
"eient result, owing to some constitutional peculiarity of race. To other
anqdesof the kind I cannot at present refer, because time will not permit

to dwell upon such points."

WARDIAN CASES.
"T various parts of the Great Exhibition Building were to be seen live
plants, growing, in some instances, under handsome ghiss shades, and in
ler cases in glass frames, of so unprepossessing an appearance that one
ght naturally be at a loss to account for the reason why so uniuterestiuf
object had been sent to tlie World's Fair. These contrivances are called
irdian cases ; it having been first discovered by Mr. Ward, that by them
luts can be transported to and from distant regions of the globe, and also
it by their aid the Londoner can succeed in growing a few (lowers to
eer his habitatiou. Some years ago we remember to have seen the vessel
3ut to start to survey the settlement of Adelaide, in Australia, and we
re much delighted to see two or three of these cases filled with small
iseberry and currant trees, in order that the emigrants might enjoy those
licious fruits which we have in such peifcction iu this country ; and now
a week passes but ships arrive bringing plants from the remotest
bitable regions in these Wardian cases, which have thus conferred upon
a power of procuring exotic vegetable productions, which before their
-reduction was never possessed. These cases form, as it were, a little
rid of themselves, in which those who cidtivate plants may observe many
juliarities. From being closed, the heat of the sun bestows upon them
ery high temperatm-e at times, and the hygi-ometric state of the atmo-
lero within vaxies according to circumstances, in a manner which may

interest Uie cultivator of plantB, and give bim amplo mcami to oxorcimi Liii
observation and talent.

In London but very few plaiitH will thrive. The Oriunt.il piano rears itn
head in tlio heart of the City, in Cheapside, and forms a »tut«ly tree.
liusscUaquaro and Uuildfonl street exhibit, oIko, nublu specimens of thin
beautiful tree ; but coniiut; into leaf late, and shedding itii foliage early,
it is not so susce|itible of those iQilueDces which iojuru other pluitd. Tho
lime tree will also partially Uourish ; and iu the very centre of tho Bank
two noble and ancient limes shade tho parlour from tlio neorching suu of
summer, and yearly cast forth dclicioas perfume from abundant flowers.
Witli these exceptions, flowera and vegetablo sti-ucturos can scarce bo
cultivated in London, except with the aid of a Ward's cxse. Iteaiding in
the very centre of the metropolis, we now write with two beautiful Ward's
cases before us, which exliibit the mo-t luxuriant foliage. Iu th&w case.'i
we have at this moment the beautiful wax plant, or J/oy<i camout, in
abundant Ilower. Wo have recently introduced tho newly imported and
lovely Jfoija Imlla, which is .also uowiu Ilower ; and the odoriferous Fraciaea
Uopeana is always ready to refresh us by its sceut on opening tho door of
the case. We have five species of Lympodia, which gratify the eye by
their luxuriant green ; and no less than fifteen or sixteen species of exotic
ferus gliiddeu the eye by their charming forms, their verdant foliage, and
luxuriant appe;iranee. The leaves of the Maranta bicolnr, never soiled by
wet, are of surpassing beauty : and several species oi Achemcnes are rapidly
growing to display their brilliant colours in the latter part of summer.
Many of our plants have been iu their present situation for ten years. In
one of the cases exhibited was a specimen of tho celebrated Irisli fern
growing in full health, and the lovely little Tuubridge Wells filmy fern also
luxuriating. Our country friends will, doubtless, be much surprised when
they aro told that a small plant of the former fern, which grows wild in the
British isles, fetches from ton to thirty shillings in Loudon. The sale of
ferns and native orchids has become a trade in London.

Mr. Marshall has lately constructed a Wardian aquatic else, wherein he
grows many curious plants, and the miniature pond is overhimg by
ferns, which, doubtless, will thrive well iu that situation. By simply pre-
venting the access of tlie Loudon smoke to injure the leaves, we have this
year succeeded in growing cucumbers iu the very centre of the metropolis,
showing what may be effected when the deleterious gases which emanate from
the combustion of coal are prevented from exercislug their baneful induence.

SILVER Vase, lv odiot,

Of very elegant design, and eli(i«tely executed.

364

THK CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

..,c.*^

STATE BEDSTEAD.— FAUDEt, AND PHILLIPS, NEWGATE-STREET.

STATE BEDSTEAD,

BY FAUDEL AND PHILLIPS, NEW-
GATE-STREET.

Messrs. Faudel and Phil-
lips exhibited a State
Bedstead of needlework,
produced principally from
British materials, worked
entirely by Englishwomen
in London, including al-
most every description of
ornamental needlework,
the object of the exhi-
bitors being to open a
source of profitable em-
ployment, and to train a
portion of our industrious
female community. It is
a gaudy affair, and by no
means the sort of bed we
sliould choose for a quiet
nap. At the same time,
its costliness and origina-
lity claim for it a some-
wliat detailed notice. On
the footboard is a copy
of (Juido's " Aurora," in
worked tent-stitch, with
split wool. To produce
many of the tints, split
threads of various hues
have been twisted toge-
ther by the workers. This
one piece contains up-
wards of 700 shades and
1,053,000 stitches. The
tester, or head-piece, is
worked in cross, Gobelin,

GOTHIC CHAIR. -

ME.XICAiJ FIUUKES.- MO.N'TAXARI.

UOFIMEISIER, SASE-OOBURO.

and raised stitches wil
wool, silk, twist, and ch
nille. The centre is c
pied from Thorvvaldsen
" Night." It is suspeudi ■
from a wreath of flowe
selected from and embl
matic;d of all nations, tit
together by laurel, iv;
and myrtle, emblematic t
peace. The fruits an
breadstuff's of the worl
united are raised wor.
and copied from Raffaelle
ornaments in the Logg,
of the Vatican, but groupe
to be appropriate to tl:
present subject. Thei
are here, in all, fifty-foi
different flowers. The U]
per valences or hanginf
are entirely iu silk ch
nille, manufactured i
Spitalfields. But it was
great error in taste an
judgment to attempt rt
presenting on a flat surfac
the folds of velvet drapt
ries, supported by worke
cords, &c. It is a deoe)
tiou which offends when
is found out. The ceiling
designed by M. Boitein
represents angels watcl
ing over the sleepers, ani
holding wreaths of rose
over them; this, as als
the inner cornices, are i

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OP TIIR CHEAT EXHIBITION OF IR.-],

3r,r,

■ sticli. Tho curtains firo worked on white watorod Irinh poplin, llio
L'li of the cmbroi<lery ao arranged an not to show a join ; they are 12
l^y 9 foot. Tho cover or coinitisrpano is a junction, as it were, of all
p;irts ; this, as also tho curtains, have boon dosipfned by M. Boitoux,
( rintondont of tho work dopartincnt of tlio exhibitors, Tho bedstead
iirvcd wood, gilt in tho LouIh li\mtorzo stylo.

OOTIIIO PA NIT., BY THOMAS.

Tnis Oothie pnnci is good in dcni)^ and fairly executed.

OENTRR-PIECK, DT mOMENTMEUBICE.

Trim map^nificent production is emblematic of the seasons bestowing
thoir fruits upon tho earth, which is supported by sea monsters. Tho
work is admirably executed in the ripouwi or punctured style.

Gumnj i'A.NEL. TUUMAS.

CENTRE-rlECE. — FKOMENT-MEDRIOE.

BRACELET, BY BOUILLETTE, HYOCLINE AND CO.

TnE bracelet by Bouillette and Co., is one of the numerous specimens
f light imitative jewelleiy for which our French neighbours are so famous.

MEXICAN FrOURES, BY M. MONTANARL

We have already spoken of M. Moutanari's collection of Mexican figures,
nd of Madame Montanari's wonderful dolls, of which latter we presented
ur readers with a group. We now give a miniature representation of
ome two or three dozen of the Mexican figures — productions copied with
xtreme accuracy of form and colour after local originals, and therefore
xtremely interesting as well as ornamental. We cannot help remarking,
?hen contemplating these very accurate and amusing productions, and

recollecting the equally remarkable models in the Indian department, that
the power of Imitation to an extent almost to be delusive is compatible
with the total absence of all those higher principles which constitute the
vitality of high art.

GOTHIC CHAIR. — HOFFMEISTER, SASE-OOBDBG.

Upon this chair (the material of which is oak, covered with brown
plush) a gi'eat deal of decorative fancy has been lavished; not, however,
in our opinion, successfully. Tiie incongruity of the devices must strike
every beholder — griffins at our elbows, and ministering angels at our ears.
The chair is certainly somewhat overdone, and has not a comfortable look.
The can'ing, however, is very well executed.

366

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

FOREIGN ANb CbLONlAL 5EPARTMENTS.

TURKEY.
THE contributions from Turkey were exhibited in a bay at the nortb-east
angle of the transept, where by their gorgeous variety of bright colours
and embroidery, they produced a very striking effect in the general coup
d' ml on entering the building. Apart altogether from its intrinsic worth,
is, moreover, the interest naturally attaching to the industi-y and produc-
tions of an empire the condition of which must always be regarded by the
Englishman as of vital importance. Turkey justly looks to Great Britain
as one of the foremost, the sincerest, and the most potent of her allies and
friends ; while Great Britain cannot feel indifferent to all that illustrate.?
the internal condition of an empire that fills up so much of the va.st space
intervening between our Indian dominions and the central countries of
Europe —an empu'e which includes within her territory the mouths of the
Euphrates and the shores of the Persian Gulf on the one hand, and on the
other divides with Austria the kingdom of Croatia.

In complete contrast to the wonderful extent and variety of the raw
products of om' colonies are those of Turkish industry ; for in many of them
we distinctly i-ecognise a closer analogy to what the ancients have left behind
us of their domestic manners than can be discovered even in modern Italy ;
for, while in the revival of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries
completely modified Italian manners, much of the anci^^nt forms foimd by
the Moslems in the countries which they conquered have been left with
little alteration. Of this no one can doubt who has looked at the collection
in question, from the brass lamp with its scissors, pincers, and bodkin, to
the arabesque plaster moulding and other slightly altered traditions of the
world, of which the excavations of Pompeii have given us such interesting
glimpses.

But it is not the conquerors of the Empii'e of the East that entwine
themselves with our modern sympathies. Gibbon, with all his rhetorical
splendour, illumines, but does not vivify the Amrus. the Saladins. and the
Amuraths. Uhland, in one of his most exquisite sonnets (" Kaiser und
Dichter "), contrasts the duration of the conquests of princes and bards ;
and all must agree with him, who h.ive visited this collection, and think
less of those who trod over gi'&it monaichies than of those who depicted
the manners and superstitions of the Orientals. IS'ot one in a Inmdred of
those who 'S'isited these interesting collections, remembers that three
centuries ago all Europe quaked with terror at the name of the Grand Turk,
and that Solyman the Magnificent Wivs an even more powerful Sovereign than
Charles V. ; but all remember, and none ever will forget, the heroes and
heroines of the " Arabian Nights Entertainments." The Ottoman Empire
is now an essential part of the "grand tour;" and. therefore, many who
paced the Crystal Palace may have had comparatively little new to see in
the Turkish department : but these few form, after all, an insignificant
portion of the hundreds of thousands who have never seen either the Black
Sea or the White Sea, the desert, or the palm grove ; but are, nevertheless,
familiar with the sayings and doings of the guarded city of Bagdad, from
the street porter with his weary burthen, to the Caliph himself attended
by Jaifar the Barmecide and the redoubtable Mesroua-el-Siaf. It is. there-
fore, the latter portion of our fellow-countrymen that we invite to accompany
us in a tour through the objects that appeared on the tables and in the stalls
contributed by all parts of the Ottoman Emph-e.

Prominent in the centre of the tahles stood a large machine of glittering
brass and of elegant form, which looked like a huge tea-urn. Tiiis was a
mangal or brazier, for charcoal, with which apartments are heated in winter.
People in England may abuse our climate as they choose, but they may
rest assured that in many respects it is not easy to find a better, for we are
neither roasted in summer nor frozen in winter ; and at Christmas time
recommend us to the sun of Wall's End or Newcastle-upon-Tyne, which
blazes in every snugly carpetted English parlour, to the charcoal of the
most elegant mangal that ever was constnicted. The mangal stands in the
centre of the roouj. and a coverlet being thrown over it, the ladies of the
hareem sit around it in a circle, and thus warm themselves in a manner not
the most healthy or improving to the complexion. Beside the mangals are
the basins and ewers, such as are used for washing before and after food —
the servant holding the former in his left hand, while the water is poured
out with his right. Here, too, were sherbet cups, the Bohemian practice of
gilding stained glass having been originally borrowed from the East ; and
we need scarcely say that the European offspring excels by a long way the
Oriental parent. But those shown at the Exhibition Were creditable to the
manufactory of Ingekyoi. It is climate that suggests the quality of diluents ;
and while the North is cunning in the distillation of strong liquors, the
South is equally remarkable for the ingenuity with which cooling drinks
are compounded, from the choice lemonade and orgeat to the delicious
chopped ice slierbet with the orange- flower flavour. Let it not be supposed
that it is only in idleness and in the arts of pleasing that the ladies of the
East pass their time ; here, to be sure, were ingenious cosmetic boxes, with
various compartments for the different dyes used in adornment: they are
equally skilled in the useful and domestic arts, and the ladies of the highest

rank are acquainted with the art of preparing such drinks. In that of pre
paring fl-uits they even excel our cfwh housewives, and a very large mother
o'pearl frame for embroidery reminds us that the most beautiful dresJfc
of the wealthiest classes are the product not of the professed mUlinfer, btf
of the domestic hareem.

The military character of the Turks was sufficiently recognisable in Ihi
collection, many objects showing them to be essentially a nation that mount
much on horseback, lives much under tents, and has adapted its habits t<
military locomotion. Every one who has lived in a Turkish camp, or ha
seen how easily Turkish troops are moved, is impressed with the adaptatioi
of their habits to this phase of life. It would take too mtich space ti
enumerate the articles illustrative of this part of our subject : their cam)
dishes fitting into each other and easily portable, their lanterns that shutu]
and open out like magic, and many other articles, show that with th.
Orientals there is not, as with the European, that broad line of distinctioi
between the habits of residence and the habits of locomotion that exists i)
the West. It is not merely the aboriginal and nomade habits that accoun
for this; there is a political reason : the constant lear of the great diguitarie
of the empii-e acquiring a formidable local influence, causes a perpetua
circle of recalls and nominations in order to maintain in efficiency th
functions of the central Government ; this produces a great deal of move
ment from one end of the em])ire to the other on the part of thoS
dignitaries, military and civil, who in the Ottoman Empire stand in tb
place of a hereditary aristocracy. Thus, whatever is portable, wliethS
diamonds, carpets, or fhawls, is prized ; hence, too, the expensive velvet
and gold embroidery bestowed on their saddles. And instead of such por
derous fixtures as the European writing desk, the pianoforte, and the orgai
there is the diminutive cocoa-nut, or brass inkstand and pens for the hour
of business, or for tlie hours of diversion there is the light reeinay or fluti
the lute, or the violin, of the most primitive construction, such as one
in the productions of the very early Italian painters.

But we are getting into a tangled web of philosophy, instead of proceedinj
with our catalogue raisonne of the different objects. An examination of th
collection of beads repaid trouble — the habit of passing beads through th
fingers being as inveterate with many Turks as the perpetual wood-whitliHi
of a Kentucky man ; we have even known an individual who weaned himSSli
from this practice, and yet never met another person with beads without bem
unable to resist the old temptation, and beg for them to pass through hi
fingers.

Fezes from Tunis and Egypt there were in abundance, and also plenty (
stuffs for wrapping round them hanging in various parts of the collectior
from simple cotton to fine shawl ; but we saw no regularly wound and mad
up turban, such as is worn in the East, but a not uninteresting substitut
in one of stone or plaster, such as usually adom the cemetries of the Turki

The water-pipes are uncommonly beautiful; we mean those in wliic
Bagdad timback is smoked through snaked-formed tubes, and which fror-
the noise produced by the passage of the air through the water is common!
called the hubble-bubble. In those vases and in the snakes are foun'
a skilful attention to efiects of colour ; and if we p.ass to other objects, sue
as dresses, shawls, scarfs, girdles, we may remark that the suitableness c
very bright and contrasted colours to these warmer climates, springs fror
the semi-obscurity of apartments partially d.arkened to exclude the heat an
light of the sun. It was the Venetians that most fully understood thi
phiise of the beautiful. Hence, in consequence of the limpid depth of hi
shadows, the boldest colours of Paul Veronese never shock us, which i
certainly more th.an can be said of Rubens, with all his genius and facility
and this peculiar quality of the Venetian school could never be attained h\
northern painters living in climates where every effort is made to get ai
much of the suu as possible, nor by any set of men whose eyes are no
educated to the effect of brilliant colours^in every variety of sombre shadow
From tracing the connexion of Venice with tlie manufactures of the Levant
so frequently introduced into the A'cnetian pictures ; the observation of th
relation of the Lev.aut to the arts of Italy cannot be considered as a huroqti
transition, and those who take an interest in the old pottery of Facuza ma;
remark the prevalence of that Faenza-like green and yellow in the rude
pottery of Tunis.

Such observations are made for the many who paid their shilling, anc
not for the season-ticket holders, who have lounged up and down the Levant
and may have made such remarks for themselves ; but even to the homm
blase, in relation to Oriental life, there was much to fix attention. A jar o
dates is a jar of dates, but certainly a common jar of Barbary dates has no
the same interest for us as one from Medina, grown under the aeronautica
sarcophagus of the prophet himself One jar of curdhnl mil): is like another
but when we know that the one before us is that of an African ostrich, i<
ceases to be common milk.

" Would you like to give a guinea fot one of those spoons ? " said a friend
who conducted us through this portion of the Exhibition.

"'We should be very sorry,"

" Well, there is one that you cannot have for less than 30?. sterling."

We saw that it was not of tortoise-shell nor of ivory, but something o:

cxccBsivery fine texture, between the two, and learned that it was a beak

of the spdon-bill heron, a bird now so rare that it promises to become .at nc

I distant date as extinct as the Megatherium or the Ichthyomurv^. Even the

1 specimens of ingenuity degenerating into the baroque were not without

' interest: here was a wooden chain, each link perfect without a joining, and

cut out of one piece of wood, a piece of laborious handicraft. On seeing

a shirt almost stiff with gold lace, we were reminded of the quaint pages oJ

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOI'/TIDTA OF THE GREAT KXHIRITIOX OF isr,].

;ir,7

ley's "Doctor," who on reading of Bomo man who had a ehirt of gold
I Hhirt of Rilvpr-thrcad. declared hiRprofcrpncn for the porhaps unkingly

re coinfcirtiililn tiellicr paniiont of Kl;iiidpra linon. And niurh n.H wo

praised tlio Tiirkisli aptitude for the portable, it was scarcoly witliout
ili^ tliat we passed tho odd combination of a chiboucjuo and tlio crutch
I invalid.

it it WHS not merely the gratifieation of a fastidious curiosity th.it
ired a visit to tho Turkish collection attractive ; it was in fact tho best
iiost interesting lesson in physical and connnerci:il geography, in relation
largea part of tlie worlil. that hashithcrtoheen o(feri'd in tliis metropolis.
.'V lias neither tho scattereii colonies, such as the Hritith empire, nor
lie the vast extent of territory possessed by Russia ; but no sttite in the
I is, to use a German phrase, so many-sided, or presents such contrasts
'i'luctinns and manners in conseqnenco of the diversities of hrr nations
■liniatcis; and her vast contiguous territory is rather nded by Turks
cpiickly settled by them, lor they are rather the compierors than the
lista of the wide territories stretching from the Caucasus to Algeri.T,
tho Adriatic to the Persian Gulf Most travellers dilate very largely
11' vieoR and corruptions of tho Tiirkish administration of tho variois
rtments of government ; but it cannot be denied, thai, altliough the
h of govomraent is less regular than in Europe, tho State itself is
lilt the burthen of a national debt : that tlio internal taxation, although
imewhat arbitrary in application, is, upon the whole, very light. The
rincipal cause of this is the very large revenue which she derives from a
lale of customs duties lixed upon solely with a view to revenue, and not
[ln]ited to produce an artificial scarcity favour.able to the few who h.^ve to
ill a particular commodity, and injurious to tho general interests.
AVe usually associate the Ottoman dominions with heat rather th.au with
Id ; but there was exhibited an elegant sledge from Jassy. the capital of
loldavia. which showed not only the love of luxury in the boy.ars of that
rincip.ality. but reminded us that Russian vicinity has imprinted Russian
lannera on apart of the Ottoman empire, which, from its level plains and
■ver" winter, in no way belongs to the East a^ sung by the Byron?. Ooethes,
id Moores, ami which, if it has neither the aj^re skies of summer climes,
as, throughout tho length and breadth of its territory, the thick rich
luvial soil which makes the plains of the north of the Black Sea a granary
' all Europe, and procures for the boyars of those principalities incomes
LP exceeding those of the average of the impo'S'erisheil '>}ohIfS!<e of the
iintinent of Europe. "We therefore see that the manufactures of those
arts spring from their economical circumstances; they have neither silks
orvelvets, but their wax-lights and other modifications of native productions
irprise by their cheapness.

If we cross the Danube into Turkey in Europe we find in this Exposition
.par.atively little to remind us that Temovo. a city of Bulgaria, was, at
end of la-st century, one of the most active manufacturing towns in
•ope. But we find in Turkey much the same phenomenon as in India —
ire immensity of British capital and machinery has swallowed tip the
ialler industries, as the Large fishes eat the small, and the two thousand
loras of Teruovo have fallen down to a mere remnant. Tho Turkish
Ixpositiou wa-s, therefore, less remarkable for its mauufactures than for
o,-;e .articles in which we see patient and ingenious handicraft exercised
pon manufactures, such as the embroidery of female articles of dress, among
hich wo may specify gold upon /i light blue ground, silk of various colours
orked upon white muslin, and the winter dresses, remarkable for their
legance, the best combination of which is black silk upon a chocolate
round.

In Albaui.T, that land of mountain warfiire, it were vain to expect the
JSults of either capital or machinery. The turbulent character of the
opulation is brought to our observation by the excessive el.iborateness of
leir rifles and pistols, which are as much an object with a wealthy Albanian
a horse to an Ar.ab, or a carriage and a box at the French theatre to the
oyar of the principalities.

In the va.st plains of Roumelia, we observe signs of a climate more genial
lan that of the principalities, and of a population less turbulent than that
f Albania. The sight of the cotton and tobacco of Macedonia was plea-santly
jlieved by the fragrant odour of otto of roses from Kasanlik, The heavy
•tides of export were not so much from the capital itself as from Salonika,
myrna, and other ports. The capital is the receptsicle of a large in.Ts3 of
riti--h, French, and Austrian manufactures, annually exported to Turkey,
ut it is at these other ports that vessels seek their return cargoes.
As a place of manufacture, Constantinople itself is a sort of Paris to the
astern world, and productive rather of the diversified objects of luxuriant
jnvenience adapted to Eastern usages than of articles of first necessity,
hich recommend themselves by cheapness .and general use. For instance,
le cymb.ols of our military band were ori^iually intro'luced fi-om the East,
hich is shown by the habit of the cymbal players in various European
:lnies still wearing an Oriental costume ; ,and we were amused on seeing
a English inscription, rudely engraved on a pair, which runs as follows : —
This sort of zieh was invented by Mr. Kevork, a.d. 1 730 ; and the pTe.9i?tit
us been manufactured by his grandson's grandson, Mr. Kii'kov, a.b. IS51.
samatia, Constantinople."

After contemplating the very neat model of a Bosphorns kai'k, and having
rosscd this marvellous .and beautiful river of salt-water, flowing between its
mbrageous banks to the Sea of Marmora, we occupied ourselves with the
siatic portion of the Ottoman contributions, which is still more highly
ivoured by climate, richer in classical associations, not less remark.able for
itural capabilities, having mineral and agricultural wealth — much of it,

St 1

■Xro]

alas, too dormant considering its advantages ! — being bordered with
most excellent ports from Trobizond and Sainsoun round to Marmoricc,
.and other jiorts on her Houthcrn const, which everywhere present thcinwdveK
to facilitate communication. Hero wa.s tho copper of tho mines of Tokat ;
hero was tho excellent sword cutlery of Adana; hero waji the wealth
of tho waters of the Archipcliffo, the sponge torn up from the depths of tho
Mediterranean by tho boldnl»«l and Ingenuity of the diver, with the still
adhering oyster ; here waa tho large black wheat of Konich, the ancient
ca|iital of Turkish power, long before the Rons of Orchan became the terror
of iMiiopo ; and hero, too, were tliosc large and excellent Turkey carpets,
which stand their ground to .fucccstfuUy against the skill and capital of our
o\ri\ Kiddiiniiii''tcr.

We now make haste to cross the Tanrns, and gtt into Syria, irhich has
much to interest both in the way of natural productions and manufac-
tures. The tobacco of Latakia is still beyond all comparison tho boBt
either of the New or the Old World ; for no American tobacco is in
delicacy of flavour ecpial to tli.at gi'own in the mountains I'Ctwcen Tripoli
and this place. Tho .silks of Mount Lebanon and of P.roussa, in A«a
Minor, were also put together, and were well worthy of .an examination.
Tho silk of Syria luis been until lately unsuited for exportation to Eng-
land, in consequence of its being long reel ; but, latterly, by the exertions
of M. Portal is, a French merchant in Beyrout, and of the .active and
ingenious Messrs. Barker, of Aleppo, sons of our late well-known Consul-
Gencral in Egypt, manufactories, with improved machinery, have been
established by the former firm in Mount Lebanon, and by the latter gen-
tleman at Suediah, near the mnuths of the Orontes, with such results as
to leave no doubt of the advantages likely to accrue from an extension of
British capital in this direction.

If we ]),ass from the coast to the interior, the great cities of Damascus
and Aleppo arrest our attention by their manufactures of mixed silk,
cotton, and gold thread, which are equally remarkable for their richness,
their elegance, .and their subst.antial strength, being universally used for
the holiday dresses of tho inhabitants Of those countries ; the ingenuity
and machinery of France and England having produced no fihcceasfal
imitation, these native manufacture-s, .along with those of silk sashes for
turbans and girdles at Tripoli (.Syria), still continue to vegetate, although
certainly in a decayed condition. In Aleppo this manufacture is mostly
in the hands of the Christians, the shameful plunder and outrage of
whom host year by the fanatical Moslems, being a blow from ifrhich it
will be long licfore they recover. Of other manufactures, the saddle from
Damascus is characteristic of the country, but does not give a favourable
idea of the ingenuity of the Damascenes. What a European most prizes
is their excellent preserved fruit, the whole territory that surrounds the
town being one vast orchard, intersected by the seven-armed Barrada:
while the principal art and handicraft of the place — which is that of
mosaic pavements, the beauty of which strikes all strangei-s — is not of
a nature offering capability of being sho'.vn in an Exhibition such as we
describe.

As for Arabia — that waterless land of stones, sand, camels, and starved
shrubs — so lacking in com, wine, ;md oil — so contrasting to Egypt with
her flesh-pots, .and fertile rather in rhymes and metaphysics than in the
good things of this world — it certainly has very little to show ; bui, as a
natural production, the coffee of Mocha is not to bo despised, and what
hunian work of art has ever even .approached the sublime elevation of the
rhythm of the Koran ?

PAWER UACDE VENTirATOR.— BT BIELEFIELD.

368

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS.

SILVER INKSTAND. — LaMBERT AND RAWLINOS.

MINIATURE PIANO VORTE. — MONTAL.'
AVE engrave a little cabinet piano-forte by Mental, as a model
of exquisite taste in ornamental furniture. It is richly embel-
lished in enamel painting, buhl, &c.

SILVER INKSTAND.
LABIBERT & EAWLINGS.

This, is a very
showy affair, almost
too showy for our
taste. In the centre
we have a figm-e of
Britannia ; and, on
either side, smaller
ones of Commerce
and Plenty, executed
in frosted silver, and
which, we presume,
are intended as han-
dles to the covers of
the ink and wafer
bottles. The tray
in front, which is
a shell pattern, is
richly gilt.

CABINET.

BY W. TAN.VEH.

The design of this
Cabinet is very
chaste and elegant,
and is the more
creditable as being
entirely the work of
an operative cabinet-
maker of Bath. The
style of this piece of
furniture is of the
period of Francis I.,
the material Riga
and pollard oak. The
effect, in our opinion,
would have beeu
better if the latter
had been omitted,
and the wood all of
one colour ; as for
the ebony slab, it is
decidedly too heavy
to harmonise mth
the rest of the work.
These are, however,
errors of judgment,
which may easily be
avoided in future.
The finish of all the
parts, the ornamen-
tation of which is
rich without lieavi-
ness or redundancy,
exhibits admirable
workmanship. '*

CABINET. — W. TANNEn.

kAAJ^^^""^ k I *¥*

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

THE HANDS AND FACE OF TUB ELECTRIC CLOCK.

SHEPHERD'S ELECTRIC CLOCK

AT THE GREAT EXHIBITION BUILDING.

gVERY one who approached the Great Exhibition Building from the
South, remarked, and not a few were puzzled by, the appearance of the
dock which surmounted the principal entrance on that side. Some account
of this clock will be equally interesting as a specimen of workmanship in
the department of Horology, and as an application of the electric fluid as a
■"lotive power. But first, it will be proper to speak of the external appear-
ance of this ingenious piece of workmanship as affixed to the Crystal Palace.
No. 24, March 13, 18S2.

In adapting Mr. Shepherd's beautiful Electrical Clock to the external design
of the building in Hyde Park, Mr. Owen Jones, to whom aU matters of
ornament connected with the building were left, ingeniously contrived a
plan by which the conventional form of a circle for the face of the clock
was dispensed with, in order that the elevation of the south end of the
ti'ansept might not be disfigured. In om- Illustration, showing the ai-range-
ment of the hands and figures, it will be seen that the clock-face in the
present instance is a semicircle, ha\Trig, as usual, twelve dirisions, and that
the figure 12 is, also as usual, at the top of the circle. The numbers corres-

Fmce One Penny.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

ponding witli one clock, &c., likewise follow in the usual order : but, as
with one hand only the semi-circular dial would be left without the hour-
hand for intervalsof each alternate twelve hours, a second number 6 has
been added on the west side of the dial, and also a second hour-hand,
which points to the number 6 on the west side, as the fii-st hour hand
leaves the number 6 on the east side. The hour-circle is 24 feet in
diameter. The hands arc of copper, gilt. The minute-hand is 16 feetlong,
purposely shortened eo as not to descend below the fanlight frame. The
13 fifure-plates, which are of zinc, are secured to, and correspond in sliape
withrthe intersectional spaces formed by the second semicircular bar from
the centre, and the radial bare of the great southern fanlight of the transept.
The figures are painted white on a blue ground, in order to harmonise with
the two prevailing coloui-s of the external decoration of the building. The
whole has a very unique and pleasing appeai-ance.

Electrical Clocks are by no means new. We remember to have seen '
more than one in action, many years since, at Mr. Dent's, in the Strand ;
and Bain's Electrical Clocks were fixed in different parts of the house
numbered 345, in the .Strand, when occupied by the Electric Telegraph
Company, and one on his plan at the office of the same company in Lothbury.
There was also one fixed in front of the Polytechnic Institution, in Regent-
street : and several have since been fixed at various private houses. Each

of the two auxiliary clocks was transmitted through copper wires coated
with gutta-percha.

The mechanism of the clock, a view of which was given, was fixed in the
south gallery of the transept, at about 48 feet below the centre of the
dial, and motion communicated to the hands by means of a rod made
up of several lengths of brass tubing screwed together, and of IJ inch
in diameter. The clock-frame is much lighter than usiial, as the ordinary

SIECUAM3M OF THE ELECTRIC CLUCK.

of these last mentioned was worked in connexion with an earth-battery,
which was found, m some cases to afford, if not an uncertain, at any
rate, an insufficient amount of power.

The effect of Mr. Shepherd's improvements in the application of electri-
city to horological purposes has been to attain a greater uniformity and
certainty in the gning of h'm clocks; and, at his establishment in Leadenhall-
street, he has had one of his Electrical Clocks in connexion with a Smee's
battery, at work for the last two years. At Mr. AVood's, Hampstead, and
at other private houses, they have been found to keep excellent time. At
Mr. Paw.son's, St. Pavd's Churchyard, eight of such clocks have been
Euccessfvdly used. The leading features in Mr. Shepherd's Clock are the
application of the wonderful agent electricity to the winding up of the
impulse spring or weight; in order to render the csmpemntt, or impulse
given, certain in its action ; and to improvements in affecting the movement
of the train in order to denote the hours, minutes, and other subdivisions
of time.

In the Great Exhibition Clock, certain alterations in the details of the
magnetic apparatus have been rendered necessary in order to suit the
particular case ; and here we may notice, that, besides the great Electrical
Clock for the transept, which we shall attempt to describe, two dials of
smaller size, one at the east and the other at the west end of the Building,
were also set to work in connoxion wth it. The electric cuirent to each

THE PENDULUiM.

heavy weights are entirely dispensed with. There arc two wheels within
the frame, placed vertically — the escape wheel, to which the power
applied, of 10 inches diameter, and a larger or central vertical wheel,
of 18 inches diameter, working into the pinion on the aibor of the escape
wheel, which is in two parts, the teeth of each part being placed in oppo-
site directions ; on one part the click and ratchet escapement acts being
moved by the electro-magnets, while the teeth of the other part are
employed to lock the train and prevent it running forward from the
action of the wind on the hands. The large wheel revolves once in two

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPiTllDIA OP THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

371

iiiiiiN. tlin Rpltulln of whicli prnjonta bi\yon'! tlio fmino, and cniTlci -.i
lovollod wliGol nf 12 inolip'! diiimotni', pliicpil Vfrtically. which rcvoIvcH
vith it. In order to ^\vo motion to tho vorticiil rod already de.«cril)Of!,
he liov('llo<l vorticftl wliccl worlid into n, eocond bovolii'd wliccl |)l,'icnd
loriznntully ; and above the lii'.-^t, on tho axin of tlio iioriznntal bevellod
liccl, tlio vertical roil or shaft rovolvea; and by means of wheel-work

I Ihi! top of tlio shaft, tho haiidi of tlio cloek aro also made to revolve.
Till! wholo ia kejit in motion by a series of powerful olcetro-masiicta,

I in number, on which ia wound a total lonctth of ''HfiOO feet of

■r wire, of tho nizo usually denominated "No. IS, Biniiingham wire-

,ti! r." the weight of tlie wire bcini; nearly one and a half cwt.. Six

mill batteries of Siiicc's construction were u.^iod in connexion with tlie

li ' Iro-ma'^'nets. Mr. .Shepherd prefers Siiieo's battery to any other, on

' 1 < lint of its simplicity and tho ease with which it is ch.argod when reqnirod.

I' '^ides tho 24-feet dial on tlio .louth Bide of tho Transept, two smaller

in. already nlliidod to, each of five feet di.araetcr, were fiied in front of

!i ■ ,i;alleries, at tho cast and we.st end of tho building respectively, in tlio

Tiiii' line of tho nave. All the dials were governed by one pendulum.

■^1 !■ tho third lllu.str.ation.] The pendulum wa.s kept in motion by

!• > (i-o-magnetism, on a plan entirely differing from any melliod pre-

iiiM-^ly invented. The magnet in the^o clocks is employed merely to

iiil the spring at each vibration to a certain fixed extent, the reaction of

in sj.rings giving tho necessary impulse to the pendulum, by which

ills tho variations which aro continually taking place in the batteries

' no effect on the time measured by the pendulum. At the end of

ill vibr.ation of tho pendulum it comes in contact with a small spring

!' Ill with platinum, which completes the necessary circuit for giving

niiiiii to the several clocks. One of the great .idvantages of Shepherd's

"1; is that tho largest hands may be moved with all tho accuracy of

' II of an astronomical clock. The impulse-spring is screwed on to a

: stud fixed ou the bed plate, througli a slot in which the pendulum

u ite.s. It has a small arm extending nearly at right .angles, and a

rid arm which projects from the armature, which being attracted

•nil by the action of tho magnet, the poles of which pa!!s through the

■li |>!ate, tho other end of the annatm-e comes in contact with the ann

II ,j< 'rting from the impulse-sspring, and raises it so as to lock tho upper end
1 a detent, which is screwed on to the same stu.l as the impulse-spring.

The pendulum, in the course of its vibr.atioa, comes in contact with
le upper part of tho detent, which it lifts up, thereby leaving the im-

ilse-spring free to droji on the side of the pendulum, and follow it fbr a
iiort space of its vibration, so as to give it the neces.sary impetus, foriTi-
lig what is technically called among clock-makers the remnntoir escape-
lent, and which, in the present instance, is in its most perfect form.

THE EXHIBITION VOLTAIC BATTERY.
I.\ connexion with the above, we propose to give a short notice of the
bvel form of voltaic battei-y which was employed as a source of power,
r the propulsion of the works of Jlr. Shepherd's clock. This form was
n i.-i il by Mr. Alfred Smee for this clock, .and contains numerous adap-
tiuus of scientific principles. The negative plate consists of a strip of

THE EXUIEITION VOLTAIC EATTERT.

atinised silver, the platinum belfig used in the finely-divided state, in
lich Mr. Smee fii-st discovered that most metals had the singular power
facilitating the evolution of the hydrogen ; and the visitor might have
eerved a constant stream of infinitely fine bubbles of gas continually
dug to the surface of the fluid. The positive pole con.sist3 of pieces of
e thinnest rolled ziuo immersed in mercui-y. The reason for using this
10 is, that, in the process of maiiufacturo the purest zinc (s used for that
rposc, whilst the baser portioil is used for the thicker plates. The use
the mercury is to prevent local action by the adhesion of the hydrogen
its smooth sm-face. It is of very great consequence to place the poroas
t in the right place. If it *ere placed at the bottom of the solution,
ring the action^ of the battery it would become encrusted with crystals
sulphate of zinc, which would effectually prevent any further action,
suspending it, however, at the upper part of the solution, tho salt falls
otually to the lower part of the solution, and becomes uniformly dif-
led through the whole fluid. A platinum wire, coated with gutta percha
1 !ept at its end, passes into the mercm-y, and is connected to a binding
ew to form connexion. Tho batteiy is charged with dilute sulphuric

acid, in tin? jiroportion of one to eight, and tlie m7A of the f»iit«r vch»cI
must depend upon tho time wliicli tho battery in required to keep in
action, and tho amount of tho work which it ia called upfm to perform.
In obtaining forco for an arrangement of thin character, nothing can
exceed tlie economy of material, fur almost every particle of zinc rlinHolvcd
contributes its effcutivo power, and thus tho cost solely ilopends npon the
value of tho zinc. There can bo no qucHtion that therfi iM nothint; to bo
compared to this form of battery for clock purjionc*, and probably it will
bo found tho bc«t battery for telegraphic cominunicationx. Whether it
can bo as successfully employed for elcctro-metalliirgic operation!) and
other cases of heavy work la tlie ordinary form of Smec's battery, wo aro
unable to tell, but recommend its tri.al to those who are interented in th?«
matter. Tho great cloek, notwithstanding tho lai'go nurfaco exposed to the
wind, and tho high gales to which it was exposed, continued to uark the
time in a satiafactorj' manner.

TAPESTRY PATTERN. — BY W. CUOSSLEY, HALIFAX.

Messrs. CkossIey, of Halifax, exhibited some very beautiful tapesti-y-work.
one of which we engi'ave. The design .and colouring are alike lively and
agreeable; and the texture of the surface is of the richest quality, bidding
fair for successful rivalry with the productions of Gobelins ; nd Aubusson.

373

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

FOREIGN AND COLONIAL DEPARTMENTS.

♦

AUSTRIA.

THE Austrian productions formed a highly interesting
feature in the Great Exhibition. About seven hundred
and fifty exhibitors appeared as the representatives of this
important territory; and the articles forwarded by them
must be acknowledged to have added a large share to the
attractions of the Foreign side of the BuUding. The raw
materials were largely represented, and by a most Interesting
selection of objects illustrative of the mineral wealth of this
monarchy.

" Austi'ia abounds in every description of metal. All the
more useful kinds, with the exception of platmum, are to be
found therein; and in the productions of the precious
metals, Austria is surpassed by Russia alone. Transylvania
is one of the richest countries of Europe in gold ; Hungary,
also rich in gold, is still richer in its yield of silver. Bo-
hemia ranks next to Hungary in this respect, and Transyl-
vania immediately after Bohemia. In the production of
quicksilver, Austria, by reason of her possession of Corniola,
stands next to Spain. Bohemia supplies excellent tin, Ca-
riuthia the purest lead, and Hungary is extremely rich in
copper. Iron is produced throughout the countries of this
empire, the only exceptions being Gorz and Gradisca, lUyria
and Venice. Styria is pre-eminent in respect both of the
quantity and the quality of its iron, which is considered
equal to any raised in Europe. Fossil and brown coal the
Austrian dominions may be said to possess in inexhaustible
abundance, and, in consequence, mining has been carried on
in these regions mth peculiar spirit and energy. Due ad-
vantage has been taken of the progress of modern science m
so'pushing the advancement of this branch of the national

industry, that though it cannot be said to have attained the utmost degree
of development which it may be capable of reaching, yet it must be
allowed to have closely approximated to it."

Minerals, metals and their ores, chemicals, agricultural
productions, silk, raw and manufactured, models of ma-
chinery, carriages, and a variety of objects illustrative of the
other classes of the Exhibition, were found in this col-
lection. Numerous philosophical and musical instruments
were also shown. The textile manufactures, and leather,
paper, books, and printing were adequately illustrated in
the various articles belonging to their classes. In glass
manufactures Austria has long been pre-eminently distin-
guished, and the specimens exhibited sustain her celebrity.
The metal manufactures were also illustrated by the con-
tribiitions of a considerable number of exhibitors, whoM
productions bear comparison with the univei-sally cele-
brated hai-dwares of England. Beautiful examples of porce-
lain and common wares were exhibited. The miscellaneoog
objects represented in an interesting manner those van*
tions in the products of foreign artizans which characteri*
them, and distmguish them from our own. Universal in-
terest was excited by the fine specimens of statuai-y and other
art productions exhibited by Austria, which we have already
abundantly illustrated and described. The suite of roonm
containing the articles made by the Messrs. Leistler, of
Vienna, was one of the most interesting features in the
Austrian department, and presented an imposing picture of
the luxurious furniture of the nobility of Austria. The state
bed, with its appendages, the dining-tables, side-board, and
chairs, exhibited a lavish outlay of ornamental labour. One
portion of this furnitm-e, a carved Gothic bookcase, was de-
signed as a present to her Majesty the Queen of England
from his Majesty the Emperor of Austria.

STATUETTE. — BLBNKHORN.

UANDELABliUM, KSUM ACSTRIi.

STATUETTE— BLENKHORK.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOP/EDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

:}7;i

CANDKLAIUiLM. AUSTUIAN JJlOI'AliTMlON'J'.

The design, by B. do Bcrnardis, a German architect, is
good as nn instanco of liow tlio Ituliiiii stylcH luo under-
stood in Austria. It ia very elegant, and tho nia.sHivencBi)
IB placed where it fihould ho — in tiie base. It was protbieed
at the foundry of tho I'rinco ol Salons, at Vienna ; and it

niuht bc! renjarkcil, dcHpite wliat h;w been haiil ufiennan casting, that thin work in not
superior to that of thu Coalbruokdalu Company, of which Bovoral HampIcH of largo
dimensions, and in various styles, were in tho Exhibition.

PKIJi DIEU. — LEISTLER

The Prie Dieu, by Leistler, i.s Gothic in structure, and
very richly carved. In the central panel is a p;untiug of
Christ bearing the cross ; on either side are angels holdinf
tablets, on which are inscribed the date, " Anno ISol."

TllANSPARENT BUND. — BACH.

STATUETTES. BT BLENKHORN.
These Statuettes were rather rudely cast in zinc, and represented per-
sonages in the poetry of Germauy.

This is one of the very hand.some productions, to be used both a.? cur-
tains for wiijdows, and the door of apartments, exhibited by M. Bach, of ■

ravis.

sr-i

THE CilYSTAX, PALACE AND ITiS CONTENTS;

RAILWAY DEPARTMEMT.

KAILWAY PLANT.

(Cuntiimed froriipaije 359.)
IJAVIXG iu the pi-evious article gone tlirougli the "rolling" plant, we
«-ill now proceed to the "' peruianeat way " and stationai'y furniture
of a railway, indudiug Uic rails, chairs, sleepers, turn-tal>les, traversers, and
signals, &c., in connexion there\vith.

Before the introduction of luils, the use of tram-plates of iron was very
general iij the coal districts of the north of England. These trams were
formed with a side flange, to prevent the cylmdrical form of wheel from
running off the way. As soon, however, as passenger traffic was intro-
duced, tUe edge rail came into use on the Stockton and Darlington and
the Liverpool and Manchester railways respectively, and on some of the
coal lines. So much had to be learned with regard to this back-bone of
the permanent way, that rails weighing only 35 lb. to the yard lineal
wei'e, in the first instance, laid down on the " gi'eat experimental line "
between Liverpool and Manchester ; which were, however, soon found to
^d unfit for the heavy loads continually rolling over them. The Leeds
a,ad Selby, and other i-ailway companies about that time, adopted the same
weight and form of rail. At the present time the rails have reached to
npwards of SO lb. to the yard lineal ; but it has ai'rived at this large section
only by gi-adual steps.

In TVishaw's " Kailways of Great Erit;iin and Ireland," published in 1840.
we find engraved sections of eighty-four diflerent forms of rail, including
those on the Transatlantic lines, and also on various European railways.
Of this number, 19 were modifications of the bridge form originally
adopted by Mr. Brunei for the Great Western Railway, which was in
every respect a new model, differing entirely from all its predecessors,
including the " gauge of way," which caused so much discussion among
engineers, and led to the battle of the gauges. Mr. Brunei's first bridge-
rails were also too light, being only 45 lb. to the yard; auu, as was the
case with the first edge-rails, were entirely reinstated with heavier rails
after a few years' trafiic had been allowed fully to test them. The bridge-
rail is stiU used on the Great Western Railway and some other lines ; but
the double parallel i-ail, of similar section both at top and bottom, may
be considered the standard form, and is to be found on almost all the
lines laid down to the national gauge of i feet S-J inches.

As the Liverpool and Manchester was the great experimental line, so
it was the standard for the great lines that followed it ; and the foults
committed in its construction were unfortunately copied by the engineers
under whose direction the subsequent lines were constructed. Thus we
foimd, in all railways north of the Thames, stone blocks to support the
rails iu those parts of the way which either were on the surface of the
ground or in excavations, more familiarly known as cuttings ; while Mr.
Giles, who stood almost alone in his view of what a )iermanent way should
consist, adopted transverse sleepers of wood for the Southampton Railway,
now called the South-Western. He had two reasons for adopting wooden
sleepers — the first on account of the railway passing through a country
abounding with suitable timber ; and the other on account of the greater
facility of keeping the permanent way in order; and perhaps he might
have considered a tliii'd and very satisfactory reason; viz. that of the
greater amount of destruction which would take place to the locomotive
engmes and carriages in passing over the rigid way constructed with the
stone blocks. Be this ss it may, Mr. Giles's plan, modified as to fastenings,
came into general use in most of the narrow guage lines, and the massive
grauite blocks were seen, after a few years, lying along several of the main
trunk-lines, to be removed at a great sacrifice. Except the gauge of way,
aud perhaps the fencmg, there is scarcely any part of the narrow gauge
railway which is not widely different from that which presented itself
when first constructed; and now, after ten or twelve years' experience, it
seems likely, that on some lines the transverse sleepers of wood will bo
replaced with sleepers of cast u-on. Perhaps the Great Western perma-
nent way is less changed than any other, with the exception already
alluded to, of the increased weight of rail.

We need say nothing about the gi-oss errors committed by the first
railway engineers m point of estimates. Unfortunately, that great fact
is too well known to thousands " who lent their money in aid of the
national prosperity." Having thus introduced the subject of permanent
way, we may now mention the names of those persons who, as exhibitors
at the Great Exhibition, have brought forward what they consider im-
proved methods of laying down the permanent way, and different forms
of rails, chairs, sleepers, &c.

^ The Brothers Barlow, J. W. Hoby, H. Greaves, J. Samuel, Joseph
Cubitt, and Crutwell & Co., are the engineers who laid down in the rail-
way department of the World's Fair various forms of permanent way, some
of wiiich were at the time under trial on two or more trunk Imes. As
P. AV. Bariow stands first in the Official Catalogue, wo shall commence
OTth his " Ca£t-iron Permanent Way." Mi-. P. W. Barlow has had consi-

derable experience iu railway construction, having been connected with
the South-Eastern from its very commencement, under Mr. Palmer. He
must also have had abundant opportunities of discovering the defects in
the permanent way so long iu use on his own line. It is fair, therefore,
to suppose, that not merely for the sake of novelty, but for the sake of
economy and other weighty reasons he has brought forward his cast-iron
permanent way. The cast-iron chaii-s, or jiedestals, to which the rails are
fixed, ai'e usually secured to the trausvci-se wooden sleepers, but, in the
present instance, are cast on to a large base plate of the same material,
which the inventor calls a sleeper. The intermediate chaii's are iu pau-s ;
at the joints there are two ordinaiy chau-s, the same as those placed inter-
mecUately, and one joint chair to receive the ends of the two meeting
raUs. At each of the joints there is a ti'ausverse tie of iron, to bind the
whole together, and to prevent the rails from spreading. By this plan
wooden keys ai'O rendered unnecessary ; and Mr. Barlow considers that he
shall obtain gi-eater durability by his new plan, and m-ntious, in addition
to this important advantage, that an additional number of supports is
obtained for the raUs.

Mr. W. H. Earlow, engineer of the Midland Railways, goes even farther
than his brother, as, by his " \vrought-iron permanent way," he boldly
casts on one side sleepers, chairs, and wedges, and introduces bridge rails
iu IS feet lengths, and having a base taken transversely of 11 inches, the
rail lieing made " to form its own bearing sui'face in the ballasting ; " tlie
top of the rail on which the wheels run is '2\ mches wide, ;md the thick-
ness of the base or bottom flanges half an inch. At the joints, cross tiers
of iron, 2 J- inches in width, are introduced to bind the two lines of rails
together. AVc had almost forgotten that the permanent way of the Great
Western Railway was laid down at the Exhibition to receive the mighty
locomotive engine described on another occasion, consisting of longitudinal
sleepers aud bridge rails bolted down thereto.

H. Greaves' plan of cast-iron permanent way differs from that of Mr.
P. W. Barlow, though he evidently has the same objects in view. His
chairs and sleepers are also east together, the latter being in form semi-
spherical ; the joints of rails are secured together by coupliug-pieces.
Wooden keys are used to wedge in the bridge-formed rails to the chairs.
We are not aware of the relative cost of Mr. Greaves' plan as compared
with that of Mr. P. W. Barlow. We, however, prefer on the whole, the
plan of the last-named gentleman.

Here is another plan to get lid of the wooden sleepers, though the
exhibitor. Mi-. Samuel, formerly engineer on the Eastern Counties Railway,
still uses wood iu the shape of wedges. He calls his the " patent caat-
h-on timber-bedded wedge trough permanent way." In this case the rails i
ai-e laid in cast-iron troughs, and secured therein by wooden wedges. The
troughs, which arc formed of two inclined sides, ai-e strengthened by seg-
mental flanges underneath, the whole being well bedded in the ballasting.
By means of iron fish-pieces connected with the chau-s, two ends of con-
tiguous rails ai-e secured fii-mly together, the fish-pieces having proper
perforations for the connecting-bolts to pass through.

Lastlj', we shall mention Sir. Joseph Cubitt's permanent way, which,
however, is not quite so new as the others ; yet we believe it has been
found to answer as well as any of the transverse wooden sleeper plans,
after some years' trial on the South-Eastern Railway. The novelty of
Cubitt's plan consists in the form of sleeper, which in cross section Ls
triangular; thus, two lengths of sleepers are cut out of a baulk of timber.
The base of the triangle being placed uppermost, the chairs — iu the
isresent instance, Hansome and May's, with their patent trenails and
wedges — are firmly seem-ed thereto. Of all the plans exhibited iu Hyde
Park, we certainly prefer that of W. H. Barlow, which is by fai- the most
simple and certainly very durable. The rigidity of .all the iron perma-
nent ways exliibited may, however, yet be found to do more mischief to
the " rolling stock " than can be compensated for in the annual saving
effected by the permanent way itself.

The next item iu the list of railway plant which we shall mention is
the turn-table or turn-plate, and the more modern traverser or traversing-
table. There were several exhibitors in this class of railway apjiurte-
nances, including the well-known names of Dunn, and Ransomes & May
respectively ; the other exhibitors were R. Ormerod & Son, J. G. Lead-
better, C. Greenway, aud A. Allan, of Crewe. Before describmg the best of
these inventions, wo will inform those of our readers wlio have hitherto
paid no attention to the details of railway construction, that a turn-plate
(or turning platform), according to Wishaw's " Analysis of Railways '' " is
a horizontal and circular frame of wood, moveable on a centre ; it is fur-
nished with a floor of the same material, on which are fixed short rails at
a gauge correspondmg with that of the railway where it is set up : the use
of this contrivance is to alter the direction of an engine or carriage from
one lino of way to another. " The above description was quite correct at
the time it was written ; but turn-tables arc now chiefly made of iron.
At the Liverpool and Manchester R.iilway depots, the original tm-u-tables
were of 5 feet diameter, and answered to the above description ; while,
on the Stockton and Darlington Railway, the diameter was 10 feet. At
the present time they are made of sufficient size to turn the largest engines
and tendei-s together, though, on the Great Western, the engineer of which
would not follow the beaten track, traversing tables were mtroduced to
answer the same purpose as that of turn-tables; aud as their success was
proved by years of trial, new forms of traversing-tables have been patented
by Mr. Dunn .and Messrs. Ormerod.

The Great Westei-u Railway Company, in addition to their permanent

376

APPLEGATH'S VERTICAL
PRINTING MACHINE.

EXHIBITED BY THE PROPRIETORS OF
"THE ILLDSTRATED LONDON NEWS."
AITE of the greatest lions in the
Great Exhibition, and which, per-
haps, attracted daily more curious
admirers than the Koh-i-Noor itself,
was the Printing-Machine of the
IllmtraUd London News exhibited
bv the proprietors of that JoumaL
This intereating piece of michinery.
which was kept in motion through-
out the day, throwing off sheets at
the rate of 3000 per hour, was
(erected by Mr. Applegath, who had
previously conatructed a somewhat
similar machine for the Timet news-
paper. The enormous sale of the
JUttstrated Lond^m News, which has
reached the number of 200,000
copies a week, rendered this outlay
necessary, and of comparatively
alight importance, the Exhibition
m^hine being only one of very
many employed simultaneously in
working off the large weekly issue.
This issue, when there was a treble
number, which was sometimes the
case, amounted to 600,000 sheets of
paper. The following particulars
are abridged from the account given
in the Rluatrated London News of
May 31. 1851:—

"It rnust be convincing to our
readers that the task we have weekly
to perform — of conveying the tnost
recent inielligence by a real represen-
tation, is far more difficult than
merely setting up in type a few sen-
tences, which may be effected in a
very short time, and issiied from
the press almost immediately after-
wards. Very different is our task.
The object to be artii^tically repre-
sented, at whatever distance from
the printing-office, mujit be seen by
the artist, and mjM^hen be rapidly,
aA well as faithfully, transferred to
the wooden block to be enCTaved.
and which, by an ingenious division
of labour, is accomplished in an in-
conceivably short space of time. It
must be remembered, that the wood-
cuts, once engraved, can neither be
increased nor decreased in size, nor
can any material alteration be made
therein.

'■ When the wood-cuts and type
are got into the requisite dimensions,
the pages are fixed in the iron frames
or chases, and are transferred to the
printing-machine, for the purpose,
in the first instance, of undergoing
a very important and delicate opera-
tion called " overlaying," by which
the pressure is diminished la the
lighter parts of the engravings and
increased in the dark shadows,
without attention to which the
artistic effects would be entirely
lost This overlaying is sometimes
a very tedious and difficult process.
While all those preliminaries are in
progress, the hour of ' going to press '
is rapidly advancing; and although
more tune might often be very profit-
ably employed in giving the best pos-
sible effects to the cuts, so asto gratify
not only the public, but the artist

himself, yet in order to throw off the requisite number of copies within
a limited period, all other considerations must be set aside. Thus
between the desire of delineating the most recent objecta of public
iQterest. and that of producing them in large quantities, and at the same
time ,n the most artistic style, a kind of antagonism has existed,

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS; AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

877

ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS PRINTING MACHINE.

w'Wi^x. 1 1 "t "" ^tyle, a kind u» nuLagomsm uas exiscea,

wb.ch has only been neutralised by the most intense exertions on the

wri,/. Z'"'"'^?^^.' ""^ ^^ °°"' ^^"^"'■^ t« ^'OP*^ that the difficulties
we have to contend with wUl entirely .be done away with, jis the

improved machinery, by its increased power of production, will render
such impediments less likely to occur.

"We now proceed to furnish our readers with some account of the
Applegath Vertical Printing Machine, which has already attracted crowds
of visitors from some of the more generally enticing eections of the Great
Exhibition.

" The chief novelties of this machine are, first, the typo being placed
around a large cylinder, placed vertically, thus leaving impresaiona on

several sheets of paper at each revolution ; and second, that by Buch
arrangement, a far greater number of copies can be produced within a
given time than by any reciprocating machine os yet invented.

"As this machine is calculated to throw oft four impressions for each
revolution of the cylinder, it is nece-tiBai^ to inti-oduce as many sheets
of blank pnper at the same time. This is done by the " layer-on." who
draws a sheet towards the upper rollers, when a small iron spindle
luruished with bi-asa pulleys, revolving at consideniblG velocity, descends

upon it, causing it to pass between
the sets of vertical tapea, which
carry it down to a point at which
its course ia altered by narrow up-
right pieces of wood, called " stop-
pers," which advance and compress
the sheet of paper between them,
the vertical tapes at the same time
receding from the paper. In the
next place, the stoppers recede, and
the paper is momentarily suspended
between small pulleys, mounted on
delicate springs, called " finger-
rollers." The sheet is now impelled
towards the impressing cylinder by
menns of vertical rollers in rapid
motion on either side of the sheet,
which is secured by the ordinary
marginal tapes, and, passing round,
the impressing cylinder, receives an
impression from the type fixed in
the great vertical cylinder. The
sheet, thus printed, passes towards
the "taking-off" table, being sup-
ported in its progress by the upper
pair of tapes, which are stopped at
the proper time, leaving the sheet
puspended between two small spring
pulleys above it, until the "taker-
off" removes it to the table.

" The type cylinder, which ia
really the great feature of the in^
vention, consists of three strong
circular rings of cast iron, secm-elj
keyed to an upright spindle. The
segmental chaces, which contain th(
type and wood-cuts, are attached t<
the circular rings by screws,

" During the revolution of tht
type cylinder, it comes in contact
with four printing cylinders, eacl
of which is exnctly one-fourth o
its diameter. The printing cylia
ders work into the type cylindei
by means of toothed wlieels placec
beneath them.

" The surface of the impressinf
cylinders is made partly of fim
woollen cloth, and partly of paper
or trom card board, redOced ii
those parts requiring the overlay
ing, by cutting or scraping, accord
ing to the thickness required. Thi
ink is carefully spread over a cir
cular invert opposite to the type
and connected to the vertical spin
die of the type cylinder by liingec
arms resting on an upright bar
which is teiTninated by a pulley
This pulley acts upon a circula
undulating railway fixed below thi
type cylinder, and from which thi
distributing surface receives a sligh
up-and-down motion as it revolves
The distributing surface is fed witl
ink by means of vibratory roller*
which continue in action between i
and the upright ink boxes placec
under the copper reaervoira.

" The contact of the iaking-roUen

with the type is regulated by loot

coiled springs connected with tin

bearings, so that they merely toucl

the surface of the letters, which i

one of the great advanbiges of th<

vertical portion of the machine. T(

show the advantage of this arrange

meat, it is only necessary to mer

tion, that in the case of the Time

machine, 40,000 impressions hav.

been taken without any different

being discovered between the first and the last. Another advantage o

the vertical machine is, that the dust or small particles adhering to tht

paper ai-e shaken from it when suddenly stopped, and fall to tlje floor

instead of being deposited upon the form or distributing table, as m tht

case of horizontal machines, .

"Mr. Applegath is still occupied in making further improvements u

this valuable invention, with a view to render it suitable fur the printing

business generally."

378

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OP IHil.

CRYSTALLISED SALTS.
Continued from page 323.
GULPHATE of copper, commorcially known by the name of blue vitriol,
is a substance commonly prepared by dissolving oxide of copper in
sulphuric acid, and subsequently evaporating down the liquor so obtained,
jn oi-dcr to separate the blue vitriol by crystallisation. A small quantity
of sulphate of copper is also obtained during the roasting of certain ores of
copper, and. being a soluble salt, it is readily removed from the roasted
heaps by lisimtion, and may be then crystallised in the usual way.

Blue vitriol sometimes occurs in a native form in mines containing copper
pyrites, which is a double sulphuret of iron and copper; this readily becomes
oxidised by exposure, and being by this means transformed into the soluble
sulphate, ti.e waters of the majority of our copper mines become more or
less impregnated with this salt

By fai- the liu^er proportiou of the sulphate of copper used in commerce
is, however, prepai-ed directly by the addition of sulphuric acid to the oxide
of that metal. The oxide is either obtained from the rolling mills where
sheet-copper is lamiuated, or it 'm made by roasting in a reverberatory
furnace the woni-out copper sheeting which has served for covering ships'
bottoms. The oxide obtained by either of these methods is first heated in
a large leaden vessel with a proper quantity of dilute sulphuric acid ; and
when the whole of the soluble matter has been taken up, the liquor is first
allowed to settle, and is then drawn off whilst still hot, into large tubs lined
with lead, around the sides and bottom of wliich the blue salt rapidly
crystallises. In order that tho crystals may be well formed, these vessels
are protected from a too rapid loss of heat by being carefully covered over,
and surrounded with mattiug or sawdust, by which the radiation and
conductiuu of their heat is considerably diminished, and crystals of a
proportionately larger siae are obtained. It is also necessary that, besides
being placed in a warm room, the tubs should be kept as free as pos-ible
from all motion, as the shaking of the solutions is iuvai-iably found to
determiue the precipitation of the salt on the bottom of the vessel in the
form of a granular powder. At tho bottom of the dissolving tub a greater
or less deposit of msoluble matter is always foimd to tjdce place. This
which consists of metallic coppei*, is not readUy attacked by sulphm'ic acid
so much diluted as that ordinarily employed, and it is, therefore, after "a
time, removed fiom the dissolving vessel, and heated in a reverberatoiy
furnace for the purpose of converting it into the soluble oxide.

In some cases— and particularly in many pal-ts of the Continent of
Europe— sulphate of copper is produced bv the direct combination of copper,
sulphur and oxygen. Tlie metal most employed for tins purpose is the old
coppering of vessels which has become so much worn and acted on by too
sea water as to require removal. These worn-out sheets are heated to dull
redness m a properly constmoted reverberatory furnace, and sulphur is
thrown m, all the openings of the apparatus being cai-efully closed up. By
this means the metal is rapidly acted on by the sulphur, and di-sulphuret
of copper is quickly formed.

These sulphuretted sheets are afterwanls roasted in the same furnace, with
free access of air, which converts the sulphur into sulphuric acid, and a sub-
sulphate of the oxide of copper is foi-med At this point of tlie operation
the subsalt IS withdrawn from the a],paratus. and, after being allowed to
cool, IS heated, with a proper quantity of dilute snlohm-ic acid, in large
iKiden vesseK where it is converted into the neutral sulphate of protoxide
ot copper Tne liquid from these leaden cisterns is concentrated and
crystallised in the usual way, and the mother Hquors which remain in the
tub after the first crystallisation are again evapotuted, and a new b.atch of
crys^ls obtained. After being separately treated in this way, the mother
waters become too strongly acid to yield good crystals, and they arc then
cmpl.,yed m the place of sulphuric acid, to effect the solution of the subsalt
of copper, which is acted on in the leaden tanks above described. Sulphate

Its weight of cold, and m twice its weight of boilinR, water.
en,;„n '^''"■6'' y employed iu the manufactufe of the colour called
emerald green. It is also much used for galvauo-plastic purposes, and cL a
"me'^'foiThf"" ^7f ^'"«™"-- soLtime^Sde^seofly
„Tor.?,r r ''"T™ °' ''J'"'f"°8 '^"'^^ ^^o'" *"? "<■<: sown, in order to
protect them from the attack.- of insects and vermin;

thfSoT. 'Jf ^'™T =^.tibited we remarked some beautiful crystal from

MessTslL,nef^rd"Fn™"?M'"l^^°"''' "^ London, and frem%hose rf
Jlessrs Uahnel and Ellis, of Manchester, whose cases contain several fine

Sfvl°:j^Tan'e"r?- r""" "^"^ ''"'' ^^^ ^ ^^'^^''^^^til

Vi?!tteof"S'^?J'/-'r' ""." f""'' "l^'o-'od in this department
Mr W DentHh'"»wlM Tt*T P-°"P» °f crvstal, were exhibited by
Mr. u. uentith and Messrs. Hahnel and Ellis, of Manchester- is nrcmred
by dtaolvmg protoxide of lead, more commonly known a^UtbarSi ^n dHote
rrer'X'u'whiT™'''' -r""'"""'^ ■"" ^^""" iof ^^ lutio'n"

baU, L'Zthaued until «'""'lr 1™ '" """"""■■'' '"'*'' ''™"^'' ^y =" »'-<*
oaui, la contmucd until a pellicle appears on the surface of the liquor,

when it is drawn off into other earthen pans, where, ou cooling, it deposits
a crop of octaliedral crystals. These are sometimes perfectly transpiireut,
but are more frequently white and opaque. Nitrate of lead is largely
employed in the manufacture of the chromatea of lead used as yellow
pigments, and also in some particular styles uf calico-printing.

Of the acetate of lead, another important salt of this metal, we found
8ome most magnificent examples ou the table of this section. The most
beautiful of tliese were exhibited by the Messra. Perez, of Limehouse, and
the Meliucrythau Chemical Works, near Neath, South Wales. The crystala
from tho latter place were beautifully white, and of extreme purity, and
may be regarded as thc_ perfection of manufacturing chemistry, as applied
to the salts of lead.

Acetate of lead — or, as it is more frequently called, sugar of lead — is
prepared by dissolviug pm-e litharge, by the aid of heat, in strong viuegai',
made from either malt, wood, or wine, until the acid is saturated, and by
subsequently coucontrating and crystalUsiug the solution in the way before
described. The combination of the acid and litharge may be made either
in a copper boiler rendered negatively electrical by solderiug a strap of lead
along its bottom, or, what is still better, in vessels made of thick sheet-lead ;
in which case it is necessary to keep t!ie liquor coustautly slightly acid, in
order to prevent the formation of any of the numerous subsalts which would
otherwise be produced. When the concentrated liquors have a yellow
colour, as is usually the case when the acid employed is not of gi-eat purity,
the solution should be filtered through animal charcoal, by which tho
colouring matter is entirely removed ; and the filti'ate which passes through
into the reservoirs, placed beneath the filters, is then in a state for immediate
conceutration and crystallisation.

Salt-glazed atoueware vessels are those best adapted for the crystallisation
of sug;ir of lead, and the edges of these should be smeared over with gi-ease
or tallow, to prevent the salt fi'om creeping over them by efBorescnt
vegetation.

Wheu the mother waters cease to yield good crystals by evapoi'ation,
they are decomposed by cai'bonate of soda, or lime, carefully applied — by
whicli a carbonate, or oxide, is obtained, fit to be treated with a fresh
quantity of acid or vinegar. Acetate of lead is a poisonous salt, having no
smell, but a sweetish taste, not unlike that of sugar; and from hence its
common name, sugar of lead. It is much used fur calico-printing, and is
also sometimes employed in the preparation of the chromates of lead, con-
stituting the ordinary yellow pigments of the house-painter and artist: but
for this purpose it is inferior to the nitrate of the same metal, which affords
chromates having a much brighter tint.

Another very beautiful salt, of which some most magnificent specimens
were exhibited, is the bi-chromate of potash, which affords large crystals of
a bright red colour. This substance is produced by the calcination of a
mixture of chrome iron ore and nitre, and the subsequent treatment of tho
hquors obtained by the lisiviation of the rua.sted mass. Chrome ore or
chrome iron occurs in large quantities near Baltimore in Maryland, in the
Shetland Isles, in the department of Var in Fi-ance, near Portsey in
Banffshire, and also in Bohemia andSilesia. To prepare bichromate of potash
from this mineral, it is first cai-efuUy separated from the gangue with
which it is found associated, and it is subsequently ground imder heavy
edge-runners to the state of a veiy finely divided meal. It is theu mixed
v.-ith from one-third to one-half its weight of pulverised nitie, and exposed
to a -strong heat, during several successive hours, on the hearth of a rever-
berating furnace, where it is occasionally stirred about witli iron bai's aud
rakes. When the calcination is judged to be sufficiently advanced, the
charge of the furnace is withdrawn, while still hot, into vessels coutaining
water, in which tlie soluble salts which it now contains are extracted by
repeated washicgs.

The bright yellow solution which is thus obtained is now evaporated
biTskly, andchromate of potash, in tho form of granulai- crystals, is rapidly
deposited; these are separated from the mother liijuor by the use of a
P'-rforated ladle, and the concentration of the liquors quickly gives rise to
the precipitation of a fresh amount. Regularly formed crystals of the
iieutral chrumate of potash may be obtained by dissolving this saline powder
m water, and slowly evaporating the solution ; but these liquors are more
frequently treated with some other acid, such as nitric or acetic, in order
that it may combine with a portion of the alkaU present, and determine
the formation of the red bi-chromate of potash, which is so extensively
employed m many branches of the arts. After the addition of the acid,
which, for the purposes of the manufacturer, is frequently either acetic or
hydrochloric, the liquors are concentrated by a slow and regular evaporation,
and crystals of the red bichromate are abundantly produced on cooling tho
solution. This substance is principally employed by colour-makers and
Ia^^' ^^° o*>tain from it some very beautiful dyes and pigments by the
addition of a soluble salt of lea^. A green oxide of chromium is also
prepared by the decomposition of chromate of raercuiy by heat. This
salt is obtamed by adding nitrate of protoxide of mercury to chromate of
potash in equal proportions; and tho oxide wliich remains when this
substance i? heated to redness is principally applied to dyemg and painting
m porcelain.

The specimens of bichromate of potash exhibited were, many of them,
of large size and great beauty. Some of the best illustrations of this salt
were furnished by Messrs. Denteith. of Manchester, who also exhibited
some fine samples of prussiate of potash, and other chemical substances
connected wth the manufacture of pigments and colouring matters.

Ihia salt, which is largely employed for manufacturiDg purposes, is prm-

way aiid locomotive engine, also exhibited their traversing tiible — con-
sisting of an oblong frame of iron with platform of the same material,
and sbelvings, one on either side, to receive the wheels of the engine and
carriage to be removed from cue lino of way to another. Small friction
wheels placed at right angles to the length of the traverser, fixed in proper
bearings, enable tho machine to bo moved on rails laid transversely
between the two ways. The' end of each shelving place is slightly inclined
towards the ox-dlnary bridge rail, in order to enable tho engine or carriage
i-espectively to be moved un to or from the traverser when required.

Mr. Duun exhibited not ouly a model of his " improved mode of
removmg railway carriages from one line to another." but also contributed
his apparatus to full size, so that the ease with which it may be worked
could bo tested by those visitors who were interested in the subject.
Dunn's traverser is consti-ucted of wrought iron, and is generally intro-
duced at passenger stations for ti'ausferring sis-wheeled carriages from
one line to another. The ends of the shelvings, which are inclined, are
attached to the traver.ser by spiral joints, so that when — to get them out
of the way — they are folded back against tho ends of the machine, they
are sufficiently elevated above the rails. For each line of cross-way there
are four wheels, so arranged that in passing over the flange-gap of the
cross-rails, the traverser is always supported by three wheels, so that jerka
are thereby avoided. The shelving in this form of traverser is only two
inches above the permanent way. As in introducing the traverser to an
old line of railway no alteration is requii-cd in the permanent way, it is
evidently more desirable than the ordinary turn-table for such purpose.

Another form of traveling-table, according to Mr. Dunn's patent, con-
sists in forming the shelvings in such a way that one end of each can be
lowered down to meet the rail, thus forming an inclined plane equal to
the whole length of the machine, with a rise of If inch; or, if consi-
dered desirable, both ends of the traverser can be lowered, so that the
carriage may be rolled on without the aid of inclined planes or pomts.
The form wo have just described is suited for heavy luggage vans, and
also for long pa.«.sei)ger carriages.

The third form of traversiug-table, introduced by Mr. Dunn, la intended
particularly for locomotive engines and hopper coal-waggons, or other
carriages of considerable weight, as the load has not to be raised perjien-
dicularly, nor moved up an inclined plane. The mode of aecompliBhing
this desirable object is attained by depressing a portion of the perma-
nent way, the traverser thus working on a sinking of about three inches
deep. The whole is raised to its proper level by strong wedge^beams,
or cams. In each of these forms the shelvings are brought nearly to the
level of the permanent rails, which is an important feature in Mr. Dunn's
invention.

Messrs. Ormerod & Son. also of Manchester, exhibited Dunn's patent
turn-table, on account of its rigidity and total absence of deflection, owing
to longitudiii:il sleepers being fixed imderneath the table in the Une of the
■ permanent rails.

Messrs. R-^nsomes & May, of Ipswich, exhibited Wild's railway t\im-
table. and also Barlow and Heald's invention for the same purpose ; that
of Wild was placed in a cast ii'on frame or kerb, the table turning on a
centre, and running on twelve friction rollers.

The improvement m Mr. C. Greeuway's turn-table consists in the con-
struction of the cradle underneath the platform, arranged in compartments
radially placed, which contains alternately balls or spheres, and friction
wheels, by which the motion is rendered easy: the table turns, as usual,
ou a centre pivot in proper bearings.

A. Allan, who is connected with tho North-Westem Company's loco-
motive f-stablishmeut at Crewe, exhibited a model of liis hydrostatic or
floating turn-table. Turn-tables ou this principle are not new, but the
details of Mr. Allan's invention constitute his invention. The model exhi-
bited represents a turn-table of 40 feet diameter; the platform or floor is
supported by wooden trusses, 4 feet 4 inches in depth, having three lines
of raUs across it. An engine and tender may be transposed from one of tho
side-ways to the other, the position of the engine being of course reversed.
" If," says the inventor, '* water is admitted so as not to have any upward
pressure at all, a load of 35 tons may safely rest on the table, the sinking
being inappreciable. The table turns on a central pivot, and the water is
supplied from a tank placed ou one side of the railway."

Signals. — The various accidents which happened to railway trains, for
some years after their introduction, caused inventors and otters to devise
plans for obriating the disastrous consequences of railway collision. The
old semaphore, or arm-telegraph, in use in this country before the intro-
duction of the moro modern system of transmitting signals, naturally pre-
sented itself as a ready means of transmitting signals along a line of rail-
way for short distances ; and we believe Mr. Chas. Huttou Gregory, formerly
engineer to the Croydon line, and now to the Bristol and Exeter, was the
first to introduce this obviously useful plan of communication between
certain points on the Croydon Railway aud the different stations ; aud
what is done by tho moveable arms, jointed so as to be moved in different
directions, in the day-time, is effected at night by lamps of various colours.
This kind of railway telegx-nph was shown to full scale at the Exhibition,
being contributed by tho manufacturers, Stevens and Son, of Southwark,
who have, someliow or other, been particularly fortunate in introducing
this useful railway appendage in most parts of tho kingdom. They also
exhibited a modification of the above, which they call a double station
signal, by which a greater number of signals may be transmitted.
Tho other exhibitors of signals were-— J. Cooley, of Spalding ; J. Steven

of the St. Leonard .station, Edmburgh ; J. H. Lockyer, of Leic«iter •!>»
Fontaine and C. A. Kmg, of London respectively; J. Copling, of Uacknev ■
E. A. Cowper, of Kensington ; W. Hattersley, of London ; U. TiUiuaSi'
of Eermoudsoy; T. B. Pearce of London; J. Hoy, of Paddiugton ■ T
Watson, of Loudon; and J. Shaw & Co., of Hudderefield; altogether fLur'
teen contributions, showing the interest which is still alive on this subieet
The signals exhibited, and which have been tested for years, were tht-
semaphores of Stevens and Son, already mentioned, and the fogsignaU
of Cowper. In foggy weather it is indeed very difficult to steer clear of
accidents on railways ; but by the u-'^e of the last-named signals much
mischief is likely ta be prevented. The inventor calk them detonatuag
fog-signals, as powder forms the principal part of the contrivance. The
powder is placed in tin boxes, about two inches diameter, and about half
an inch thick ; in connexion with the powder is a match, which, being
placed on one of the rails at any point that may be desired, causes i^
explosion on the first wheel of a tram passing over it, so that it give*
warning to the drivers and guards of something being wronf or out cf
order in that part of tho way ; a slip of lead ia goldered to 5ie box, by
which it is secured to the rail.

William Fuuniess' alarum for locomotive engines 14 sounded by means
of the action of the steam on metallic reeds. We have not heard whether
this lias been practically tested — the idea seems good. The other signals
exhibited are more or less curious.

We had almost forgotten a practical mode of communicating between
guard and driver, as exhibited in the middle gallery north, by Mr.
Whishaw, whose invention, called the Telekouphonou, or Speakin" Tele-
gi-aph, consisting of a tube with mouth-pieces furnished with whistles to
call attention, was successfully applied on the Birmingham and Shrews-
bury Kailway. The .'=ame gentleman proposed a method of communi-
cating between guard and driver, in 1840, by means of a wire or rope,
with ci-anks or pulleys respectively, in connexion with an alarum filed
on the tender. This plan is in daily use on some of the Prussian
railways.

The other articles exhibited in the Railway Department of the Great
Eshibitiou, and which come imder the denomination of railway plant,
were switches and crossings, contributed by Mr. Parsons, C. E. ; W.
Bainea, of Birmingham; and R W. Keimard, of Falkirk, N. B. ; a water
crane, of simple, but substantial form, exhibited by Ransomes & May,
aud compi-essed trenails, by the same finn, who carry on an immense
business in railway plant of all sorts. Then there were the '■ simulta-
neously-acting level-crossing gates of C. Young & Co., of Edinburgh,
and the several screw-jacks of Collingc & Co. ; G. Englaud ; H. Baymao ;
Haley ; and Gladstone. No train should travel without one of these
useful machines, for, in the event of a train getting off the way, they are
invaluable.

Finally, we were struck with an improved method of transferring letter-
ba^ on railways, by J. Dicker, of Islington. On the Grand Junction
Railway, as it was formerly called, a conti'ivance for a similar purpose was
tried for some time, but discontinued after a fair trial. In the present
apparatus, the operation appears to be performed in the most complete
manner at the different post-office stations along the line. Tho bags are
exchanged without chance of failure. This is effected by a jointed lever
projecting from the side of the post-office carriage, on which the bag to
be left at the station is suspended, aud wliich, on arriving at the station,
is caught in a net. while tliat to be sent forward by the ti-ain in a similar
manner, ia caught by a net attached to the carriage.

THE ROSE WATCH. BY J. JONES, STRAND.
Such is the name under which Mr. Jones exhibited a very bcautiftilly
mounted watch, the decoration of
which is intended to be suggestive
throughout. On one half of tho
margin ai'ouud the back is engraved,
on blue enamel, " Man cometh forth
as a flower, and is cut down." On
the sui'faco of the richly-engi-aved
gold back is a Maltese cross, in white
enamel ; and on its foiir limbs ai-e
depicted the four seasons of life, in
the bud, blossom, decay, and death
of a rose. On the other half of tho
margin is engraved, " It is sown in
dishonour, it is raised iu glory." In
the centre of the cross is a celestial
crown of diamonds, on a blue enamel
groimd, surrounded by an Olympic
wreath of pearls, with rays of glory
in enamel, radiating between the
limbs of the cross. The dial repre-
sents, iu enamel colours, tho rose
window of Westminster Abbey. On
the twelve compartments indicating ^ ^v 1, «] that

the twelve hom-s are tho names of ttio twelve Apostles. ^'^ *^^.''*. .!^
holds the glass is engraved, in blue enamel, " He that takoth not nu "
daily is not worthy of me.'— {The « Rote of Sharov.")

AN ILLUSTllATKJ) CYCLOl'/KDIA 01<' THK GUKAT EXHIJJITION OF 1851.

37y

ally preimrod by tho ful lowing procoM«:— A largu egg-Hliapwl pot of c:i.st
11 in built into a furimco, ho iim to a>liiut of boinf; rcivdily heated to i-oilnc- .>
mean.s of a firo plaee.l on bars ^litunted jiuniodiatuly beneatli it. Wbuii^
s vessel luM been brought to a mo<lorato Btiitu of ignition, a mixturo of
)d pearlash and dry animal matters— of whidi lioof, horn, woollon ra(<8,
1 tlie subatauco called groavoa, wbieli in tiio refuse of tiJlow multera, form
iriuoipid pai't— is projeeted into it. Tho proportious visually adopted arc

0 piu-ts of pcarlaah to live parts of nitrogenised imimul matter; and thi.i
xtnre, :is it caleines, will be found gradually to assume a tliick pasty form,
ring tho progi-ess of which transformation it iiiu.it bo kept coustautly
rred about witii a long iron biu'. During tlio whole of tliis stage of tho
oration a very oflbusivo odoiu' is giveu olf from the retort, but whou tlio
xturo hiM bccomo wholly eonycrtoj into a cbomical compound, tho

lution of tho fectid animal vapoujrs entirely censes ; and tho pasty mass is
w ijuickly withdrawn from the heated vessel by an irou
lie, and allowed to cool before boiag subjected to any

tlior treiitnunit.

jlf the charge of tho retort wore thrown, while still hot,
,0 water, for the purpose of more readily effecting its solu-
u, some of the prussie acid present would be iustanJJy
averted into anunonia, aud the usual crystallised pro'luct
luld be diminished in a proportionate degree. Wheji (^uiie
Id tho solid matter is dis-^olved in water, aud the tolutiou
rified either by subsidence or
ration; the liquors thus ob-
ned ai"o subsequently couceu-
tod by evaporatiou, aud, on
ug allowed to coot, dcjiosit largo
low crystals of the ferro-prus-
te of potash ou the sides of tho
laelsiuto which they are poured,
leu large aud pure crystals of

1 salt ai-o required, the yiamdar
jo.sit is again dissolved in the
tor, aud it then

Ids, when al- ■

■ad to cool slow-

tine and very
:alar crystals

prussiato of
tash.

hi the second
stallisatiou of
i impui'e s;d t ,
e cooling of tho
ussiate iiquois
allowed to gj

very slowh
being usuill^
3Ut a fort-
;ht before
J contents
the cool-
1 are dis-
rbed.

The per-

atage com- _
sition of =^
How prus-
|ite of pot-
!i is as fol-
rs ; — Potassium
02, non 12 62
anogen 37 40
iiter 12-76 ; and
'is salt in its

liydrous state may consequently be regarded as a compound of one
can of cyanide of irou, united to two equivalents of cyanide of potassium.
le irou necessiiry to the production of this substance is derived from the
t and stiners used in the operation, and these, therefore, are found to
much corroded and worn away by use. The lower part of the retort,
lere it comes most in contact with the mas^ of fused animal matters, is
pecially subject to be thus acted ou, aud it is therefore frequently found
!cessai-y to turn the pots iu the furnace, so that the jjarts acted on may
•■ placed uppermost, and further removed from the corrosive action of the
arges.

This salt is very largely employed for tho m.anufaoture of the colour
lied Pi-ussian blue, which forms the basis of the different blue stains and
gtuents so extensively used in many brauchcs of the arts.
When a solution of ferroeyanide of potassium is added to a salt of the
■roxide of iron, a copious deposit of a beautiful blue colour is immediately
termiued, which may be regarded as a double cyanide of the protoxide and
roxide of iron. This substance is the Prussian blue of commerce, aud is
ost extensively employed as a pigment, and also for imparting a blue
lour to woven fabrics, such as cloths and cotton goods.
On account of its cheapness, green sulphate of iron is constantly employed
' the manufacturer iu tho preparation of Prussian blue; but the red

rOUNT.VIS. — THOMAS.

sulphato, nitrate, or chloridu, iillurdn u. pigment of a much richer tint. The
I'russiaii blue obtained by tho admixture of IhtMo Kalbt with prucniate of
potash has also a puculiar bron/.ed appearance, wliicli U greatly enteeincd
among colour-makers, who, in order to pcroiirhHo a portion of the iron
solution, aro in tho liubil of adding to it a small quantity oitlior of nitric
acid or the bichroiuutu of potonh, uf wliicli a very aiimU amount U found
sufficient wlion the two solutiomt aru boiled together during a conKidorable
time. Whou Pnissiau bluo in to Ix; giouiid in oil and aftcrwordit unc<l an
.an ordinary pigment, tho prccipiUito, alter being well WMlied by decantation
in the vessels iu which it Jjiie bt-cu precipitated, U collected on a lilter of
twilled calico, from wliioh it is iiub»e(£iiontly removed to a powerful bcrew
press, by which tho greater part of its moistui-o is squeezed out. The paoty
mass i.s tlieu taken to a htovc, where tho process of drying i« completed ;
and, wl>cn the whole of the moisture has been thus eliminated, tho dried
Prussia'! blue is ground in oil in tho u.-.ual way, either by
being pa.4sod between |>roi)erly constructed millJi, or l)y the
more simple method of a slab and muller.

Wlien this substance is used as a dye for textile fabrics,
such lis calico or other siinilar stufis, the preci[iit;ition of tho
colour is made directly iu tho jjorcs of the clotli itself, which
is first dipped in the pnissiatc solution, and is then placed
ill that containing tho salt of iron.

Many very beautiful 8i)ecimeu8 of this sidt were exhibited
both in the British and in some of
the foreign de|iartmcuts of the
budding ; the most worthy of re-
mark being those niaiiufacturcd
by the Uurlet aud Campaio Com-
pany, Messrs. Denteith, BromwcU,
and Tenuants.
r ;i - - Ferroeyanide of potassium is

another product much employed
by calico-printers for the produc-
tion of a blue colour with tho
protO'Salts of iron.
This substance,
which is commer-
cially known as
red prussiate of
potash, is prepared
by tlie transmis-
sion of chlorine
gas through asolu-
tion of ordinary
yellow prussiate
of potash. On con-
centrating these
liquors they de-
posit, on cooling,
beautiful
prismatic
crystals of a
ruby-red co-
lour, and aie

composed (in

^== 100 parts* of
potassium,
3614 ; iron,
16-87 ; car-
bon, 21-68 ;
andnitrogen,
25-31. Some fine
specimens of this
substance were
comprised in the
collection belong-
ing to the Hm-let and Campsie Company ; and a magnificent example in
tlie case of the Messrs. Tenuants, of Manchester, who also exhibited many
other substances showing a great degree of perfection in the processes
employed iu their preparation.

The Great Eshibitio.v Tkade Musecm. — Under the superintendence of
Lieutenant Tyler aud lii^ assistants the whole of the large and interesting
collection contributed to the Trades' Museum has been classed and arranged,
and very shortly the entire will be removed to Kensington Pidace, the
whole suite of rooms in the first and second floor having beeu allotted for
the temporai-y reception of tlie articles untQ some suitable building can be.
prepared. The articles are ali-eady so numerous, aud the contributions so
extensive, that it will require two or three weeks to convey them to theii-
new destination. Each ai-ticle will have its deseriptiou appended to it, the
country from whence it comes, its price, the quantity — whether raw material
or manufactured article — that can be supplied, with any details of interest
that may be obtained. Among the recent contributions is the model of
Mr. Brunei's wroughtu-on bridge over the Wye, at Chepstow, for the South
Wales Railway, and we understand there are upwards of seven hundred
firms and exhibitors who have contributions ready to send in, but who have
been requested to retain them until some fitting place of reception is prepared.

380

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS ;

THE HALIFAX
COURT.

QLOTHWORKIN(

first found a plac
at Halifax in the coa
mencement of the fi
teenth century, aii(
aided by water eomnii
nication with both Hu
and Liverpool, it h;
risen rapidly since tl
introduction of tl
power-loom and the U!
of mixed fabrics.

The show of goo(
from Halifax was D'
large, but it fair
enough represented tl
industry of the town.

The leading featui
of the display was i
decorative characti
the great proportion
the goods being eith
for furniture purposi
such as damasks ofva
ous kinds, moreens, ai
table-covers, or intend
for the South Americ
mai'kets, where gaie
of colour and striki
effects are in request
an element of manuf
ture. The eontril
tiou of Mr. J. Wils
of ponchos, mantu
and shawls, best ill
trated the peculiarit
of this class of goo
These contrasted in
remarkable manner w
those articles intend
for our own dom
tic purposes. Mess
Hoadley and Pridi
display, for iiistan
showed this point v(
clearly. In these •
amples the patterns i
bold and effective, a>
generally in good tasi
the self-colours hev
very excellent in d
and finish.

Mr. W. Brown ■
hibited some neat a
effective patterns of t
same class ; theifcilk ho
ever, was so sparinj
introduced as to giv<
thinness of effect to (
parts where it is sei
Messrs. Shepherd a
Perfect also exliibit
some good patterns
worsted damasks ; I
the character of t
table-covers is not p
cisely what it might 1
the designs being mc
clumsy than elega
Mr. J. W. Wards fur
ture damasks, striped
the warp, were v€
superior in design a:
effect, and altogetlii
bis display w.as a taa i
ful one. In Mr. H.
Mac Crea'a expositic
there were two or thi
very excellent exampl
of the furuitui"e class,*

1 1

[ar

AN ILLUSTR/VTEl) CYCLOVjVAMA OF THM (illKAT KXllliaTION OF 1H51.

.'iHl

lOHpociiiRMiH for tho
\itii Ainoricuu mar-
t, of tlio usual bIToc-
'(• {•I\iir)iot.or.
Al'iir- linking ftt tliH
y ,Mii,l(M iiround,
■ rniiLi iliutiona of
T -1. Clay anil Sons
in k.by "'"contmst
r\ allbnlocl, beinp;
- ily jacket cloths
I 1 rickcters, irouinK
uiki'ts, and bluo

llllflH.

Till' display, too, of
I SIS. W. Barra-
iii:;li and Sou was
■c uliar in its chai'ac-
I , Iioing an ftssort-
riit. of di'ugeetings,
i-<yH, &c. Tho con-
iliutiou of Messrs.
I kmyd .and Son,
.1 , neatly -arranged
an 10, showed tho
veral descriptions of
•ms used in tho vari-
is articles of manu-
eture ; carded and
)mbed twofold yarns,
ro and threefold
nappes, imitation
snappes, gcnajipe
arp and weft, comb-
fourfold combed,
id carded : embroid-
■y yai'n, and single
id double yarns,
irded : and in finish-
fabrics they had
aniasks in the several
lixtures of silk, cot-
m, and wool, some
f them exceedingly
ch in colour, and
esign ; Orleans cloth,
erinoes, Cobourgs,
unlets, serges, shal-
)ns, lastings, &c. ;
arious mixtures of
Ipaca, first introduced
the neighbouring
own of Bradford, by
itus Salt, in 1835,
lien he bought a
arcel which had lain
ong on the importer's
.inds, and was be-
inning to be thought
iseless, though it is
,ow so largely used
hat the price has
iseu from Sd. and 9rf.
ler lb. to '2s. 3d., and
iven at times to 2.1. Sd.
nd 2s. Sd. This firm
.re the largest pro-
lucers in the town ;
md some idea may be
brmed of the extent
)f their operations
rom the fact that
;hey pay 150,000^. in
ifa^ges per annum.

Slessrs. Aked and
Sons showed another
;lass of goods — pan-
;aloons, mixture coat-
Dgs and fancy
heques ; and these
were excellent of
;heir kind, in colour
nd quality.

Having thus briefly
;one over the pro-
iuctions of this im-

■ tt (;.■—. i r ,. \

^-^V

lUlUKj.N PATTERN, BY BEKHY, COVENTRT.
Till-: reputation of tho Coventry ribbons is woU supported by this firm, from amongst whoso
display we select a very pretty pattern.

-i?i!k*,,|M.>-*:V^.:

SHAWL.— WEBBER AND U.UES.

port'irit district, we
havu to add thiit tho
examination of it« va-
riduH exccllcnccB, the
iiu[>ortaDt intcregtM
at stake in connexion
with it« widc-«prca/l
commercial con-

nexion, tho cfTorta
maile by tho manu-
facturers of tho Went
Hiding to give full
effect to tho Great
Exhibition by good
and truthful exam-
ples of all they could
do, demanded that
everyattcntion should
be paid to the result
of those efforts; and
we are perfectly satis-
fied that no unpreju-
diced mind can have
looked upon this dis-
play with anything
but satisfaction, since,
in spite of all sorts of
sneers and inuendoes
about base imitations
of superior goods, the
deceptions practised
in the manufacture of
cloth — all too true in
many instances in the
ordinary course of
trade — we have here
such a proof of the
capabilities of the ma-
nufacturers of this
f.'reat district, as will
lend to place them in
an infinitely better
position than they
have ever held before
in the estimation of
those most interested
m these productions..

SHAWL.

WEBBER AND HAIRS.

We have, or fancy
we have, a distinct
recollection of this
shawl, in the Central
South Gallery of the
Crystal Palace, and
also, that it struck
us as being a little
loo " striking " in re-
spect of outline. The
design is ingenious
enough, and certainly
bold, though making
use only of acknow-
ledged shawl decora-
tive figures. The fault
is that the pattern is
not sufficiently inter-
woven ; and that, in
aiming after effect
that most essential
point in the intended
•' effect " of a shawl,
comfort and repose,
has been disregarded.
In articles of dress
the successful blend-
ing of colours should
bo the prime consi-
deration; and as to
pattern, for those of
daily use, the less
out-of-tlie-wayism the
better.

382

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS-

SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS.

gURGICAL instruments might naturally be supposed to offer but little
interest to the general public ; yet the displny exhibited, both by tlie
British and foreign manufacturers, was so replete •srith curious contri-
vances, and on many accounts so remarkable, that we feel bound to give
a short notice : and wo venture to hope, that even the non-professional
reader will be gratified with the account of some of the curious adapta-
tions which have been devised to alleviate suffering or to cure disease.
The time has long since passed away when the surgeon alone commanded
respect for bold operations, and the medical man is now most esteemed
who, by .skill and judicious treatment, and who, by the power of thought
and the use of the faculties of the brain, so treats his patient that the
knife is unnecessary, and nature is assi.sted to work its own more natural
cure. In this manner, hundreds of limbs which were formerly recklessly
amputated, are now saved to tlie patient, and this class of operation is
lessened by skill and judgment, to an extent which hai'dly admits of
belief. Of late years, however, an extensive class of new operations has
been introduced for the cure of deformities of vaiious kinds ; and though
even here, perhaps, in future days the necessity for operating may be
lessened, yet, while it exists, their performance confers a great boon to
the patient.

First and foremost, we have to consider the orthopcedic operations for
the cure of contracted limbs, club-feet, &c. These deformities ai-e cured
by a division of the tendons of certam contracted mtiscles, when, by
mechanical contrivances, the limb is brought into its proper position.
The after mechanical adaptations require much skill and knowledge on
the part of the insti-ument-maker ; and, after minutely inspecting the
instruments exhibited, we are disposed m this m.itter to award the first
place to Mr. Ferguson, of Smithficld, who has notoriously the largest
business in this depart.ment of manufacture, and who has invented curious
contrivances by which the club-foot is restored to its natural form, and by
means of screws and springs the distorted member is compelled to assume
its natural position.

The operations which are performed to remedy defects of vision, or to
cure squinting, demand particiilar attention. The deformity of squinting
detracts much from personal appearance, but surgeons have now an
operation which very rarely fails in the hands of the skilful practitioner.
It consists in the division of the muscle which draws the eye on one side,
when the wound heals up, and the deformity is rectified. Other operations
are performed on the eye to remove or heal up tlie crystalline lens, the
opacity of which constitutes cataract; and again delicate operations are
sometimes required for the purpose of forming an artificial aperture in
the curtain or isis, when by disease it has become artificially closed. For
all these purposes the most delicate and perfectly constructed mstru-
ments are required ; and, in our judgment, the palm must be awarded in
this case to our French neighbours ; and we may even say that we are
surprised at the excellence, ingenuity, perfection, and cheapness' of the
articles which they have exhibited. For ophthalmic instruments, perhaps
M. Luer must be considered the first exhibitor; and when we mention
that in our presence he took a cataract needle, bent it backwards and
forwards, cut his nail with it, and then showed that it retained its cutting
edge sufficiently well to cut a piece of leather, the surgeon may form an
idea of the perfection of the manufacture. Whilst we are inclined, in
ophthalmic instruments, to awai-d the first place to M. Luer, yet the
<lifierence between hhu and M. Charricre in this matter is hardly
appreciable ; his ophthalmic instruments possess a very high order of
merit.

There were exhibited by many manufacturers different specimens of
trasses, and the practical surgeon knows that sometimes one is preferred,
sometimes the other, according to the particular case which has to be
treated ; but we have now to call attention to that which ha.s lately been
devised by Dr. Arnott. We have, on many occasions, had to notice the
obhgatious which the profes,^ion and the public owe to the ingenuity of
this distmguished philosopher, and perhaps m no respect is he entitled to
his weU-deserved reputation more than in this invention, the particulars

tri^d tLflt''"" r°' "?"■ f y'*' I»'''«^'>^'1- '^'l'« t™3s itself is BO oon-
tnitd that It can be made of any strength in the snrincr, the form of the
spi-mgcanbe regulated to the greatcst^icety, and the pad can be set to
anymchnation to the spring and there fixed. By this excellent device.

some of the worst forms of disease can be effectively reduced, and by this
contrivance a desideratum long required has been efficiently supplied
To the honour of the medical profession, and the credit of the true
pliilosophei-, this invention, like all his former otes, Dr. Arnott has given
to the public without reward, and hence any mechanic may make it, elthei
for his own use or for sale.

In Mr. Ferguson's case were also shown instruments adapted to support
the patient m cas^s of lateral or posterior spinal curvature. Such con-
trivances are, undoubtedly, occasionally required : but the majority oi
these deformities, especially in the slighter cases of females, are owing tc
the improper use of stays, which are so contrived as especially to favour
.this production ; and, iu fact, the majority of these abominations shown
in the Crystal Palace may be viewed rather as articles to be avoided than
to be commended. Every mother should know that the female form if
never developed in all the beauty of nature if it is permitted to be imper-
tinently meddled with by art, and hence the Chinese shoe or Indian
compress are no whit more barbarous than the English stays. The one
destroys the foot, the second completely alters the shape of the head, and
the last contorts the chest and forms a lateral curvature in the back : so
th.at, whilst we may send out schoolmasters to civilise the Chinese and
Indians, they, iu return, may send to this country teachers to rectifv
English notions.

IVhilst upon deformities, we should notice the artificial legs and armr^
m the South-east Gallery, which are employed in the Austrian army after
amputation has been required. They were shown for the economy o(
their manufacture, and arc certauily vastly superior to the wooden pc^s
and hooksuscd in this country. Artificial noses were shown, which won-
derfully hide the injury to the countenance caused by a loss of that or"-an ■
and artificial eyes were contributed by Grossmith, and in this department
the French were also exhibitors, in the person of M. Boissonne.au. Arti-
ficial eyes are used to correct the deformitv which is produced by a
collapsed globe ; and so perfectly can they be adapted to imitate the
other eye, that it is w.'th difliculty that the one can be recognised from
the other. Glass eyes are made of a very fusible enamel, which partially
dissolve by the tears, and hence require to be renewed once a year or
year and a half AVe do not know whether any of those exhibited vfcix-
so made <as to obviate this very serious incoiiveniencc.

Amongst the instruments, stethoscopes were shown in many varieties.
By the stethescope, the physici.an ascertains what is gomg on witliin
his patient's chest : he hears the air enter and emerge from the lungs ;
he listens to the action of the v.ilves of the heart, and ascertams whether
any deviation from a healthy function is occuiTing. The stethescopcs
made by the Gutta Percba Company are perhaps the best which modern
science has afforded. For ourselves, however, with certain exceptions, we
greatly prefer the ear alone, unaided by foreign contrivances.

Amongst other contrivances for distinguishing disease, the instrument
devised by Mr. Avery, which was shown by Mr. Weis.s, well deserves
attention. By the use of a speculum and lamp, hs is enabled so to illu-
minate cavities iu the body as to be able to see in situations where
hiherto it has been thought impossible to obtain a view of the pai-ts
}\ e happen to know that Mr. Avery has lalioured for years to briu" his
invention to its present perfection, and he must now be congratulated for
his success.

We also remarked Mr. Alfred Smee's optometer, for accurately deter-
mining the optical properties of the eye: which is of important service
lu discnminatmg the numerous diseases of defective adjustment and
impaired sight.

_ Tom-niquets, or instruments for arresting the flow of blood, were shown
m many varieties. Of late years, attempts have been made so to con-
struct these instruments, that, whilst they press upon the artery and
prevent the flow of blood into the limb, tliey do not compress the veins
and prevent its return. The instrument devised by Mr. .Skey, jun., is
well adapted for this purpose, and was shown in the interesting collection
of instruments exhibited by Mr. Ferguson. Mr. Ferguson also showed
chloroform inhalers ; but m.any surgeons now simplv place a small quan-
tity of that fluid upon a handkerchief. At St. Bartholomew's Hospital
chloroform has been almost invariably adopted since its discovery, and,
wo believe, has not been in any one ease attended with any unplea-sant
result. Nevertheless, at other places accidents have occurred from its
use: so that this gi-eat discovery cannot altogether be said to be free
from danger. Mr. Hooper made the first in London, and sent some to
our office. We tried its effects upon some rabbits, and lost one or two,
from which we stated, that we feared, that, without great care, untoward
results might possibly occur. Extended experience has shown that by
proper care and skilful management, the discovery of the properties of
chloroform has conferred a great boon on mankind, by allowing the
surgeon to convert, for a time, the conscious man into an insensible body,
aud by enabling him, in that state, to conduct his operations attended
with as little pain as though the patient were a lifeless stone or mcrt log
of wood.

^ The French instrument-makers are greatly distinguished for their
ingenuity ; but, really many of their contrivances are mere useless toys.
Nevertheless, other devices deserve high commendation. They have an
instniment for removuig pieces of catheter, which is so devised, that
whether caught transversely, or in any other position, it smugs round
into the horizontal fonn, and is driven out by its long axis. By this
device an operation may be sometimes prevented, as an obstruction may
bo extracted by its means, which could only otherwise be removed by the

AN ITiLUSTKATKI) CYCLOIVKDIA 01'' TUK fJKKAT KXHTHITTON OF IRr.l.

Tlio iippnratiia for rumoviiig tlio tonnilH ifl very »implo : wo bcliovc

llitij nro iJUK'li cliCiiiici- than tlioso iimdo by our iiiMtriiincnt-iniikfrH,

liiii-.' «ro sovoral varieticsi of troimniiiiiK uppftratus amoiiKBt the Krcncli

istnitnoiiU which dowirvo iittL'iitioii, though in civil Hcrvico this m nil

peratinn wliich is but Hi-lilom cinployoil.

Dr. .lames Aniott showed coiitiivanoes for obtaining a Ic^a of feeling liy

,1, iteiisu cold, and also niean.t for keeping a constant utreain of water of any

,, ,Von tcmiicraturo ai^ainut any jiart of the body. ]!y tlie application of

ij BRt and cold va-^t residts may bo produced : and it is s;d<l tliat oporationH

Idv bo ]ierrorincd witliout pain upon parta boniunbed with intense

)ld.

Aiiionjst tlio fiurgical instruments were placed a series of Daeucn-do-
rpii drawings by Dr. liadcock, of cases illustratinf; that the small-pox
rns may be inserted in tho cow, and {;ivcs ri.so to pustules, which again
iiy iirodiico 111 mail the eow-po.x. lie states that his expnrhiients have
rii conclueted in ShdU cases ; .and hence it follows, that if tho small-pox
louhl break out in any ]iart of the world, there is no occasion to wait for
m)ih from distant countries, but medical men have means at command
' in-oiluciiiK from the patients tliat which is comneteut to protect others,
he discovery of .Jenncr is certainly oue as remarkable as any in medical
story.

I'liere were sovoral varieties of transfusion apparatus shown by different
kers. Occasionally, when a person is. suffering from the last stage of
inting from loss of "blood, the .abstraction of blood from one peraon and
joction into the patient has sufficed to restore life. We have seen two
three instances where such an operation has been perfectly successful,
id yet it should never be performed except in extreme cases. Upon the
hole, perhaps, tho best instrument was that exhibited by Fergusson. with
le double i-eeeiver, devised by Dr. Goodfellow. to hold the blood, and at
le same time to keep it warm to jirevent its coagulation.
A number of specimens of oil-silk aud other transparent membranes were
lown for the treatment of incised and open wounds. The art of surgery
la in no direction more advanced than in the treatment of these cases ; and
any instances, which used formerly to be covered with heavy m.T«.se3 of
jultico, which irritated and caused much discharge, are now treated much
ore ele:;;intly and simply by a piece of lint and a covering of either oil-
Ik or gutta percha. 'I'liis line of treatment is not only one which affords
1 comfort to the patient, but the jirogress of the cure is much facilitated
1(1 the recovery is more I'apid when this plan is adopted.
The various instruments necess<ary for removing calculi were shown. It
as hoped that by crushing the stone the operation for litliotomy
ight often be dispensed with. Nevertheless, notwithstanding the great
iprovf monts in the instruments, the latter operation is found too irritating
many ca.^es. and the surgeon has now more frequently to perform the
)cration for lithotomy than was originally anticipated when the new process
me into, use. Tlie French lithotrites are remai-kahle for their cheapness,
we believe that they arc sold at a much lower rate than those which are
anufactured by English workmen. Mr. IVakley's instruments for dilatation
ere show'u by two or three exhibitors. They consist of a scries of tubes,
ich of which slips in succession over the other. Mr. James Amott also
lowed his pneumatic dilator, but it has not met with very extensive
jplication.

Cutting instruments, such as scalpels, bistouries, saws, scissors, were shown
every conceivable form to meet various cases. Every form of surgical
iedle was shown, including those more complex contrivances for sewing in
.vities far removed from the surface.

With regard to splints, many were exhibited in various parts of the
hiding, adapted for various fractures. When the upper p.art of the thigh
broken, the surgeon experiences much difficulty in keeping the bones in
leir exact place, and hence many contrivances have been made for that
irpose. Wo were much pleased with the i-egistered leather splint for
actures of the tibia aud fibula, having used a somewhat similar contrivance
irselves with great success. The use of gutta-percha, which Mr. Sniee
IS brought into notice, for fractures and diseased joints, did not appear to
sufficiently illustrated, though we obsei'ved a gutta-percha splint in the
idian collection. In our own practice we rarely use anything but moulded
itta-percha splints, and, upon the whole, we believe that this material, if
;htly used, is better adapted for splints than any other substance.
There were various artiticial leeches shown, but the natural leech is
'obably preferable for taking blood to any contrivance which can be made,
apping iustnimeuts. as a matter of course, were exhibited ; and the French
hibited a contrivance for drawing the milk by means of a vacuum, with
contrivance that the child may draw it through another tube at the same
me. We have no practical experience of the efficacy of this invention,
It, where necessary, it might be subjected to the test of experience.
There were several specimens of Hutchinson's spirometers, instruments
led for determining the amount of air which is inspii-ed and expired. Om-
•eseuc means of ascert;uuing the state of the chest by auscultation, per-
ission, aud by observing the amount of expansion, are really almost ample
r the purpose of distinguishing disease. At some of the insurance offices
.is instrnment]is employed ; but a glass-blower or other person accustomed
the use of his lungs invariably shows a capacity of lungs which is far too
eat for his height aud bulk. Without positively stating th.at in no instance
may be u.'ieful, we may state that it is far from being an universally
iplieablc instrument for the surgeon.

The dentists exhibited numerous specimens of their art. We hardly are
gposed to consider tho relative merits of the rival exhibitors, but the

contoBt njipenrs to lie between thmo who make their teeth of tho tnnk of
till! hippopotaniua, and th'mo who rely upon a particularly hard enamol
constructed for the purpoiw. In the lulaptution of artlHcial niaxticating
appanituH it in neceHsary that they nhoulil be conntnictc'd with tho grcaMnt
nicety ; and perhaps the bent apparatus wliich lia« yet Ixsen devised in that
wliien has been patented by Mr. Tome*, ami which has nlrea/ly received tho
medal from tho Society of Art«. Thi-* machine, which is very carioag,
Jlr. Tonics ncglcct»"d to send to tho Exhibition — an omianon wliich, in oar
judgment, ho should not have been guilty of, an it is the moHt iiitcreirtiDjj
adilition to the nicchani.TOi reconniacd by tho Bciontific dentist which hoii
been ileviscd of modem years. Jn the South-west gallery, tli o«o whodelight
in the grote.*'quc were much amused by sets of artiticL-il teeth kept in motion
by niochanical contrivances.

Mr. Weiss exhibited a complete surgeon'K cabinet, and hifi inntrumentx,
especially his forceps and lithotrites, were of the highc«t fininh. Mr. Evang
and Mr. Saviguy are grcally celebrated for their cutting iiii<tnimcnt«, and,
from our own experience, wo must say that this latter Ann are famous for
the quality and temper of their knives, and, perhaps, upon the whole, wo
prefer their inatrunients of this claas, Mr. Simps. in contributed a limitcfl
display of good instruments. Mr. Ferguson's ca.se contained bv far tho
most cxtensivo variety of mstnimcnts, luid for all the orthopocdic instru-
ments, ho must bo considered to hold the first place. For minute
contrivances ami complicated instruments. M. Cliariirre and M. Luer bear
the palm ; so that, in point of fact, whilst all are excellent, each of the firms
is distinguished for some point, and all have maintained their high reputation
in the different articles which they have shown.

HARDWARE.
(Continued from page 304.)

E return onco more to a consideration of the various objects of native
production in iron and general hardware. Classes XXI. and XXII.
These classes comprehend a very extensive series of manufactured articles.
The range between a delicate bead needle and the huge Admiralty anchor
is a wide one, but in tho Exhibition it was well filled iu, and adinits of
division into many important groups. Tho metal manufacture is, to such
a mineral-producing country as England, a study of the utmost importance,
and to examine it aright, under the favourable circumstances of the Great
Exhibition, it should have been commenced in Class I. The character of the
iron obtained from different kinds of ore was there shown, and many examples
of finished manufacture associated with them. In the collection of
Messrs. Eird and Company, some very remarkable examples of manufac-
tiu-ed iron were shown; and the Ebbw Vale Company, Messrs. Beeeroft
& Co., and some others, showed the peculiar molecular arrangement of
iron bars of different descriptions, with a view to the determination of the
quality of the bar for any use to which it may be applied.

With iron, as a metal, every one is familiar — there is no natural pro-
duction which baa been so extensively employed for the use of man as
this mineral. Xet we are almost entirely ignorant of some of its most
remarkable properties. Very slight causes, which cannot be easily deter-
mined, give rise to a fibrous or crystalline condition. It has been stated
that vibration merely will produce the change ; aud that railway axles have
been known to break, from the circumstance of their undergoing this
change in the structui'al arrangement of their particles. Some experiments
made by engineers have not, however, confinned this statement, and the
probability is that the cry.stalline structure is generally induced in the
process of cooling, but it is certain that repeated hammering will effect the
cli.ange in question.

Jtr. Morris Stirling has patented a process by which he associates
wrought with cast iron, and alloys iron with other metals ; thus, according
to his statement, producing a much tougher metal than that which is ordi-
narily employed. A rail broken, to show the sti-ucture of the bar, exhi-
bited the fibrous or toughened top in cohesion with a crystalline centre
and fully illustrated these two conditions. Many metallic alloys were exhi-
bited %vitli the other illustrations of the patent processes of Mr. Stirling
and in the central avenue was a bell of very remarkable tone, which
showed, by its musical note, the perfection of its molecular composition,
this being one of the patent alloys. M. Savart has shown that the natural
note of any sonorous body depends upon the arrangement of its particles,
and he has proposed to adopt this as a test for determining the actions of
the molecular forces, and changes of sti-ucture which cannot be in any
other way detected.

Sheet iron of various kinds was exhibited, both black, tinned and "gal-
vanised :" but wh»n we passed t" an examination of the Kussian sheet iron,
a remarkable difference was found in its favour. Our sheets are rough —
even the best are not tnie sm-faces ; whereas the Kussian presents a most

B8t

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS.

uniform texture, and the utmost smoothness of face. The coating with
zinc, which is effected in several ways, forming the galvanised iron of the
market, is valuable as protecting that metal — the exterior coating of zinc
oxidising, and forming a crust
through wliich atmospheric influ-
ences cannot act. Berlin has long
been celebrated for its iron cast-
ing, a large proportion of the po-
pulation of that city being en-
gaged in the production of orna-
mental works in iron. When,
however, the gates of the Coal-
brook Dale Company, those of
Cottam and Hallen, and the rus-
tic dome of the former company
are considered, it must be evi-
dent that we have the ability to
produce castings of equal beauty
to those of Berlin. Great stress
has been laid upon the character
of the iron ore employed, and
the circumstance that the Berlin
works are " manufactured from
bog iron ore has been seized

upon in explanation of their fine character. But the " Eagle Slayer," and
the small statuettes, both black and bronzed— and, in addition to these,
the numerous and very beautiful castings from other works — prove that
the English iron-foimder can produce articles in irou possessing as high a
degree of elegance and sharpness as any which the foundries of Berlm can
supply.

\Ve have in a former ai"
tide spoken of the variety
and beauty of the metal
work on the grates and
stoves. The brass furni-
ture in the Exhibition was
ofastrikingcharacter,but
we are not satisfied with
the increasing practice of
overlayingallthesethings
with an excess of orna-
ment, and of disguisiug
the purpose of the arti-
cles. Lamps intended
for gas are made to repre-
sent oil-lamps, and can-
dlesticks are tortured in-
to shapes which were cer-
tainly never designed to
carry either wax or tallow.
Good taste indicates that
the utmost beauty should
be given to the form of
even the most ordinary
utensil, butthatits object
should never be dis-
guised. In manufactures
every thing should be
what it seems. We have
heard objections raised to
the combination of glass
and parian with metal.
We see no objection to
this where the parts of the
whole design are made to
blend in harmony, and
where the combined re-
sult is at once indicated.
Much of the pressed brass
is exceedingly good, and
the manufacture of brass
furniture by Messrs.
Wjnfield & Co. appears
to have been carried to
a point of superior excel-
lence.

The bays devoted to the manufacture of Birmingham and Sheffield were
remarkable exemplifications of the varieties of metal manufacture in those
marts of industry. The brass, or-molu, Britannia metal, and German
silver, which are worked into a thousand different forms of use and orna-
ment, together with the illustrations of button manufacture, sufficiently
distinguished the division allotted to Birmingham — whilst penknives and
pruning-hooks. scissoi's and scythes, swords and saws, clearly determined
where the industiy of that town is located which from the days of the
Saxona has been celebrated for its cutlery. Mr.ny of the examples here
displayed were of a most exti-aordinary kind. They at once showed the
facilities of the manufactories of .ShefBeld for producing every variety of
steel goods, and the zeal with which the workmen and the manufacturers

STAMPED BR.\SS CORNICE. — WINFIELD AND CO.

had~entered on the task of producing the best specimens of their work foi
the Exhibition. Sheffield plate, much of which was exhibited ii
Class SXIII., as distinguished from electroplating, also marks a peculiai

branch of industry. In thi
first, the silver and coppei
are, by means of a furnaci
fire and a flux, united ; and thi
compound cake is then brough
under rollers and extended. Sil
ver, being much more ductil
than copper, is capable of mucl
greater extension : and it is prac
ticable, consequently, to spreai
a very thin layer, in this way.ove
a very large surface of copper.
Much of the plated metal no'
in the market owes its silver t
the chemical decomposition
a salt of silver in solution — thi
being effected by voltaic agenc
■ — so that the revived metal
precipitated in an adhering an
very uniform coating over ever
exposed surface. The electrotyf
and electro-plating processes are to bo re<^koned among the most v.iluab'
of the modern applications of science.

The cutlery and hardware of many of the foreign departments merited tV
utmost attention. In the French department were examples of castings at
other modes of production in iron, brass, bronze, and zinc. Austria was a lai^

contributor of every vai
ety of metal manufaetu'
— almost every part of tl
empire producing eith
metal goods or the m
talliferous minerals. B
hernia, Moravia, Sty^i
the Tyrol, Carniola, ai
Ciirinthia, sent speeime
of their native produ
and of their manuff
tures. Among the i
mark.ible points of t
Austrian metal manuf
tare are the Milan ste
as it is iisually calk
and lead pipes. One (
ample — a pressed lead
pipe. 900 feet long in o
piece — was shown, a:
they can be made of eqi
thinness and fineness
any length. The exte
of the steel manufacto
may be judged of fro
the fact that the 142 ste
works of Austria fumi
annuallj' about sev<
million of scythes, s
kles, and straw-cutte
The Zollverein had al
an extensive and int(
esting exhibition of se^
ral branches of the
hour bestowed on met
manufacture. Nass
sent her iron ores in CO
sidcrable v.oriety, as w(
as manufactured iro
The United States a
yet young as a metal-pr
ducing country. No
withstanding their exte
sive supplies of iron or
most of the iron they ei
ploy, and all the steel,
imported from Englan

HERALDIC TABLE-COVER. BY UNDERWOOD.

The Heraldic Table-Cover, by Underwood, of Oxford-street, is arem^rkabl
handsome specimen of British taste and skill, and is intended to comm
morate the Great Exhibition of 1851. In the centre are the arms of th
British Empire, and around are those of the principal nations of the glob
On the extreme edge are suitable inscriptions, as : —

"In tenui l.iljor et tenuis non gloria" (Tlie laijour has been expended on a slight ^n
auction, but tlio glory will not be trifling.) " Lahorare est orare " (To work is to worship
" t^nod omnium gentium artificia apud Britaiinos, A.u. 1851, exposita comniemoret" (T
commemorate the workmanship of all nations held in Great Dritain, a.d. 1S51.)
We understand that no less than 223 blocks and copper-plates have bMl
used in printing this table-cover, which is two yards square.

KEHALDIC TABLE-CUVEH, All.MS OK ALL NATIONS, — UNDLR'.VOOD.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

SlDEBOAliU. — MICtSKS. SNEI.L.— (bKi: I'AUK SOti.)

No. -J.".. JIahcii -iU, 1S52.

Piule O.ne Penxt.

386

THE CRYSTAL PALACE

-• ■■ — Tv-\ ^-Ti ^r

AND ITS CONTENTS;

ARMS AND ARMOUR.

j^MONC

GUNS.
3N6 the guns exhibited, one case from Birmingham presented an
epitome of the trade. First was a common flint musliet mth a
Btajned beech stock, sold wholesale for about a dozen shil-
lings, for the African trade, and a much better article than
what used to be made in the old slave-trade days, when a
■»un was the price for a man ; etill, although warranted,
the African musket is of low manufacture. By steps, im-
proTcmeuts and ornaments are introduced, until ^ve are led
from the plain double gun for the American market to the
best ai-tiele that Birmingham can produce, elaborately orna-
mented.

Some of the gtms were 400/. each ; and the low-priced
5s. 6d. A very instructive collection was exhibited by Mr.
H. Hart, showing the complete manufacture of g\m-bai-rels,
from the old horse-shoe stubs of the earliest periods, to the
latest improvements.

In the collection of Messrs. Tipping & Co. there was a
complete collection of iron and steel in various combinations,
for being ultimately welded into gun -barrels. The metal
was shown formed into a " bloom," welded into a rod, rolled into a flat
bar, coiled round a mandril like a ribbon, then welded into a ban-el,
ground, filed, and finally finished. All ttie separate parts of a gun, show-

from getting to the powder. Mr. Needham, of Piccadilly, showed several
peculiarities in the form of selfpriming mu'kets, self-loading carbines,
and ^uu<i to load at the breech. Mr. Beckwith, of Snow-hill, exhibited
some blunderbuses, with six radiating bai-rels. Erskine's newly-invented
waterproof and safety gun (also exhibitedl provides, in one action, against

PROVING PISTOL. — DEVISME.

ing the vast number of pieces that go to make up the whole, were also to
be seen.

Colonel Peter Hawker not only sent a famous Stanchion gun, which
loads at the breech, and balances so nicely that a finger
touch is sufficient to adjust the aim ; but a very neat
model of an improved punt, for wild-duck shooting.
Colonel Hawker also exhibited " a new double gun for
1851," the novelty of which is the selfadjusting primers,
without cover or spring, that will not only defy wet
weather, but also the saline atmosphere in sea-coast
service — iu whicih he has proofed the failure of all
copper-caps and -fine powder. This new gun has coni-
cal breechings that will admit, wlien required — as in
wet weather, or at aett — the use of the largest grain can-
non-powder.

There were not exhibited many remarkable novel-
ties, the chief merit consisting in excellence of work-
manship and high finish. Messrs. Mantou and Sou, of
Dover-street, were eshibitoreof several of their celebrated
double-baiTels, 'most beautifully finished. Messrs. WeStley, Hichards, Hmid
Son, of Birmingham, exhibited specimens of rifles and " double tiger
guns." Nearly nil the best makers, indeed, sent contributions in some
form or other. Among the novelties, may be noticed the protector against
wet, invented by Mr. Gibbs, of Bristol, which consists of a small India-
rubber cover'that fits over the nipple of the gun, and prevents any wet

BEVOLTER PISTOL. — DEANE AND CJ,

the percussion-cap being prevented from 'exploding by exposure to the
rain, and also prevents the accidental discharge of the gun by the hammer
falling. This is effected in a very simple manner. A metal
shield, containing a ring of India-rubber, encloses the cap
completely, so as to keep out all damp ; and at the same
time, prevent the liammer striking the cap, shoiild it fat
accidentally. Tlie instant the gun is brought to the shoul
der, for the pairpose of firing, a spring in the butt of th<
gun, by the mere pressure against the shoulder, release^ thi
shield, which flies up, and leaves the cap free for the actioi
of the hammer.

Mr. Greener, of Birmingham, exhibited a numerous col
lection of guns ; one being intended to fire a rocket with .
line from a life-boat to a ship in distres.s, and another t
discharge a barbed harpoon into the bodies of sperm whale.-
Both these gvms arc formed of Bramah's metal (brouze)
copper -n-ith a small proportion of tin. Here were also seve
ral varieties of steel in connexion with iron, demonstratin;
its tenacity, capability for extension, and density ; and thi
was well exemplified in a pair of double gims, which ar
stated to be, by the elasticity of their material, superior t
any other combination of metal for gun-barrels.
Among the curiosities, was a gun fitted up in the shank of a whip
another in an ordinary walking-stick, &c. Mi-. Hart, of Birmingham, showa
an invention '• to make any gun shoot well, however lightly or heavil;
charged," aud by which "a smgle shot of auy guu-charge, fired at th
distance of 40 vards, will annearuiion mi i!"!! tirt'et, the size of a fourpennj

riVE-BAKEELLED PISTOL. — LEFATW11EU3.

piece : or, in its progi-ess, a single corn of shot will go through a penny.
Mr Goddard showed first-class fowling-pieces— an American duck gun, K
East Indian Company's pattern musket, an African musket ; aud a '• Cali
fornian Protector," from which are fired sugar-loaf halls, which kill at nea
800 yards' distance.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPvliDIA OF THE GllEAT EXHiniTION OF 185].

387

FOREIGN OUNS, &a

1 1 [JUS, — Tho novth siJo of tlio Kxliibitiou presontotl morn novoUios in firo
-n than the) British. Tlio method of loiwling at tho breocli, which is
•o)y intioiliicod in Rn'.;hinil, ^na been for oomo tiriio common on tho
linunt: sovenil upeoinn'OH of this kind wore cxliibitod. Tho (•router
'li(y of Icjadiuf,', by using rillo barrols, hiia lod to their being inlroducod
I ui s.ivi'riil Prussinn regiiuont.'f : it is etiited that tlio Ui:vvy Pruasiau illle,
witli a conical ahot, has an cfl'uctivo range of lOnO yards. PruBsiaaiso ex-
hibited some higldy ornamonted and woll-fmislieilgnns and pistols. Franco
exhibited several ca^ea of guns and pistols. M. Flobert carries the plan of
loading at tho breech into operation in a very novel manner: ho uses n
Bniall uartridga niado of percussion powderalone; the ball is fixed to the end
of tin* cap. and i< introduced at tho breech by tho doubling downof the barrel ;
and tho blow of tho locU expUnles tho percussion powder, which propels the
biUl without tho addition of gunpowder. It is
stated th.at a pistol-ball may be juado <.>flectivo
in this maiuierat 100 yards, and thatarillewiU
double tliat range. In the Prussian Zuud-
adcl-gowohr, or noedlogun, loading by tho
breech is effected by the cartridge, on one end
of which is stuck a patch of detonating pow-
der, vyliich becomes exploded by the rapid
darting forward of a needle, whence the appel-
lation Burn-ncalk Oim is derived. The I5cl-
gians displayed here guns and pistols of all
kinds, to suit various nations — European,
African, Asiatic, and American — from the
small-bored, long-barrelled gun, with short
Btock, used by the turbulent hordes of North
Africa, to the delicacies of breech-loading rifles
and revolving pistols.

Colt's revolvers in the American department
."xcited consider.able interest. The great differ-
ence between these revolvers, or " Patent Re-
peating Pistols," and tho revolvers made in
this country, is, that our pistol has a barrel

for every shot; while the " Repeater " has but one barrel, and a sis-
chambered revolving cylinder for tho reception of tho charges. The
hammer is placed beliiud the cylinder, sufficiently low to form, by the help
of a groove in tho fore-part, when cocked, a back sight. When half-cocked,
the cylinder rotates freely on the base-piu, so as to bring in turn all the
chambers in a position to receive their charge. When cocked, the cylinder
is fixed ready for a discharge, by pulling the trigger ; and re-cocking produces
like results, till all the chambers are discharged. In loading, balls of soft
lead, without wadding or patch, are placed upon the mouths of the chambers,
turned under tho rammer and forced home by tho lever — so completely
filling the chambers, as to preserve the powder in a condition for firing, even
after completely immersing the arm in water. Colt's Holster Pisjtol projects
a ball 1200 yards ; and, during some
trials at Woolwich, at a distance of
fifty yards, the whole six shots re-
peatedly struck the target within ;i
circle of six inches
radius from the
centre of the bull's-
eye. Again, when
the hammer is
down, it I'ests be-
tween two of the
pillars, which pre-
vents the breech
from turning, and
secures it from ac-
cident.

RiFLEis. —Specimens of rifle-barrels in every stage of finish, were sent by
several exhibitors, to show the mode of making the twist. • Amongst the
most recent improvements, was Mr. Lancaster's " Elliptic 'smooth bore,
twisted, or spirally inclined." Manton and Sons sent a double rifle; and
Wilton and Daw a Two-ounce Rifle " for India and Africa."

Telescopes were fixed on many of the rifles, with cross hair in them, to
assist the shooter in taking aim. From Prussia were exhibited a Rifle
loading at the breech, by Shaller, of Seehl ; a Rifle with seven barrels, all
to be fired at once with needles ; and a Belgian Kifle. in which the charge
is placed in a cylinder, which revolves in the breech, the lock being cocked
at the same time ; it is fired by a needle.

L. Sauerbey, of Gotha, contributed a Double Rifle of solid cast-steel ; the
barrels bored in a converging direction, so as to aim at the object with both
balls. And L. Tenteuberg, of Heiter, showed a "Rifle with Seven Barrels,"
for wild-fowl shooting; in which all the barrels can be fired and loaded at
once.

Rerolvinij Guns and Pistols were exhibited both in the English and Foreign
collection; with from C to 21 barrels, which revolve, and bring each barrel
in turn imder the liammer of the lock ; or they have one barrel, surrounded
by several revolving chambers, which are fired like the barrels. Revolving
Barrels were shown in great numbei-s ; one from France had a dagger pro-
jecting between tho screws ; there was also an American Self-cocking and
Repeating 1 0-barrel Pistol, and a Belgian 21-barrel ; each adjusted by pulling

tho trigger. All English Rerolviug Hammer, with lix bamlt, wait likowUo
Hhown.

Obdnanck. — Iro.v Oiins avd Mohtaiui — Among the Eoglinh upcnimeiu,
were two noble gunH from the Low Moor Iron-Work*; one a .V2-pi Minder,
and the other for 10-inch ShelU, mounttid on Improved Carri4f^4*« aiid
Slides. The Belgian Oovornmeut exhii>ittid hix Ountt and Howitz^ra. and a
Alortar, ciwt at Liego, rough its from the mould, the canHron [>r<p;ircd with
coke and wood; one of these gun». rovcnterl, lia.t utood flOOO roundu; and
another, 2118 rounds, with it« vent Bcarccly injured. From Prussia wa«
shown a Field-gun, of forged cast-«tcol. There were also n Wrought-iron
Howitzer and Mortar from Spain ; Turkish QunH (twixtcd) with gold tmch-
holes, and superbly inlaid ; an Indian Iron Field-gnu upon a curious car-
ri.igo; besides Camel Quns on Pivots, or fixed to the Baddle-bow. A Brass
Howitzer, !l inches bore, was shown from tho Royal Foundry, at Seville.

eOi-TS ItKVOLViiH.

Among iho'SfuUs exhibited was cue of the monster Paixhain Mortar, used
at the siege of Antwerp, and oue,of whose shells made "a hole large enough
to bury two horses."

Percussion Caps. — The French and Belgians sent specimens, but neither
will resist dump or fira so certainly as the English ; and it may be ques-
tioned if the Austriaus equal the French. Sellier and Beliot, of Prague.
furnished a lmnd=ome specimen of their Percussion Caps, and stated that

UN TO BE LOADED AT THE BREBCH, ON LEFAUCHEUX's PLAX.

" the« total manufacture of 'caps' for sporting guns in Europe may be
estimated at one thousand three hundred millions yearly, and the quantity
of copper requisite for its production is 396,0001b. weight."
Among the best English Caps were those exhibited by Walker and Joyce.

REVOIVINO PISTOL. — BY DEAKE AND CO.

The revolving pistol patented by Mr. Adams, of King William-street, of
the firm of Deane, Adams, and Deane (of which we have affixed an Illustra-
tion), has been found on various trials, to possess many advantages, and has
elicited the unanimous approval of the officers of the army and navy, some
of whom, with several noblemen and gentlemen, attended at Enfield and
Woolwich to witness its powers. The advantages it appeare to possess are
sunplicity of construction, lightness, rapidity of loading and firing (at least
ten discharges per minute), that it never misses fire, cannot easily get out
of order, and does not clog up by use. It cocks and fires with one action
on the trigger.

devisme's proving pistol.

Devisme's proving pistol, for trying the strength of gunpowder, is con-
structed upon a very simple principle, and is said to answer the" purpose
with extreme aecm-acy. The charge is inserted in a small tube or bai-rel
drilled in the stock, and which it fills. Against this the flat surface of a
steel spring presses ; and, upon the charge being fired, the extent of the
divergence of the latter along the graduated scale indicates the degree of
strength of the powder proved.

388

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

FOREIGN AND COLONIAL DEPARTMENTS.

DENMARK.
A BOUT forty-seven exhibitors represented this country in the Exhibition.
The articles exhibited illustrated several of the Classes, and included

One of the causes^of the superiority of the Swedish iron for conversion
into steel appears to be this — that the ore employed is the magnetic iron
ore. But an equally important cause unquestionably lies in the fact, that
mineral fuel is not employed in the process of smelting, the fuel used being
charcoal or wood, or both. Carbon is thus supplied to the iron in a form
milch more pure, and possibly much more readily capable of entering into
chemical combination than in its state as coke or coal. The production of
iron being of great impoi'tauce to the prosperity of the country, it has been
the subject of various public enactments, and is carried on under the direct
superintendence and sanction of a Central Board. Licences to manufacture
certain quantities of iron annually are granted, and every furnace and ii-on
forge pays an annual duty to the crown. The amount permitted to be manu-
factured is regulated according to the means of the iron master to obtain
the requisite supply of charcoal without public detriment or inconvenience
from its consumption. The annual amount of iron made in Sweden is
about 90,000 tons, of which about 70,000 are exported. A good collection
of ores from Christinehamn and Boforss was exhibited. It included also
specimens of steel and of toughened iron. Other exhibitors showed speci-
mens indicative of the extreme toughness and resistance to fracture com-
municated to their iron. There was also a large collection of cutlei-y. Of the

IVORT C.ISKET, FROM DENMARK. '

raw produce, machines, manufactures, and fine arts. Among the machinery,
were a pump applicable also as a fire-engine, a steam-whistle also serving as
a water-gauge for steam-boilers, a type-composing machine, and a chaif-
cutting machine. Among philosophical instruments were several clocks and
watches, inclusive of an astronomical clock of accurate construction with
a new escapement. There was also some apparatus for philosophical
experiments, and several surgical instruments. Several nautical compasses,
balanced by a new method, were exhibited. Interest was also attached to
a specimen of mechanical ingenuity and patience in the foiTQ of a file
elaborately made, and containmg a number of small files and ra«ps within
it. In the ceramic art two very different classes of objects were shown,
but both of equal interest, though of greatly dissimilar value ; of these, the
first are specimens of the black crockeiy of the Jutland peasauti-y, made at
their own homes, and ' glazed ' by being smoked so thoroughly as to render
them impervious to water. The other were the productions of the Copen-
hagen Royal Porcelain Manufactory, consisting of vases, figures, &c., in a
high style of art. One of the most interesting articles in this collection, to
those concerned in the applications of the discoveries of philosophy to the
requirements of mechanism, was to be found in the electro-magnetic engine
exhibited by a native of this country. This engine illustrates the practical
application of the electric cuiTent to the development of mechanical force
through the induced magnetism of certain masses of soft iron. A consi-
derable length of stroke has been pained in the machine, and the principal
remaining problem, for its practical employment to the purposes of a prune
mover, is the discovery of an inexpensive and continuous source of the
electric current. When this can be fovmd, if it may be considered possible,
then electro-magnetic engines will to a great extent supersede those moved
by steam and other powers.

SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
The uuiver.sal reputation of Sweden for its iron aud steel, rendered the
specimens exhibited in support of its celebrity the more valuable and
attractive. As many as tliirty of tlie exhibitors of these countries sent
specimens of iron and steel, either in a raw or in a manufactured state.

THE UU.VTEll AND TIORESS. — JERICUAU, OK UENJIAUK.

textile manufactures, were exhibited specimens of flax, silk, and woollen
fabrics and materials. Some models of flowers in wax were also iuteresting.
Specimens of native silver from the mines at Kongsberg, in Norway, indi-
cated the possession of an available source of this valuable metal. Chrome

AN ILLUSTRATKD CYOUn'MDlA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

389

111 oreH mill a I'lii'iniciil |irn(liict frniii tlii'iii, liiclimiiiiiU^ of jiotiiMli, wni'o
liibitotl. IiitorcBt was iiIho tixoitoil by hcuiio ot" tlio lioiiioly doiiifiHtic pro-
rtimiH of tho Swoilish and Norwegian peasantry, wIioho loriR winter
III Kive time for Biicli occupation, ami proclmlo oiit-of-cloor work for
I' I iiiin a few hours. A niagnificout vaso )ilacod in tlio centre avenue,
■iy^r. cannon, unil HpecimouH of ornamental furniture, &c., alHO attracted
icli .attention.

rryntal cliamlrlici-H and llow<-rvaHc« fornu'd an itnpoMJng f<iaturi! in tlii« col-
lection. ArticleH of jewellery, a few HculpturcH, and boolcH, complete tbJH
buccinut summiu-y of the objectii contributed from tlio NetbcrluudH.

rVORY CA8K£T. BT KLINOSEY.

In tlio Denmark Court, tho contentu of which were very limited in
quantity, there were yet Homo very elegant and
pleaning productions in fine art. Of this character
was an ivory jewel casket, ornamented with baa-
reliefs and a group after Thorwaldsen's "Gany-
mede." The style of execution is very perfect, and
almost worthy of comparison with works of tb6
cinque-cento period.

HUNTKIl AND TIORESS, BV JKIIICHAU, OF COPENHAOEN.

This plaster group evinces wonderful spirit, and
is extremely correct in execution. The hunter has
snat<'lie<I away one of the tigress's cubs, and she nishea
wildly \ipon him to recover it, or revenge iU loss.
The attitude of tho hunter, who aims a blow in self
defence, is full of energy and truth.

WOHK TABLE, PROM HAMBURGH.

THE NETHERLANDS.
The productions which this country exhibited, comprised objects I'e-
preseutative of every Class of the Exhibition, and were of a valuable and
attractive character. In the Classes of Raw Material.^ and Produce werj
included several preparations for paints, cements, colours, &c. Agricul-
tural produce and articles of food, particularly a Large pasty of preserved
me.ats, were also exhibited. Some of the chemical substances obtained from
potato-starch, and used iu the arts and commercially, were likewise repre-
sented. Among chemical substances of another kind, interest was excited
by the appearance of chrysammic acid, and some of the brilliant dyes ob-
tained by its use. The textile productions of the Netherlands were i-epre-
sented by several exhibitors of silk, woollen — particularly blankets — and
linen. Mineral manufactures and hardware h.ad also their representatives.
The agricviltural implements exhibited peculiar features of adaptation to
the continental system. An ingenious machine for making percussion-caps,
completely automatic, and producing the caps at the rate of 8000 an hour,
W.1S interesting. A large sugar-cane crushing-mill exhibited some peculiar,
and, it is stated, improved features of genei-al construction. Among philo-

Kophical instruments there was a dynamometer for ploughs. Models of
iridges and locomotive appai'atus, and some models of cutters and boats,
illustrated the Classes to which they belonged. Some good specimens of

RUSTIC ruicMiiiKL, I'hOji Hit: netueulanps.

WORK table, from HAMnORGH.

The rose-wood table, with bag in crimson silk, is a very pretty design of
the eighteenth centuiy, and German fashion, containing numerous divisions
boxes, &c. The effect of the chenille fringe is vci-y good.

RUSTIC FURNITURE. — FROM THE NETHERLANDS.

In the Netherlands department we observed a great variety of rustic fur
niture, constructed of reeds and light woods, which, with great lightness
appear to combine durability. The forms are agreeable, and adapted to
that great English essential, for which there is no word in the French
vocabulary — *' comfort."

FiUE-EXTiNGUiSBiNG MACHINE. — This automatic contrivance was exhibited
by Mr. Bergin, for extiiigiiishing fires in laundries and other parts of a
building specially liable to «uch accidents. The inventor proposes to have
a large tank, containing water, fixed at the top of the room ; this tank to
be perlorated with holes, and to be fitted with a valve plug, like a shower
batli ; the plug to be held down by a string, to be fixed near the most
combustible materials ; in case of fire, the string would be burnt, the plug
would rise and a deluge of water be showered down on the incipient fire.

390

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

IVSECHANICS AND MECHANICAL CONTRIVANCES.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS.

{Continued from page 136.)
gwtkne's dtbect Aoxraa bala>'ced centrifuoal pumps.

TNXIKF. the c umbrous inventions of antiquity, the "' Balanced Centrifugal

Pump" is quick in action, small in size, compact in structure, capable of
being placed in any situation, and of being applied to every description of
< work. Diifering from the household pump, its power may be indefinitely
increased, its volume of water made ample, and its flow continuous. Supe-
rior to the forcing pump, it has scarcely any appreciable friction, is not
restrcted in action by the intervention of an air-chamber; and contrasted
with what aaust be regarded as merely engineering cm-iosities, some recent
examples of which are constructed imder an imperfect apprehension of
the 1 iws of centrifugal force, it has no pai-ts which can get out of order,
no u seless reduplications of apparatus, and none which can in any degree
impede the flow of water.

The detr.ils of construction will be readily understood from the follow-
ing '.echni':al description of the plan, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, the discs,
and the vcrticd section, which we give of a pump, when fitted with all
its parts complete.

CoNSiRUCTios OF THE Pcsip. (See Engi-aving, Sectional View.) —

■1

[

. f.

when large bodies of water are to be dischai'ged, or when hi^h velo-
cities are required. The discs or inner surfaces of the piston, do not, aft-
will be perceived on reference to the sectional figures, meet at their outer
edges, but leave an annular opening, a a. around the whole circumference.
This annular opening may be closed by a band of metal (or the whole
piston may be ca.st in two halves) ; and in this band is cast a scries of
tangential openings, as shown in the engravings, figs. 1, 2, S, 4, 5, and 0.

The piston is formed of two concave discs, a a,

shown in the vertical section, placed parallel,

with their concave surfaces towards each other.

Two saucers, placed in corresponding positions,

would give a popular idea of the arrangement.

Between these discs is a single arm or impeller,

B, radiating from a boss or hollow axis, o,

mounted, on a shaft which works horizontally,

vertically, or at any intermediate angle. The

impeller, which regulates the distance between

the discs of the piston, varies in breadth. Its

naiTowest part is at the outer edge, a, of the

piston, and it becomes gradually broader until

its edge intersects the inner surface of the

opening in the suction side of the piston, from

which line to its extremity, at the boss, its

edges continue parallel to each other, and at

right angles to the axis of the shaft. Its

breadth is varied in such a ratio that the areas

of any section cut from the piston by the

surfaces of circular cylinders, whose axes

coincide with that of the shaft, shall be equal

to such other section at any distance from the

centre; and these arciia are made equal, in

order that the column of water, or other

fluid, entering the pi-ston when in a state of revolution, may have an

uninterrupted flow from the centre to the circumference, and that the

quantity received and dischai-ged may be properly proportioned to avoid

undue friction, and yet prevent reaction. This ia considered essentieil

The form of piston may be varied, and the number of impellers and
tangential openings increased, according to the diameter of the piston, and
the nature of the substance required to be acted upon. From one up to
thirty-two openings have been used ; but it is desirable that the agere-
gate area of these opening's be not more than equal to the area of the
opening at which the water is admitted into the piston. (See figs. 1, 12, 3,
4, C, and 6.i

In working the pimip, the water is drawn into the piston, at its centre,
through a circular opening in one of its sides, and concentric with it, as
seen at H, by means of the suction-pipe N.

The area of the central opening, and of course, of all the others,
depends upon the object to be obtained, and the determination of them
is regulated upon the principle above-mentioned, and by considerations
of the quantity of water to be discharged.

The piston is enclosed in a case D d, of circular form, placed parallel,
and concentrically, with the discs, and this ease, which acts as a receiver,
is bolted to any convenient stand or frame E E. From the circumference
of the case or receiver, rises at a tangent with it, the perpendicular dis-
charge-pipe, F. The area of this receiver exceeds both those of the
discharge-pipe and of the annular openings on the circumference of the
piston, in order that an uninterrupted flow of the water may be main-
tained. A space is also left between the sides of the piston a a, and that
of the case D D, at least equal iu size to that of the anmUar openings in
the .sides of the piston.

Around the central opening iu the sides of the piston is a collar or pro-
jection, extending outwai-tls half way to the case D D, where it is joined
to the suction-pipe, which pipe is riveted or bolted to the outer case.
The inner end of this pipe has cast on it a collar or projection, corres-
ponding in shape, and concentric with, the collar on the piston. The
joint between the suction-pipe and piston being carefully made, and so
situated that uo sand, gravel, or other gritty matter can lodge on or near
it, the wear is so reduced as to become imperceptible. This joint, it must
be observed, is an important feature iu Mr. Gwyuue's invention. The
suction-pipe may be curved at its outer end, if desired, as shown in our
engraving, and its internal diameter may be made larger than the opening
into the piston, so as to compensate for the bearings, H H, cast in it, and
which carry the inner journal of the shaft, M ; and it is found that the
water lubricates these bearings so efiectually that very little wear takes
place. Mr. Gwynne has recently examined one which has been running
day and night lor six months, and no perceptible wear had occurred.

The outer, or opposite end of this shaft, upon which the piston is fixed,
is supported by the healings at E, and in a hollow nut shown at L. This
nut has a most imjjortant function assigned it by Mr. Gwynne, which
he calls the balancing nut. After passing through this nut, the shaft M
is embraced by a stuffing-box and gland, which prevents the water from
escaping. At M, on the main journal of the shaft, is a pulley or pinion, to
which power for driving the pump is ajiplied from any first or prime mover.

The other applications of this pump, as improved by Mr. Gwynne, ai'e ;
far too numerous to illustrate iu detail. Amongst some of its most
important adaptations may be named : —

1. A continuous supply for towns. 2. As a pump and fire engine for
ships. 3. Works of drainage and irrigation. 4. For manufectureis and I
large establishments for extinguishing accidental fires.

It will discharge, according to the statement of the inventor, a quantity
of water fully equal, uader favourable circumstances, to 90 per cent, of
the driving power — a result attained by no other pump. He adds, " All
other rotatory pumps, working with surfaces in contact, are speedily
destroyed by sand, mud, or other foreign matters in water ; but none of
these cause injury to thijs pump, The larger sizes will adsiit the passage

392

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS; AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPiEDIA OP^THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

393

SIPlCUOAnU.-FOUJtWXUlS.

of the design is too small ; aud the petty conceit of coupling the dogs at
the base, although a topic of admiration for young ladies and gentlemiin, is
too serious a breach of taste to be alighted ; the deer resting on the ban-
quette, or mther where the banquette should have been placed, is likewise
a specimen of that false spirit of sesthetics, which supposes that because
nature is beautiful in itself, literal imitations of nature are equally beautiful

in all places. It will be uotice.l thot tli^ Engraving .hows the inoliu-e which
occupies the centre ^the design as darker than the whole fraiue-ivork : tnia la
the reverse of the iJ^ut its success shows what ought to have been the case.
It is to bo regretted that anxiety for brilliancy of effect has <^!'^<'^}]^^. '"'."!"
duction of Bide brackets for lights between the figm-es ; now the miaaie am-
sion is lighter than the lower and upper .tages. and the top is heaviest 01 all.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE ANB ITS CONTENTS ;

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

391

ARTS OF DESIGN AND DECORATION.

ARTISTS' IMPLEMENTS, kc.
"CROM the earliest history of painting, we learn that artists were invariably
in the habit of mixing their own colours and making their own brushes.
Thi3 practice has continued within comparatively a few years of our own
time. For information with rcfei'euce to the former fact, we would refer
to Mrs. MerrifieM"B elegant ti-anslation of Cennino Cennini'a " Treatise on
Painting," which was contributed to our art literature in 1844, and deserves
to be extensively known. There are but few, if any, of our artista who now
grind or temper their colours, but who. on the contrary, prefer purchasmg
them from the colourmeu ready for use. Tbia practice forms a new era in
art, and it may be one of considerable consequence to its progress. The
artists, it must be admitted, thus gain some advantage over the old method ;
although that knowledge of the properties of each colour, its durability or
fugaciousness. with which the masters of old were necessarily acquainted,
is by this course, in most cases, denied to the modems. So seductive is
this plan, that even the artiste of Italy, of Holland, Ac. have, upon their
arrival in England, fallen into it. It is well known that Mr. Sang, amongst
these, when he left Rome for England, partook of the .system generally
adopted here. Tins facility he found to his cost not always advisable with
regard to every colour; and he had to fall back upon the practice of his
native country, and that of many of his Munich brethren in art, and he
prepares most of his media now himself, and hence that uni'ivalled
brilliancy and trnnsparency of tints as exemplified in all those of his works
painted within the Uv^t six years. It may be questioned whether the per-
manence of ancient pictures ia not attributable to the elaborate insigtit of
their painters into the nature of the pigmenta they made use of, and, above
all, to the simple manipulation of their works, and the few colours actually
enlisted into their service. It is obvious that the number of colours since
the time referred to has been considerably augmented ; and now, as may
be seen by any list procurable at artists' warehouses, they amount to an
aggi-egate almost sufficient to deter the beginner from entering the lists of
art. To those who would wish to make themselves conversant with the
several names and, the properties of pigments, we would recommend an
attentive study of Mr. Field's " Chromatography," who, to a profound
chemical research into the capacities of all colours for good or ill, adds
much genei-al information invaluable to ai'tlsts. Upon matters of detail it
must be obvious we should be necessarily terse ; although it is difficult, at
the same time, to confine ourselves to generalities where the subject is so
replete and tempting ; ond therefore we plunge at once m mediat rex. It is
then with "Artists' Implements" of our own period with which we have
to deal, and as they were represented at the Exhibition of which we have
to write.

No. 1, in the Tiao Art Court, showed us 8ever;il contributions from
Mr. T. Miller, of Long Acre. These consisted of .specimens of paintings in
"silica colours" uid "gla«s medium," but which appeared to exemplifv no
one particular virtue unattainable by other pigments.

Most of the pictures themselves, more pui-ticularly that of the "Genius
of Peace," w«ro distiuguished for counidemble ability In handling, and a
correct probationary course of study In that of Mr. Courbould'a '■ Britons
deploring the Departure of tlie Roniana," wo fancy we detected amidst ito
" trick," more particularly in the orant;e mantle, in the *,iirgr! of tlio s^a. and
on the shore, an indication of " body." and the presence of b medium wh ich
belongs lew to the clement of water, tliau of that of gums, rc^mous
compounds, or of oa As a work of srt, we object not to the use of any
extruneous aid ; we have to deal with it a.s an evidence of the powers of a
particular and express fact ; and we could, therefoi-e, have desired that for
the sake of art, that which appeals to us as possessing eitraordiuaiy claims
upon attention, should Lave brought with it the first necessaiy proofs of
superiority.

Tl.e brushes in this case appeared admirably made ; and, in this respect.
Mr. -Wilier, we believe, stands almost alone, having had a long practical
expeneuce m this branch of trade, which requires an intimate knowledge
of the wants and caprices of the artist.

Howney and Co., of Rathbone-place.-Thcse exhibitors savour a good
deal of the fashion of the time, and gav« ,u an almost bewildering
classification of colours. Theh- dividing Naples yellow into t.iits is,
however, a valuable exception, and their desire to supply the artist with a
ch^p. and, at the same lime, a good article, ia entitled to praise.
^.;;- ^■^^^•f.'^y'Brompton. gave examples of crayon pkinting, executed
wth his Venetian pastils, which are impervious to damp, and, therefore,
MiS """^^ decorations lutherto beyoiid the reach of ordinary

^.^^nl'l'^"" r*^ ^'i' °^ ^.?"g-^'-e. fil'owed a very good selection of canvas,
pamtmg-brushes, and pencils, which waa iadicatiYe o?a sterling respectabiUty

without meretricioua allurement. The palette-knife, for placing the colour
on the canvas or panel, without the aid of the brush, is a neat adaptation
of the commau trowel-handle, and vnW be found of much Rcrviee, where
boldoess of impasto ia required. There were several specimens of water-
colours, in collapsible tubes, admirably adapted for aketcliing from nature ;
and a newly-invented oil sketch-book, very light and convenient, and which
enables the sketcherto carry two wet paintings without injury. The pre-
pared canvas in the same ca^e was worthy of remark, from its being a
successful attempt to give to that fabric the surface ot fine panel.

Messrs. Reeves and Sons, of Cheapside, contributed a case of some
importance to artists, inasmuch as it contained the proofs of an efficient
substitute for the far-famed black-lead mine of Cumberland, which is now
thoroughly exhausted. It is well known, that, for all purposes having
reference to art, this lead of Cumberland was unsurpassable ; that no other
could compare with it in quality of colour, absence of grit, or was so easy
to erase ; indeed, that no other yet found could be thua made use of in its
natural state. That from the Balearic Ishmds is "cindery," that from
Ceylon, though purer than any plumbago known, in the excess of its carbon,
and the small portion of iron and earthy matter, is too soft and flaky ; that
termed Mexican is really produced from niiiip^ iii Bohemin, and is also
friable and earthy. Other varieties, from Sicily. IVom California, from Davis'
Straits', and elsewhere, have been tried, but all have proved unfit for the nse
of the artist. Cumberland lead is the only black-lead tliat Ui its native state
could be cut into slices, and thus be inserted into the channels of the cedar
pencils ; this being alone a remarkable test of its superior fitness as a native
lead. T!ie substitutes for Cumberland lead are manifold, some or all of the
varieties of the leads before mentioned being worked into pencils variously
designated " prepared," " purified," or " composition." These different leads,
by means of gums and resinous matters, are eitlier kneaded in a plastic
state and forced into the channels of the cedar wood, or more frequently com-
bined and ground with substances with which they will bake to the
required hardness, or with others which ■will fuse, and the mass solidify
when cold. Lustre, intense colour, freedom in working, and ready erasure,
Cumberland lead possessed in an eminent de';ree beyond all other leads
known: but its uncertain temper and occasional grit— properties common
to all leads in a natural state — gave rise to it-* amalgamation with other
substances which have been enumerated ; and thou^^b some of the qualities
in which Cumberland lead failed have been obtained with varying success
by these amalgamations, its especial and valuable qualities when pure have
in the same ratio been deteriorated and destroyt-d. Thua the artist has
been left to choose betweeu the evils of a native and a spurious load, until
the somewhat I'eceut discovery by Mr. Brockiidou of a process by which
Cumberland lead is made perfect It would seem that these pencils are
especially made for Messi-ci. Reeves and Sons, and that they are unques-
tionably what they affect to be.

Another important evidence of successful trade enterprise in aid of art
ia to be found in the water-colours prepared with wax, as was ^ihown in this
case. Tiicy dissolve with ease, posse'^s great volume and transparency ;
and, moreover, they cannot be converted into iliiit by hot temperatures, so
often the fate of the ordinary water-colour. Tlie introduction of a medium
of the purest wax into the manufacture of water-colours was a stage in tho
art of water-colour painting deserving of hououiable mention. It has given
to this delightful depai-tmtiit of art facilities of unapproachable character,
and tended to rank it very close to that of oil. which it surpasses in its
powers of drying, the advantages of smaller space, and ease of carriage. Very
many have been the attempts to give body to the colom-s used with water,
and a variety of media have been used for this purpose. One of these is
tho more particularly worth mentioning, as showing the avidity with which
anything new is seized upon, even by the intelligent and discerning, and
the effects which followed a too confiding credulity. We allude to tho use
of honey for the pnrposas above stated. This niedium certainly had the
desired result of keeping the colour with which it was mixed in a moist
state ; indeed, if the bi-ut^b was too fully chargt-d with it, those parts of the
drawing to which it was applie 1 would not, unlu.'^s in hot weather, or in a warm
room, dry for some time ; and even when dry, such drawings, if exposed to
a humid atmosphere, became "ticky" again in tUcir folio or elsewhere, and
stuck to their unctuous companions in the most sweet but destructive
union. A drawing finished with these colour? ci>uld not be left a moment
with safety. The flies, attracted by the tempting treat, would moisten the
choicest pai-ts with tbeu- probosci, and tattoo tho human face divine, or
give to that of lovely woman all the appearance of being ravaged by small-
pox. It was no unusual tiling to find a flock of sheep disappear from a
common, a chateau shattered and unroofed in a night, and a litter of pigs
and a cow or two carried away in aj^y. Nor was tlie artist himself exempt
from the annoyance of their perseverance and pilferings. To paint from
summer nature in the open air was to look through a swarm ; and tlie head
of the luckless draughtsman became like a hive in the midst of it.

The ailusion to a tempor-iry false step in the onward progress of chemical
research in art naturally, altliough in a very oppo^itivc category, dire^ our
attention to the subject of " frauds," a very strong term, but uevertlieleHs
ti-ue — frauds upon artists. It must be in every futhcr'a experience — in that
of every director of youth — that there is a particular period in a boy's life
when the yearning for a " box of paiutii " becomes positively painful,
according to tlie amount of ditficulty which surrounds its iiossessiou. A
gmuea obtained, the next fancy-stationer's is resorted to for the much-coveted
box. There it lies upon the counter, with its lid slightly and mysteriously
raisedj diaplaying just enough of its coatenta to increase a desire of owner-

of solid substances of 1.^ inch in diameter, iind others in proportion.
Those designed for vessels are so arranged as not to be choked by corn,
chips, raw turpentine, coal of email size, paper, pulp, sand, or other im-
peding substances."

donkin's disc pomp.
The pump exhibited by Bryan Donkin and Co. ia on the disc principle,
the spherical cylinder of which has a diameter of lo inches, the conea and
disc, which act the part of a piston in ordinary engines, being raqiiired to
have their surfaces most perfectly finished to prevent leakage ; and the
more work done by the cones and disc, the better it is for the prevention

DUO n ilP. — EKYAN DONiilN AND CO.

of any leakage, as they must necessarily fit still closer. The angle of tha
cone is 18 deg., and the contents of tho cylinder 478 cubic inches. Tho
greatest number of vevolutioaa whicli can be effected by this sized pump is
about 90 per minute : thus the quantity of water raised in that time would
be equal in bulk to '24 cubic feet; and the altitude that would be attained
would be CO to 70 feet in height. Tho pump would certainly have been
exhibited at the Exhibition to greater advantage had tho cylinder been
increased in size even to a very small degree, as. by an increase of 4 inches
diameter, double tlic quantity of water would be raised, tha contents
increasing as the cubes of the diameter. To all appearance, there are four
delivery-pipes ; but this is not the case, as we have already mentioned, the
three outer ones being for the waste water, while the centre one alone is
for the pm-pose of delivery. A water-meter i.^ attached to this delivery-
pipe, having a diameter of five inches, the cubical contents being equal to
a pint, and the sizp of the pipe fixed thereto being of one inch diameter.
The advantage of this meter is, that it may be worked under any head of
water, without any alteration being made in it ; and the water will exert
the same pressure at the outlet as at the inlet, deducting the small amount
required to turn the index. Another advantage is, that, whether a cock
or sluice be opened slowly, or only partially opened, the amount passed
through it will be indicated in an equally accurate manner.

FILTERS.
J-JIGH-Pbessdre Filter. — Among the filters exhibited was this aim»,
ratns, consisting of a hollow sphere of iron, into which there ia fixM
a smaller hollow ball of sandstone, between which and the iron the wattr
to be filtered may freely circulate ; it being admitted into the space from
a considerable height, so as to obtain the requisite pressure for forcing it
through the pores of the sandstone in sufficient quantiticB. A tube fixed
into the hollow sandstone globe is connected with the pipe for drawine
off the filtered water, so that none of the liquid admitted into the iron
sphere can escape without passing through the stone globe. There is
however, another pipo, which is connected with tho unfiltered water, and
ia supplied with a stop-cock, by turaing which tho water in contact
with the exterior surface of the aand-globe rushes out. By this meana
the solid matter that is strained from the water, in passing throii^h the
stone, is washed away, and the apparatus is cleansed. This apparatus it
however, but a modification of the old aaudstouo filters, in commoa use
before the introduction of filtering mat-hines. The water, instead of
being poured into a sandstone basin, and allowed to pass through the
pores by its own pressure, ia now introduced on the outside of two
sandstone basins joined together ; and additional pressure is applied hy
enclosing the united hemi-pheres within a strong iron sphere, the water
being forced from the out&ide to the inside of the basin, instead of perco-
lating from the inside to the out Tho new plan has in princijile many
advantages over the old filter. First, the pressure is equal over the whole
surface, consequently, every portion of the water is equally purified;
and. as the whole exterior of the ball operates at the same time, a much
greater filtering surface is exposed than when the pressure is from within,
and acts only partially. A small sand-ball of 4 inches diameter filters ^
much water in a minute as would percolate through tlie old sandstone
filters in a day.

The Syphon Filteb is, perhaps, the most convenient kind for general
purposes, as it may be readily carried about and used by any onliDary
avadable pressure. The shape of the filter ia that of an elongated bell.
It is made of white metal ; and at the top of the well-shaped vase there
is inserted an inflexible metal tube, fumiuhed with a stop-cock near the
end. The vase is filled with powdered quartz of various degrees of fine-
ness, and the mouth of it is closed with a perforated cover. When
required to be used, the vase is inverted in the water to be filtered, and
the tube is allowed to hang below it. When the air is withdrawn, the
water rises through the powdered quartz, and fills the tube; and by
ayphonic action, the water ia drawn down by its superior gravity. The
lower the tube tho greater the pressure, for the weight of water flowing
down operates on the filtering surface as directly as if the same column
of fluid were placed above it. The amount of pivssm'e is, however,
limited to that of the pi-essure of the atmoBpherc ; for were the tube
length^ed beyond 30 feet, the column of water wi>uid separate anil leare
a vacuum. This filter renders the muddiest waterbeautifullycleai' when act-
ing with a pressure of not more than 2 feet at the rate of i gallons an hour.
Gravel Filter. — In this apparatus, water is purified by passiug through
I layers of sand and gi-avel ; and it may be fixed to the pipe from a cisteni,
so that filtration is always going on. The water is admitted at tiie bottom,
' and rises through the gravel thoroughly filtered, into the reservoir. The
' some pipe that supplies the filter is connected with the stopcock from
! which water is drawn, and the flow of the cuirent through tlie bottom
■ of the gravel keeps the filter clean. Whether fine gravel, sandstone, or
I powdered charcoal be employed, is quite immaterial; provided the inter
I stices be sufficiently fine to prevent tho particles, mechanically suspended

in water, from passing through,
j Cestkifdgal Filter. — A model of this apparatus was exhibited. It
I professes to purify two mUlion gallons of water per diem. The filtering
1 materials are felt and canvas, enclosing a layer of sand, placed round the
[ circumference of two discs, kept apart by partitions, in the same manner
as in the centrifugal pump ; the pressure being similarly ohtained by
'* centrifugal force." Rapid rotatory motion la ^iveu to the oppmatus, by
which means the water admitted in the centre is forced through the telt
and sand at the circumference. This filter woiJd requii-e a great amount
of power to work it, to produce the discharge promised ; aud. if mecha-
nical power be employed, it would be better to apply it dii-ectly to force
the water through the strainers. •

VIKW IS THE FRliNClI DEPARTM£M.

The view in the French Department engraved in the present sheet com-
prises a variety of interesting objects in Carton Pierre, Wood-CarviDg, w
other moteriala for room decoration, in the production of which t e
French are justly celebrated.

SIDEBOARD, BY FOUHDISOB?.

This, which is one of the beat pieces of Ki-ench farnituro sent tor our
Exhibition, and received the honour of u Council Medal, deserves particular
attention for the thought which has been bestowed upon its design ; aa
which ia more evident therein than in any other similar work of foreign ws ■

The four figures, instead of being the usual r.fpetitiou of the embieu^
of the quarters of the world, are representations of the depsfrt. ^''''"^* '^".^^
and tea : beyond this judicious choice of ornament, the spectatur obse' ^^
that the inteution of each figure is ao clearly and cl^veriy marked a? tu^^
unmistakeable ; this ia a virtue too often wanting in more ambitwus w ■
to be passed over in silence. The figures on either side repreaeut ns o
and hunting ; all are beautifully sculptured. The little figure at tne wf

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOiVEDlA OK THE (iUKAT KXH IIUTKJN UlMHfjl.

■idZ

sliip. Tho prizo HciMiroil and bonio homoward, paper ready, and i>luto
U|iliirneii, tlio allnictivo coloura aro rubljod ono by one in neat army upon
tlni <li;ir. A good Kp(!ciuioii of walor-colour lias bcou "lent to copy,'' and
now comes tlio fir.4t cmay. All tlie efforts of the tyro to iuiitatu tlio Hat
tint of itn Rky or the ricli impueto of tho foreground are of uo avail. Tlnio
and por«everanc6 but add to tho vexation. Hia colour.^ aro poor, weak, thin,
and wa**hy. He in, howevt^r, ignorant of thi.s fnot. Yoiuig and confiding,
tlii' shop which boasts of beiug "established" at a periorl when his father
was a boy, would never stoop to cheat. He tlirow.s lusido tliiH attempt ami
tries again. Tlie acrid qualities of the colours cither penetrate through tho
paper, or, for want of sufficient grinding, their crude and eartliy particles
are lloated aboiit for an instant on tho surface, and tho next left in .»i)ot«
and patches. Hero is a young and ardent lover of nature, stiinulated by a
nol)lo niiud and an intellect delighting in invention, ahanicfully surrounded
in liis tirat encounter by disheartening dilEcultics, which aro tho nioro
serious because their cause is not understood. At tho very threshold of the
temple of art he is rudely repulsed by the sordid and fee-seeking, who sell
hiiM a clumsy and useless key, and faltely deny that either Talent, or hia
soLiior partner Genius, are within. There exists not the shadow of excuse
for this abnipt rebuff. The profits upon art aj)purtenance3 are large and
ample ; and tho thus adding to posittvo extortion, tho intimidation to
modest merit, is as crael iis it is dishonest. But, says the advocate for
cupidity, any description of colours will do for a boy to begin with. Then,
if such bo tho case, why charge as for tlie best? But it is not tho fact. It
is truo that there aro professors (save the mark ! it is a eoiTcct one) of
music, who do not hesitate to set a girl down to a piauo '" of any sort ; "
but will any rational person, who is impressed with the divine gift of the
appreciation of sweet and harmonious sounds, affirm that such a course
would not tend to vitiate taste and injure an otherwise correct ear 1

AVe shall add a few more remarks, partly borrowed from an article by
Mr. Broekcdon, upon the black lead pencil, a more important auxiliary to
art than would at the first thought,be supposed. It is not generally known
that lead dust, or inferior plumbago, is combined with sulphurct of autimouy,
or pure sulphur ; and the greater tho proportion of this uigredient, the
harder the composition. When ground with the lead — generally that
called Mexican — the compound is put into an iron pot, or frame, and sub-
jected to the degree of heat required to semifuse tho combining ingredients.
It is then, whilst hot, put under a press, and kept there until it is cold;
when it is turned out as a block, ready to be cut into slices, and inserted
in the cedars.

The impossibility of rubbing out a composition when sulphuret of
antimony is used, led to the rejection of the sulphuret and the employment
of sulphur only, treatmg these ingredients as before. This makes a better
composition in the quality of rubbing out, but possesses, in a greater degree
than tlie former, a sei'ious evil. The sulphur is readily set free by bodies
■which attract it, and memoranda made with this composition can be repro-
duced although rubbed out, so far as with such composition is practicable.
If the place where tho writing was, be wetted with an alkaline liquor, a
sulphate will be formed ; and if, after drying, it be again wetted with acetate
of lead, it will exhibit the writing in sulphuret of lead. This is obviously
a most dangerous property for persona who may require to make notes not
intended to remain or be again producible. To an artist it may be very
injurious aa regards the purity and security of his productions, for many of
the colours which have metallic bases, are liable to be affected if they come
in contact with the lead of sulphured pencils. A ready and simple experi-
ment will place our readers in possession of au infallible test, and thus
protect that portion of tbem with whom the fact is of consideration from
so deceitful an instrument. Draw some hues with the suspected pencil on
a sheet of paper, and place these lines in contact with any bi'ight, smooth,
silver surface — a spoon, for instance ; in a few hours, if these lines contain
sulphur, corresponding dark lines will be found on the spoon, formed by
the action of the sulphur on tho metal. A good black-lead pencil may yet
more readily be known. It should w^ork freely; be free from grit, yet
without a greasy, soapy touch ; bear moderate pressure, have a lustrous and
intense black colour, and its marks be easily erased. It should be borne
in mind, however, that no pencil appears to be the same at all times This
arises i'rom the nature of the paper, whether hard or soft, or the condition
of the atmosphere, which affects it materially. The same pencil, on smooth
or rough, moist or dry prqjer, will mai'kas if four different pencils had been
used. The softer or darker degrees of lead are weaker, and yield more
readily than the harder varieties.

The varieties of German pencils, with ornamental exteriors, which have
recently been imported in large quantities, are, it appears, made of clay
mixed with Bohemian lead, and a glass which fuses at a modeitite tempera-
ture : these materials are ground in water together, and dried slowly to a
stiff plastic state, and then put into a vessel like that used for forming mac-
caroni ; under a powerful press this composition is forced through holes in
the bottom of the vessel, thus forming the material into squai'e-threads of
the required sizes. These are laid in convenient lengths in wooden troughs,
which keep them straight until they are thoroughly dried. They aro then
laid in similar troughs or channels on iron plates, and put in a muffle or
furnace, subjected to a degree of heat sufficient to render them hard and
insoluble, and are then placed in tho channels cut into the wood, and
glued there ; the different degrees of hardness depend upon the proportion
of the ingredients. All these pencils, however, are harsh in use, and their
mai'ks cannot be entirely erased.

Green and Fahey, of Chai-lotte-street, Portman-place, exhibited folding

drawing models in three hoiHch, illuHtrativu of ponpective, and tho principlcM
of light and shade, which will be found of Hervicu both to ouutcr and jmpil
in tb« elonientary HtiidicH of art.

J. K. (,'<Jok, of Greenock, exhibited prepared pane! for amateur painting,
wMch rmpiiros but a day or two to l>« ready for the artlat. Mr. Cook m
deserving of much pmiao for this attempt to give facilitien for obtamiog
material to tho young beginner, who is too ofttu cramped for the want of
the iiocusnary funds. It is related of Wilkie, that, by partly pulling out a
drawer from a set, ho madu himself an cfFicicnt cusci ; and of 8ir Benjamin
West, that ho obtained his first brushcfi by taking the hair off the tail of a
favourite cat.

K. Harvey, of Oxford, showed an oasol for artwia aketcliing out of doom,
containing ovei7thing required. This ih a judicious arrangement of matcriula,
and one hitherto much wanted. We ti-ust, it will not be long ere greater
activity bo given to the trade of which Mr. Harvey is a member, by the
aiipointmeiit of profcssorKhi]>s of painting, sculpture, and architecture at
our Universities. Why should not tho youth of England, iu their more
docile yoare, acquire a t.aste for, and a love of, art, the more aa they are in
after life to become patrons, and sit in learned conclave at committees of
taste upon tho merits of the rival works of the greatest men of their day.
It would tend greatly to rescue thsm from egg-throwing and chicken
hazard, and other low and frivolous pursuits, too often the resource of tboao
who have nothing to do, rather than the olfspriiig of innate vice. The sister **
arts have their professorships ; why, then, suould painting be driven from
tho seats of learning !

E. K. Watson, of Piccadilly, sent some excellent specimens of gilding,
which contrasted strangely with the cheap gold frames around. There aje
few artists but are aware how much their productions depend upon the
frame by which they aro surrounded ; and while a picture shall appear
surpassingly beautiful in one frame, it shall seem poor and ill^onditioned
in another.

It may here bo remarked, that the " cheap " frames, now so much in vogue,
which meet us at every turn, are tho dearest the artist can purcha.se. The
yellow preparation of their groundwork, but once, and barely, covered with
gold (and that " gold " too often of a spurious Dutch clJaraeter), peers
through in unutterable poverty of aspect upon the slightest contact or friction,
while the warmth of a room creates gaping crevices at each juncture, and
cracks and shrivels the composition ornaments aa though they consciously
shrunk from contact with the green wood and its shabby disguise, upon
which they had been so unceremoniously placed.

J. W. Gear exhibited a composition to supersede ivory for large water-
colour paintings. The inventor, who is likewise an artist, informs us that
it can be manufactured of any requisite size without a join ; the colours, he
adds, appear brilliant and clear upon it ; and, as it is capable of being used
in every respect as ivory, without the brittleness of other substitutes, it
will be found deserving at least of the attention of the artist. We have no
other means of judging of its merits than by the single sample shown in the
Exhibition, which, beiug completely covered with a drawing of but average
talent, denied us all opportunity of doing more than quote its discoverer's
book. This and similar inveutions to supersede ivory, which once could
• only be obtained of a limited size, however praiseworthy, ai'e, where this is
the object, no longer of importance, as ivory, by rotatory motion and fixed
vertical saws, can now be cut into sheets of almost any extent. This
observation will therefore likewise apply to

Sir W. Newton, who contributed several miniature painting of his own,
to exemplify a power he possesses in secret of ''joining ivory together
without the seam becoming apparent." These specimens were however,
unfortunately selected for the purpose. The seams, to om- eye, icere
apparent, and more particularly in that of " The Homage," where a johi
runs the full length and breadth of the picture, in defiance of the thick and
heavy " handling," obviously intended to hide it.

In Class 2, amongst the " Chemicals," was an exceedingly interesting case
from the firm of Messrs. Winsor and Newton, of Rathbone-place. It is
well know-u in the profession that these exhibitors are essentially practical
men, and have very extensive chemical works for artists' colom's in the
neighbourhood of Kentish Town.

In No. 1, Class 17, a somewhat dark place, was a selection of fancy

[ stationery from the old-established house of Ackermann and Co., of the

Strand. Amongst it was a colom'-box, fitted up with every requisite the

I amateur may desire ; the whole ai'ranged with gi'eat elegance and taste

1 which wo have engraved in a previous number.

[ Ml'. Grundy, of Manchester, exhibited in Class 26, No. 121, some very
beautifid specimens of frames, intended to display to the best advaiitage
fine engravings, drawings, and other works of art, and adapting them for
the tasteful embellishment of the drawing-room, boudoir, ,S:c. Those for
drawings are exquisitely beautiful ; and by a simple contrivance, the works
are simk or inlaid iu the matte, or mounting, winch preserves them from
injury, while they are likewise kept perfectly fiat, and do not touch the
glass. The frames are altogether lighter than usual, take up less space
upon the walls, and have a charming appeai'anco when relieved by abufi'
or scarlet ground. Water colour drawings, and the lighter descriptions of
oil-paintings, are surprisingly benefited by this ornamentation, while prints
appeal- to be vei-y considerably enhanced in value by such means. The
new method of mounting water-colour and other drawings, without cutting
their edges, we believe, is due to Mr. Grundy ; and the advantage of placing
them beneath, instead of above, the cai'd-board, &c., owes its origin to his
brother, of Regent-street.

39G

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

SIDEBOARD. — SNELL AND CO.

The sideboard is of handsome pro-
portions, carved in mahogany, of a rich
colour, the slab of Galway mai-ble. The
glass, which is of wide dimensions, is
rather imusual in shape ; and the frame,
of grapes, &c., is almost too light for
the proportions, whilst the two figures
painfully balancing themselves upon
each edge might be dispensed with, with
advantage to the general effect. The
oval cistern beneath is handsomely de-
signed and executed. The sculpturing
is from designs by Baron MarochetL
But this work, if open to any animad-
versions on account of its variation from
the usual routine, deserves praise for
the very gi-eat elaboration beyond its
execution, which fully maintains the
reputation of the factory ; the two
figures, which are the first production
of a car\'er, ai-e finished in a manner
equal to some of the most celebrated
examples ; and the foliage, with the
fruit, and the magnificent cellaret, will
extort from the spectator their due
meed of approbation.

CHANDELIER. BY BAILET AND SONS.

This chandelier is fashioned after the
mediicval period, and of very admii-able
material and workmanship. We do not, how.
ever, admire the style, nor the gaudy colours
with which it was covered.

VASE IN MARBLE. — BY VAN LINDEN.

P. Van Linden, of Antwerp, exhibited a veiy
pretty cup, or vase, in marble, with four sculp-
tured reliefs, from subjects in Spenser's
"Faery Queen ;" viz., Cupid trying his bow;
■ Conqueror of strength ; Fidelity the end of his
occupation ; the whole surmounted with Cupid
captive to Venus. It is very neatly chiselled,
and wonderfiilly successful considering the
material, the dimensions being such as would
be more properly adapted to executions in one
of the precious metals.

ciiour or ornamental china, by minton.
This handsome group forms part of the
service of china presented by her Majesty to
the Enip.'ior of Austria.

chandelier. — EAl

:*'il^ v.-:-, '< ■^- --■ . ,V

MARBLE VASE. — VAN LINDEN.

GROUP OF ORNAMENTAL CHINA. — MINTON.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOIMCDIA OK TIIK (iliKAT KXUIHITIOX OF 1«51.

397

CUT GLASS CLARET JUt!. BY GKEEN.

This very magnificent jug. which is of the
purest glass, is very beautifully engraved with
the Royal ai'ms, and the national emblems of
the three kingdoms. ;

SUGAR SPOONS. By LIAS.

The design of these spoons is novel and
pretty, and we have no doubt will become
populai-.

CANDELABRUM, ETC. BY HARVEY AXD CO.
This candelabrum i.s extremely fanciful,
and pretty in-de.sign. It is composed
entirely of shell-work, mineral plants, and
water. The principal figure is that of
Venus, on one side of whom is a syren sing-
ing to her lover : on the other baud is
another of the same class of beings, en-
twined in a net, who is presenting the
Goddess of Beauty with a string of coral.
On the stem is a young Triton covering her
with pearls ; and on the summit a Cupid
shooting at every heart. The workman-
ship is very careful, and the whole has a
pleasing effect. The silver ewer of antique
fashion, and the mug, which is silver gUt,
of the cinque-cento style, are both very
beautifully executed.

CANDELABRUM, ETC. — HARVET AND CO.

398

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

MISCELLANEOUS MANUFACTURES.

SADDLERY, HARNESS, AND HUNTING GEAR.
TpNGLISH saddles may be divided into at least six classes ; that is to say,
those used for riding on the road or hunting, for racing, for the infirm
or lame, for military purposes, for ladies, for children, beside the cheap
articles made for exportation. The ordinary English saddle differs from
that of all other countries, in the circumstance that it is constructed for the
cT^ry-day use of horsemen, who can ride without other help than the
balance of the stirrups and the gi-asp of the legs and thigh, who do not need
either high pommel in front or high spreading cantle behind. In this
country it is presumed that all ordinary shaped saddles may be used fur
hunting, and in hunting it is indispensable that the horseman should be
able to slip away from his falling horse with the gi-eatest possible ease. It
is the universal passion of Englishmen for the chase w hioh has driven the
old-fashioned and rather comfortable demi-pique saddlo out of fashion,
ever since fast riding to hounds came into vogue. We are also the only
nation that rises regulai'ly in the trot, and that motion requires a flat
snddle. As the best customers of our saddles are hunting men, they have
rendered universal a form which is the very best for sportsmen, but very
trying for foreigners. The demi-pique saddle, still in use in France, Spain,
and South America, when well made, affords a very comfortabl e seat on
long journeys on an ambling or cantering nag ; but a roll over in topping a
gate or wall in such a saddle would be certain death by impalement.

The only concessions permitted to timid, invalid, or lame ridere, are in
the way of saddles padded so as to support the thigh and press against the
knee. These are commonly called " Somersets." Several specimens of
equal excellence were exhibited, ou some of which a one-legged horseman
might find great assistance. A celebrated master of hounds in Wales is
precisely so circumstanced. These are all worth examination, because it is
a mistake to imagine that a.\\ persons who ride know how to sit. There ai'e
a very considerable number of persons who begin to ride late in life, either
because they are then, for the first time, able to afford the amusement, or
because they take it not as pleasure, but as physic by their physician's
orders. Such persons will act much more wisely in purchasing a saddle
well padded before and behind, and stuffed, than in running risks and
making themselves ridiculous on a smooth plain hunting saddle. A great
msmy attempts have been made to produce an elastic saddle, but with
moderate success. Except for a very heavy man, an elastic saddle is a
mistake. Steel springs, stretched webbing, and, lastly, caoutchouc cloth,
have all been tried ; but all the expedients for affording a soft seat have the
.■-ame fault — after a short time the springs break, the webbing or India-
rabber cloth stretches, and the saddle is spoiled. Good stuSiug, covered
with a thin waterproof cloth to protect it from the effect of a thorough
wetting, will continue to form the best seat, untQ Bome mode is invented
of removing worn-out bands. A saddle-tree was exhibited, covered with
vulcanized India-rubber, which would, jierhai^s, answer as well as anything
of the kind.

The best " old gentleman's " saddle in the Exhibition was by John Weir,
of Dumfries, which is made of one piece of buckskin, without flaps, wadded,
but so edsed with hog.^kin, that when mounted, the rider's person covers
all the white leather. It would be very comfortable and easy to sit for the
fattest man and clumsiest rider on common roads. The arrangement of
the stirrups under the flaps would make it scarcely safe for hunting. Cos,
of Walsall, had a new registered stirrup, which, although very ugly, is a
move in the right direction, and would be an improvement to Weir's saddle.
The stirrup hangs from a single strap, always in the right direction for use,
and so may obviate the necessity of groping with your toe for the stirrup
after dismounting, just as your horse is rising at a tough bullfinch. This
form would be an improvemnnt for ladies' stirrups, where the stirrup-
leather is fastened on the off-side; b>tt Mr. Cox's arrangement of an
improved buckle without a tongue ia quite inadmissible, as it would come
most painfully against the leg of the horaeman.

Mr. Ramsey, Hull, showed an elastic saddle, with very high testimonials ;
but in this, as in many other instances, without a dissection first, and a long
trial afterwards, it ia impossible to say anything positive.

Hudson and Lennan, both of Dublin, displayed excellent workmanship
in hunting and steeple-chase saddles, which were neat and well cut, good
material, and light. The 81b. steeple-chase saddle of the latter was as good
as anything of the kind in the Exhibition. But if our Irish friends wish to
do any business in London, they must begin by undercutting the prepos-
terous London prices. At present, the man who goes with money in his
hand to one of the best saddlers has to pay at least 21. extra, because other
customers take four years' credit. Colegrave, Brighton, exhibited a saddle
fitted with springs, attached to the girth-straps (a patent), to avoid the
dangers of over-girthing. It must be expensive, soon out of order, and
rarely necessary ; good girths are clastic enough.

A much better thing of the kind was a saddle by Gibson, of Covemtry-
street, fitted with Reed's Patent < iirth Regulators. Every one knows the
awkwardness of having to t.ike up the girths a hole or two on the hunting-
field, on a hot fidgetty horse, after a sharp burst on a moist woolly day.
The flaps of the saddle arc probably covered with miul : and whether you

dismount or sit on, you get the benefit of a streak of clay on your hands,
your breeches, or your hat, while pulling at the girth tongues. By Reed's
Patent, a small lever on the principle of a ship's capstan winds catgut, to
which the girths are attached on a metal roller. 'The idea is extremely
good. The girths may be tiglitened at cuver side, or even when cantering
along, without lifting up the flaps of the saddle ; but the mechanical
arrangement might be very much improved, and, for that end. we du*ect
the attention of our Walsall and Birmingham readers to it.

Thomas, of Stratford-on-Avon, sent flexible saddles, which are said to
yield to the motion of the horse, and yet allow a free current of air between
the back and the saddle. This is very desirable ; but without a trial it is
impossible to do more than direct attention to the promise.

Although tliere ai'e plenty of good hunting saddlers, there were no other
hunting saddles displaying any novelty among-the few exhibited. It is to
be regi'etted that the Walsall manufacturers did not make the class more
comjilete by sending the good plain cheap saddles which they manufacture
so largely for the foreign markets, at from 20s. and upwards.

Of racing saddles, several were shown ; but for foi'm, workmanship, and
weight, nothing can exceed the one exhibited by Mr. Cooper, of York.
The whole case was highly creditable ; and the racing saddle was pro-
nounced by one of the leading members of the Jockey Club the best he
ever saw. This is worth notmg because the maker has spent the greater
part of his life in itinerating from farm to farm in the Dales of Yorkshire,
mending cart-harness, and is almost self-taught as to fine work and taste.
His Somerset saddle, also, is a piece of right good workmanship.

Of side-saddles, a goodly number were displayed, chiefly differing from
each other in ornament. Several have Berlin wool work or tapestry let
into the seat and near-side crutch. There is something pleasing to young
ladies in the idea of turning their eternal fancy-work to some useful pur-
pose ; but the fashion will be of short duration, unle.ss a mode can be found
of cleauiug the red, green, and blue worsted flowers without damage. The
same objection, in a less degree, applies to white buckskin covering.-, ou a
saddle. It requires time and trouble to clean, and is only fit for those rich
enough to have more than one. The greatest improvement in side-saddles
consisted in the introduction of the third crutch, or, as it is sometimes
called, the hunting horn-pommel ; if this be well placed, the opposite
ei-utch is rendered quite unnecessary, and the seat of a lady becomes as
firm and safe under all circumstances as that of a man. Another improve-
ment consists in making the cantle flat. The best side-saddle, without ex-
ception, in the Exhibition, was that sent by Urch, covered with brown
buckskin. It is very light (only 12i lb.), elastic, yet sufficiently strong.
We had an opportunity, by sitting on it, on the staud, of ascertaining that
the hxmting horn-crutch is not only well placed on a level with the seat,
but elastic ; and this is very important, for, if rigid, the knee tires in a long
ride. The weight is about half that of ordinary side-saddles. Now, unne-
cessary weight is not only bad for the horse, but a great inconvenience in
saddling, for all grooms are not tall aud strong-armed ; sometimes a gen-
tleman has to saddle himself.

Hicks, of Edward-street, Portman-square, had a handsome side-saddle,
with an " elastic support for the left thigh," provisionally registered. This
may be useful to very stout ladies. The contrivances for riding on the off
as well as near side may be useful in long marches in India or Australia
and for deformed ladies, but are not often required. The same m.ay be
said of the bolts for allowing the near crutch to fall down, and save a lady
the trouble of lifting her leg and habit over it in dismouutiug. As for the
precautions against a fall in ridmg on a road, according to our notion,
people who expect to fall ought never to mount. The plain spring stirrup
has qxiite superseded the clumsy covered slipper.

Bridles. — The varieties in bridles may be counted in thousands. Among
those exhibited were several for stopping or holding pullers ; but if neither
an ordinary double bridle, a chifney, or a double snaffle with gag, will hold
a horse, the best way is to get rid of him. In the Carriage Court there was
a contrivance for stoppmg a horse by closing his nostrils with an elastic
band ; not a new idea, nor, we suspect, a very useful one. The display of
Brace, of Walsall, was very interesting. It consisted of the magnifjceutly
chased stirrups in gold and silver plate, spurs, bits, and other ornaments
manufactm'od for the South American market, and particularly for Mexico
and Cuba, where the horse-trappings of a cavalier of fortune will sometimes
cost 12U0^.

In the East Nave, opposite Tunis, was an extremely elegant white bridle,
linked with silver, exhibited by Peat, Old Bond-street, " made of uutanned
(green) hide, made in the province of Rio Grande da Sal, Brazil, by the less
civilized inhabitants." As a fancy or lady's bridle, it was a very much,
prettier article than anything in the English department.

Earnshaw exhibited a very magnificent blue morocco bridle, with gold
ornaments, very nicely designed, which is fit for a Field-Marshal Prince, or
Emperor Generalissimo. Middlemore, Birmingham, had some very hand-
some ladies' bridles and whips; and Ashford, of the same town, showed a
bridle of caoutchouc, of neat shape, and cool neutral colour, which we fear
would not wear. The same firm have an ingenious registered invention for
driving-whip sockets, in which an India-rubber ring keeps the whip tight.

Harness. — A good deal of harness was shown : the leather a good ci>lomv!
and well tanned, the sewing neat, but the design for the most part clumsy
and tasteless. There is great room for judicious ornament in harness, but
the designs seem almost stereotyped copies of ugliness. Without alluding
to those which we cannot admire, we may refer to a set by Penny, of Union-
street, a state pony-bridle fur the Prince of Waits, dtsignedby W. H,

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OP 1851.

399

]{(i?;«i's ; Imt'nesa by Macliio, of MiiiiU-'nluuid ; ami by Tilylli, of I'iirlc-Iiiiio, u
liafiieaH pad of good wiirknianHhij) and ulogant design.

Rut ducidoiily tlio lii'flt tiling in tlio way of in)pruvtmcnt in linrne»n in
W lil.c'x invciitioii, l>y wliirh t]s<- ngly, chmiay, iuconvoniuut buckle of the

white's I'ATKKT TCGS.

tiaces and the crupper is superseded by a liollow cyliuJer of leather and
invtal, which, when in use, lies flat: when there is any need to alter the
length of the traces or crupper, a peg attached to a medal slide can be
opened, the hole of the trace moves cither way in a moment, instead of
requiring you to struggle to unfasten the tongue of a huge buckle. The
same harness, exhibited on a woodeu-horse, had improved gig-harness tugs,
for confining and releasing the sliafts rapidly.

In cart-liai'uess, Vick, of Gloucester, showed an excellent set made after
the Scotch model, with a shifting point of draught in the collar' ; altogetlier
strong, neat, and not too lieavy. But still in this, as in all the Scotch caj't-
harness exhibited, there is too much iron-work to be kept bright for ordi-
nary farm use. A carter ought to have enough useful work to do, without
spending time in polishing liarness.

A number of collars in the English and one in the Belgian department
were exhibited as improvements, but of the greater number it was impos-
sible to judge. There was an air-blown collar, which is capital in theory,
because it can be blown to the req\iisite fit, and a good fit. no matter how
heavj-, never galls the shoulders ; but who would venture on a journey with
a collar that might be destroyed in a moment by a nail or pin! The Belgian
was a very likely cart-collar, although rather too clumsy for our taste.
Birmingham sent a neat straw-collar ; but one of the best seemed to be one
from Musselwhite, of Devizes, stuffed with cork and horse-hair, and opening
at the top so as not to require forcing over the head. There is also a clever
collai' used in tlie Artillery, which was shown in the Cai'riage Department.

As a whole, British saddlery, either wholesale, for exportation, or retail,
wa.s very imperfectly represented.

The best point about this class is, that it has enabled our Irish and pro-
vincial siiddlers to show that, at moderate prices, they can compete in
utility and finish with the expen- ive London trade.

The foreign saddlery was for the most part an inferior imitation of
Knfflish, although Paris sent some very respectable articles, except in metal-
work.

_->J\Ve vei-y much admired some white fl.is cord reins exhibited in the
Belgian section. They ^vouId be just the thing for ladies, as they will wash
and keep their. colour.

Among the woollcnH on the Houtli-Hlilo, Mr. BHhk, the cloth mniiiiriic-
turer, of (Jtiippinc; Nxrton. exhibited several ButH of honxj-clotliiug, of excel-
lent quiility nnd neat piiltern. It wiw the father of the procnt iiianu-
factuver who lirHt inade tlio warm horHi-clotliiiii; now univrrHally u-cd.
Ijuforu bin time, horric-clothing wu-i made (>f the thin Hergc which we Homc-
timea see on infcriur horneH for wile at a country fair.

We must not concluilo without noticinf^ the uuignificCDt cinbroi<Iered
velvet military Biuldlo with gohl oniaiiient, contributed by CuB, Cockspur-
Dti'eet (No. i)ti); but, bplundiil an it in, India and Ivgyiit both outvie it, and
there is notidng to coiupiire with the Indian bridle of velvet and'cmcraldii,
which, althougli unfit for our climate and our «ober coHtumc, w admirubly
ailflptcd for the country for wliicli it was uinuufuctured.

From eaddlery and liaruexs we are led naturally to improvcmcuta iji
JJunthig Conlume, of which there wore two notiddc examples in the ICxhi-
hition. Ill the centre of the Nave, opjio-site Furs, was a Ciise of Bootfl and
Shoes, wIhto Gilbert ami Co., Old litrnd-Hti-cet, exhibited a great improve-
ment on the long black Uunting-boot« wUiuJi are i>o much used uow in wet
weather in muddy woodland counties. As ordinarily made they look
extremely neat, are clotiu<ni witii » eimfilc spoego Mid water ia a iiu*iu«ut,
and. covering up to the middle of the tliigli, »rc a Ijetter protactiiMi against
mud and ram than any overalls. The dis.idTantage of thid kiud of boot
has conai.sted in the wrinkles in the bend of the knee, which are often
painful and always disagreeable: if the boot was loose, it flopped down;
if tight, the rider was in an agony on dismounting. Messrs. Gilbert have
registered an improveineiit, which consists iu neatly introducing a piece of
caoutchouc spring, covered with leather, under the knee. A gprc of the
same material at the top of the boot would be a further improvement. We
may observe, that there are many specimens of that blessing to sportsmen
of moderate means, the Patent Leuthtr Najinkon Boot. Top-boots, whether
of the latest fashion (brown), or ancient pink tops, are all veiy well for the
tall muscular man, with a servant at command to clean half-a-dozen pair
secundum arccm : but for dumpy figures and those happy souls with one or
two horses and no servant, patent leather are a great comfort and economy.
They look well, and are always rea^I}' for use. As all exldbited w-ere good,
it would be unfair to jiomt out any in particular ; but we would hint, that
white stitching, and red or yellow edging to a hunting-boot, ai-e no recom-
mendations, ilr. Christy i,CIass 20, No. 35) scut a capital specimen of a new
hunting-cap, of felt, which was to be seen in his case of hats in the South-
east Gallery of the Transept. It v.'ould have been improved by borrowing
tile peak behind from Mr. Buokmast<;r's model helmet (No. 1) exhibited in
the same class. The peak would throw ofi' tlio rain, but must be neatly
made, so as aot to look like a coalheavcr's tile. Uats are an abomination
at ail times, but a bat ia hunting, although patroni.sod by certain sporting
critics, is an absurdity only less absurd than the bear-skins of tlie Foot
Guards. On a windy day, iu galloping through a woodland, or getting out
of cover, the hat is as much trouble as the horse, gets spoiled, and sometimes
lost ; whilst a cap, if well made, sits close, does not catch thejnind, protects
the eyes from switches, the head in a fall, and is becoming to most faces.
But velvet absorbs rain, and is too soon spoiled in a wet season ; therefore,
we hope to see Mr. Christy's felt cap patronised. Lincoln and Bennett sent
himtiug-caps of the same material as silk hat=. We did not see any impi-ovc-
ment iu spur-fastenings, although there is plenty of room for an ingenious
man. Buckles lu-e always breaking.

Wateklow's Autogkaphio 'Pbess. — By this apparatus, any pei-son may
with facility print any number of letters, circulars, pen-and-ink sketches,
musical notations, &c. ; the whole machinery being compassed in a neat
box not larger than a lady's writing-ciuse. The process is as follows : — A
letter is 'written on prepared paper, and then transferred to a polished
metallic plate by hand-power, a^sistpd by a " scraper." The paper is then
washed off with water, when the writing remains on the plate, and is charged
with ink from a roller. Paper is no v laid on the plate, and upon the
application of pressure, the impression is derived, and the process may be
repeated sixty or sevdnty times in the hour, the plate being subjected to
the ink roller for each impression. When sufficient quantities are cast ofi*.
the plate is cleaned, and ready for a fresh operation. The specimens worked
are equal to lithography.

Alarji Bedstead. — ^Mr. Savage, of Birmingham, exhibited a machine, in
which, by means of a common alai-nm clock hung at the head of the bed,
and adjusted to go off at the desired hoiu-, the front legs of the bedstead,
immediately the alarum ceases ringing, are made to fold underaeath ; and
the sleeper, without any jerk or the slightest personal danger, is placed in
the middle of the room ; w-hei-e, at the option of the possessor, a cold bath
can be placed. The eapense of this bedstead is little, if any, mora than
that of an onlinai-y one.

A M^vcHiNE FOE Teaching the Blind to Write was exhibited in the
Austrian department. It is of metal, of a circular form, and has round the
di'ic the letters of the alphabet and the ten simple numerals. Within are
rows of points or keys in connexion with the charaetei-s, which, on being
pressed down, make an impression on the paper underneath. Tlie person
writing, soon makes himself .acquainted with the position of each, by the
touch ; and there is some machiuei'y on the top to guide the hand and keep
it in position.

400

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS.

announcehhent.

THE Proprietors of the " Crystal Palace and its Contents " beg to infoiin their readers that a Double Number will be published on Saturday
next, the 27th of March, completing the work. This Double Sheet (Price Id), will contain Ornamental Title, Index, &c., aud be embellished with
a profusion of Engravings.

Having thus brought this Popular Record of the Great Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations to a termination (omitting, as they believe, no field
or individual feature of importance) within a compass so moderate as to render it available to all who take a pride aud interest in that important and '
ever memorable undertaking, they are encouraged by the extensive patronage bestowed upon theu- work, and the flattering encomiums passed upon the
spirit in which it was conducted, to believe that a very wide field exists in which they may continue usefully to employ the talents and means at their
disposal, in the promotion of the intellectual progress and general interests of their fellow men. With this conviction, they beg to announce that

On Saturday, the Zrd of April, xi-ill le published (in continuation of "The Crystal Palace and its Contents"), Price l^rf., the First Number of

THE PEOPLE'S ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL

%i\% 3ffiaiinfnrtnrB0, ^rnttitnl $mm, fA\m\m,

AND

SOCIAL ECONOMY.

PROSPECTUS.

Amongst the importan"-. and interesting results of the Great Exhibition
of 1851, has been to establish the relations between Mind and Labour upon
A much more extensive and intimate footing than had ever before been sup-
posed to exist or to be possible ; — to elevate the character of the
workman by giving him a taste for the beautiful in connexion with the
aiseful — principles which, in the economy of nature, are so wonch'ously
■associated — and to extend his resources by inspiiing him with an ambition
to bring his peculiar industry, however humble in itself, to bear in some
manner upon the highest and most honoured fields of enterprise. By such
imeans we may hope to see the jealo-iaies between classes and rival trades
removed, and the best exertions of aU uniting for the common good.

Extending our regards beyond our own shores, we see another and still
more gratifying result of the Great Industrial Congress of 1851, in the con-
■viction brought to the Productive Classes of all nations of a community of
interests existing between them, superior to all interests of nationality,
above all prejudices of race and birth. Thus, to sum up, we attain in the
first place, increased knowledge of our oivn resources and of the resources
•of our neighbours, which, whilst it creates a just confidence in ourselves,
-will also create a feeling of respect for others ; secondly, a recognition of
the importance of the principles of reciprocal dealing, by which the pecu-
liar advantages of one community may be interchanged for those of others ;
— finally, an enlarged field of commerce, and the infusion of a more liberal
spirit into commercial transactions, by which commerce will grow, and
■with it civilisation and peace be extended as the connecting bond of tlie
•whole human family.

These new relations of Society, so happily inaugurated, are as yet without
an exponent.— " The People's Illustrated Journal" will endeavour to
fill a post BO honourable and so useful. Industry, Commerce, and Intellec-
tual and Social Progress, in their various phases of development, will he
the objects to which the Conductors will devote their undivided attention,
and of which they will seek to render a faithful and intelligible account
from day to day, and from week to week.

The whole family of the Arts— Arts Mechanical and Useful— Arts Deco-
rative, and the Fine Arts, properly so called,— will come within the scope of
"The People's Illustrated Journal." The Artisan shall have his Picture
Gallery, and his Concert Room— aye, and his Theatre, to dissipate his
thoughts, and extend the range of his ideas in his hours of relaxation.

In the department of Manufactures, whilst those of Foreign nations will
come in for a fuU shai-e of notice, the "Workshops of England," inadequately
represented (as is now generally admitted to have been the case) in the
Great Exhibition, will be treated of with a fullness of detail, drawn from

the most authentic sources., never before attempted. These Papers, whed
completed, will comprise a most valuable compendium of the Manufactming,
Commercial, and Industrial Resources of Great Britain in the nineteenth
century. The Editor of "The People's Illustrated Journal" has already
received much valuable aud exclusive information from those personally
interested and experienced in the " AVorkshops of England," and solicits
further communications of a like kind, which will receive his best
attention.

Practical Science is daily discovering and revealing new and important
applications of natural products and natural affinities in the fabrication of
articles of daily use. Especial attention will be paid in " The People's
Illustrated Journal " to these discoveries, so calculated to increase the
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Illustrated Journal" will not neglect the Intellectual Progress of the
Community, as manifested in the Literature of the Age. In selecting
Works for Review, and in their treatment, the Conductors will study essen-
tial features of great permanent interest, rather than the ephemeral attrac-
tions of a light and frivolous class of Literature already sufficiently minis-
tered to by others.

The Social Economy of the Industrial World ■will receive the anxious
consideration of the Conductors of "The People's Illustrated Journal."
The resources, — the economic arrangements, — the pro^vident dispositions,
— the homes, the hopes, the rights, and the duties of the Working
Man, will all be treated of in turn, in a spirit of friendly counsel, dictated
only by a sincere desire to increase the comforts, and elevate the position,
of the producing millions.

Occasional Essays on general subjects. Sketches of Men and Manners,
and now and then a scrap of Poetry, will be introduced to add the chaiiU'
of variety to "The People's Illustrated Journal."

With these purposes before it, and conducted with zeal and fidelity,-
"The People's Illustrated Journal," it is presumed, will occupy a new
field of wide influence aud utility ; and the Proprietors confidently recjim'
mend it to the consideration of the intellectual portion of the community.-

The Engravings, which will be numerous, and as varied in character as*
the subjects treated of, ■mil be executed in the highest style of art. The
Paper will be of a very superior quality to that used for " The Crystal
Palace;" and the Typographical Arrangements of a class equal to that
adopted in Publications of four times the cost ; thus rendering " The
People's Illustrated Journal" the. most useful, readable, aud ornamental
Periodical of the day.

^'"^'^'^Ji^lil7^Zl''jV''T "^ ■',w°''o?'■'^f^^„^''*''= ^"^ '^^ Contents" will bo kept on .sale until the end of April at the original
cost , after which the cost of IN umbers wiU be 2rf., and of Parts Is. ; or the whole bound in a Handsome Ornamental Wrapper, silver and bUie, 5».

1^ Cmert or binding Sets of lite Crystal Palace, richly on amented in diver and blue, may be had, Price Two Shillings.

publishi':d at the office, n, bouverie street, fleet street;

where all communications vor the editor are to pe addressed.

'Sfje'fa

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

<.,r.oui' uF r.iioNZES. — vittoz.

ORNAMENTAL BRONZES.— VITTOZ.

OuB present sheet contains several specimens of the exquisite onia-
ontal bronzes exhibited in the French department, which we sliall notice

mder one head.
The group of bronzes, by Vittoz, engraved above, comprised a variety

if objects, as a group of Paul and Virginia, a Muse, Young Bacchanals, &c.,

11 executed with correct spirit, and finished witli the nicest artistic slsill.

rhe principal fig:ure in the centre is that of Benvenuto Cellini. The Lamp
Ncs. 26 & 27, March 27, 1852.

is after a pretty model ; so also is that iu gold and silvei-, by the same
producer, engraved in page 409.

The Triton and Vase, by Andre (pp. 408 and 409), are of very elegant
design ; the Triton, intended for a fountain, is remarkably spirited, and
graceful in outline.

The hall stove, by Baily and Sons, which stood in the Main Western
Avenue, maj' be pronoiinced a rhtf-tV (euvre of iron and brass casting; the
open panels at the sides being of the latter material. Above is a marbla
slab, upon which stood a lamp of elegant proportions.

rnicE TwopExcE, (DorBr.E NrMBER.'l

402

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

LOCKS AND SAFES.
THE collection of Locks exhibited was very nume-
rou=s ; but we shall not be expected to detnil their
peculiarities.

First, were several liistorical illustrations of lock-
makin;;, in Roman, old French, Mediaeval, and old
English specimens.

A contrivance by Aubin, of Wolverhampton, con-
tained the movements of the most celebrated looks (37
specimens), which, with tlieir connected mechanism,
coutained upwards of 3000 parts, all put in motion by
the arm of a lever communicating by hidden woi'ks.

Bramah's Locks were represented by the padlock,
■which for many years has been exhibited in the win-
dow of Messrs. Bramah's shop in Piccadilly, witli a
promise of 200 guineas to any artist who would make
an instrument that would pick or open the lock.
There were also other specimens of Bramah's locks :
the priut^iple C'^>nsisting in an arr.angement of slides,
each with a peculiar motion, which fall into notches
in a shot-bult, and detain it there ; and as each slide
will do this, it ensures great security.

Messrs. Chubb contributed specimens of their
Patent Detector Locks and Latches. Each lock con-
sists of six distinct tumblers (except in the very
smallest sizes), working on a centre pin ; all of which require lifting
to various lieights by the key before the lock can be opened or shut ;
and not until each tumbler is lifted to its jirojier position can the
stud, which forms a part of tlie bolt, pass through the slots in the
tumblers. A '• detector," forniing tlie peculiar feature of Chubb's
lock, is added ; and, in the event of either of the six tumblers being

Messrs. Chubb also exhibited a model of their Patent Well Safe, by
means of which a safe containing any valuable property can be lowered
to any distance below the surface of the groimd. and secured by a*ire-
proof door mihI framework at the mouth of the well.

In the Unitfd States department was exhibited Newell's Patent Parau-
toptio Bank Lock, by the proprietor, Mr. A. C. Hobbs. Its most impor-
tant feature is that the owner can, with the greatest facility, change the
interior an*angement to a new and more complex one at any moment he
pleases, simply by altering the arrangement of the bits of the key ; and
this is aecomplisljed without removing the lock, or any part of it, from
its position on the door. Its operation is as follows : — At the closing or
locking of the lock, whilst the bolt is projecting, the moveable combina-
tion parts assume precisely the position prescribed to them by the key,
according to the particular arrangement of its bits at the time the key is
turned. The combination parts do not consist in one set of tumblers
only, such as are found in most other locks, but there are three distinct
sets or component parts, fitting into each other. When the bolt is pro-
jected, it dissolves the mutual connexion of th^ constituent pieces, and
carries along with it such as are designedly attached to it, and which
assume the particular positions given them by the key in its revolution.
These parts are rendered permanent in their given form by means of a
lever adapted for the purpose, while the parts not united with the bolt

ELIZ.lBErHKN KEY.
FEATHAJt.

chubb's patent lock (interior).

overlifted, in an attempt to open it by a false key or picklock, one of them
is caught by a detecting spring in such a manner as to render it impossible
to open the lock on the application of its own key. Notice is thus given
of thu attempt, and the lock may be set right by turning its key in a contraiy
direction, as in locking.

lu design the locks were of various styles, Norman, Gothic, Elizabethan,
&.C., with appropriate steel and ormolu mountings, and richly ornamented
keys.

'j'lic Patent Quadruple F.ock for a banker's strong-room door, consists of
a combination of four Rei>aratc and di-tinct locks in one, all being acted
upon .at tlie same time by a single key with four bits. For further secu-
rity, there is a check lock in addition, throwing a hard s'teel plate over the
Lirge key-liole. The patent rim lock contains eighteen tumblers, with
three ditf**rent detectors, each acted on by six of the tumblers, and has
been constructed to .'how the principle of Chubb's three difiereut patents,
dated 1821, 1833, and 1847.

The Patent Fireproof Banker's Safe is made of wrought iron, the iron
of the body being half an inch thick at the thinnest part, and the doors
1 inch thick, the whole being lined throu^'h'iut with hard steel plates to
prevent drilling. To render the safe fireproof, it is lined with two
separate and distinct chambers. 6 inches tliick. filled with dried non-con-
ductors of heat. The interior is fitted up with drawers, cupboards, &c.,
in a manner suited to bankers' or merchauta' use. The folding-dooi's are
secure! by two patent detector wheel locks, throwing twenty-eight bolts
out all round, and are further fitted with c.iso hardened iron scutcheon
locks over the key-holes of the principal locks. Its dimensions are tj feot
() inches hiL'h. 4 f-et wide, aid 3 feet deep, and its weight is 3 tons 6 cwt.

patent PABiUTOPTIO BANK LOCK. — KEWELL, HEW YORK.

are pressed down by their springs to their original places. If now the
bolt is to be returned again— 'in other words, if the lock is to be unlocked
— the constituent pieces, or tumblers, which are in their original state.
must, by means of the key, be again raised into that position in which
they were when the lock was closed; otherwise, the constituent parts
attached to the bolt would not lock iu with the former, aud the bolt
could not be returned. Nothing, therefore, but the precise key which
had locked the lock can effect the object. This lock is said to have
another peculiar feature, one of considerable value, that it will withstand
the action of gunpowder.

One of the results of the Exhibition has been the picking of a lock of
Chubb's make, and Bramah's Padlock, by Mr. Hobbs. A long controversy
ensued as to the actual compliance with the conditions of picking: the
case of Me.'.^rs. Bramah wift referred to a Committee of arbitrators, who,
having witnessed certain experiments, decided that Mr. Hobbs had pi;ked
the lock without injuring it. and Messrs. Bramah accordingly pa.d him
the 2o0 guineas ; though he had used three or four instruments, instead
of one, stated in the challenge.

The Safe for the Koh-i-noor Diamond, the work of Messrs. Chubb, may
be descrilied here. It consists, first, of an octagon table, the top aud
sides of halfinch wrought-iron plates, rebated together with augie-iron.
In the interior is a fireproof safe, 12 inches square, and 2 feet S) inches
deep, the wrought plates being 1 inch thick. In the centre of the sal'o
is a platform, 9 inches square, on which the velvet cushion, jewels, and
setting are fixed. A hole is cut out of the table to allow the platform to
descend into the safe. Iu order to secure the diamonds at night, a small
door, 3 inches square, in one of the panels of the table, was unlocked,
anil, by turning a winch, the platform gradually sank into the safe, and a
sliding iron door was drawn over the opening at the top. The cage was
secure 1 to the table by j, pieces at the bottom ring dropping into corres-
ponding holes, and these were locked by two separate iletective locks;
the keys of these locks were held by the crown officei-s ; and without them

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPiTlDIA OF TIIR GREAT EXirilUTION OF IS.")!.

403

PHILOSOPHICAL tNSTRUMEHTS.

LADD'S IMPROVED MICROSCOPK ADJUSTMENTS.

VJtjft proSont our readers with a view of tlio microscopo, No. 486, for which
the inventor, Mr. LadJ, of Walworth, li.ia rcceivcil lionourablo mention
from the jnry of (Jlass X. No person who has used tlie microscope can have
'ailed to cxperionco.the difficulty which in all ordinary instrumcnta prevents
iho nicety of adjiistmcnt essential to microscopic observation. Tliis arises
from the motion of tho tuljo depending upon a rack and pinion, which,
from tlieir nature, it is scarcely possible to malio to woric with smoothness
md acciu'acy ; and oven in tlio best instruments the partn are speedily
worn, producing that unsteady motion known as " less of time." Tlio in-
pftntor has overcome this objection by employing a steel fusee chain in lieu
of tho rack, and substituting a steel pin or axis for tho pinion ; tho chain,
passing two or three times round the axis, is attached at each end of the
jliding bar supporting the body of the microscope ; the .axis, furnished with
\ milled head, is made to , revolve as in the rack and pinion, of course
n'lTing the hibe with it. Similar too^cments .are applied by the inventor

cess to tho jowols could not ho had. Tho key of the Hm.ill door allowed tlio

latfol-m to ho raised or lowered only, but did not give access to the

jflwels, The weight of the whole was 36 cwt., jind it was bolted to the floor.

to tho moveahin Htagcn. Hupcrseding tlio ohi rnrk work nA well ns the wrrw,
thus obtaining an eipial rate of niutioii in both dii-ections in conhi<l>-i > y
less space. These improvenientH, cconuiiii»iug labour, and render. ng

r.ADDS TJIPHOVED MICROSCOnO ADJ0SIMEST3.

unnecessary in most instances the supple-
mentary "fine adjustment,'' will afford a
uniform steady motion without the possi-
bility of loss of time, while the friction is
so slight that the wear of years will not be
perceived ; thus reducing the cost of this
valuable instrument, so necessary to the
investigation of every branch of the physical
sciences.

ROS.S'S ASTRONOMICAL, TELESCOPE.
This very fine instrument occupied a
conspicuous position in the Central Avenue
of the Western Nave. The tube is 20 feet
in length, and the object-gIa=s II4 inches
in diameter. It is mounted upon a stand
with equatorial movements and complete
adjustment. Tlie optical part is wrought
by Ross's improved system and machinery,
A note in the "Official Illustrated Cata-
logue" states : — " The grinding of an object-
glass of 11 5 inches in diameter to a good
figure, and free from both spherical and
chromatic aberration, is very difficult. The
advantage of a large object-glass will be
seen from the following consideration. Tho
principal reason of the superior distinctness
of a telescope over unassisted vision arises
froui the fact that the pupil of the eye
takes in a certain number of rays of light ;
but on looking through a telescope it
takes in as many more rays in proportion
a.s the object-^hiss is larger t'an the pupil
itself, and the object appears as brilliant as
it would were the pupil of the eye to be
enlarged to the size of the o'bject-glass."

ROSS 3 ASTRONO.MIC!/\L TELESCOPK.

SNrFF BOX IN iniSH BOO OAK.
WATEBHOfSE.
The snuff-box in Irish Bog Oak, exhi-
bited by Waterhouse, of Dublin, is an
extremely fine specimen of carving. The
Irish Harp is in the centre, surroimded by
shamrocks and oak leaves.

404

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

IRISH EOG YEW FURNITURE. — JONES, OF DUBLIN.

BOG YEW FURNITURE. BY A. J. JONES, OF DUBLIN.
Jones, of Stephen's Green, Dublin, brought together a very extensive series of decorative
furniture in Irish bog yew, designed to ilhistrate the history, antiquities, animal and vegetable
productions, and other national features and pecuUarities of the sister isle. The intention is
highly creditable to his spirit of patriotism ; and the talent bestowed upon the various objects
is of a character to warrant the belief that the Irish artificer only wants encouragement, to
enable him to take a position of honourable rivalry with those of any other European nation.
The devices are varied and striking, and the execution, in most of the details, at once bold and
careful. It is to be regretted, however, that in most cases the subjects have not been better
chosen, being often extravagant and inappropriate. AVe will refer, for instance, to an arm
chair, the arms of which are impersonated by dogs, the one lying down, the other half standing.
Can anything be conceived less inviting, or less comfortable f The chair and card-table which

we engrave at the top of this page, beiDj
less ambitious in style, are generally com
mendable as handsome and serviceabl
pieces of furniture.

The vrine table (engraved at the foot o
the page) has a long story attached to it
regardless of the maxim, " Least sail
soonest mended," which is a sound maxin'
and one which, considering art to be a sor
of language, we would commend to all wh
resort to it for decorative purposes. T£
guest who sits down to this " semicirculii
or horseshoe wine table," has to learn tha
in it he sees an epitome of the history (
the Green Isle, from the time of Brian Bor
— far away before the " six hundred yeai
of oppression" commenced, and passin
through the times of " Good Queen Bess,
through those, again, of the last, the gayes
and most gentlemanly of the George:
down even to the veiy time of our preseE
gracious Queen ; the dull realities of history
like all Irish histories, being agreeabl
blent with romance, and a slight taste c
fairy philosophy. But we will give tb
whole description in the words of tb
exhibitor. In the first place, the table ;
" supported by the harp of Brian Boru, an
Bacchanalian standards. The screen at tb
back is ornamented by satyrs, grapes, an

SNUFF BOX of IRISH BOG OAK.

foliage, vases of fruit, and the badges of th
three principal orders of knighthood, th
Prince of Wales's plume in the centre, and th
St. George conspicuous above. In the ceutr
of the screen is an historic sculpture in higl
relief, representing the punishment of inhos
pitality, or the abduction of the youu|
St. Lawrence, heir of Howth, bj' Granuwaik
the Irish princess, on her landing at Howth
when returning to Ireland from thi
Court of Queen Elizabeth. Granuwaih
having landed, proceeded to the castle fo;
refreshment, when the gates were closed
and the gate-keeper informed her the family
were at dinner, and no person could be ad
mitted. Retiring in disgust and irritation
and proceeding to the shore, she met with :
child in care of attendants, who, on inquiry
proved to be the young heir of Howth ; sh(
immediately ordered her attendants to seizf
the boy ; a sturdy sailor conveys him to tht
boat at the stern command of Granuwaile .
the female attendants are in gi-ief and dismay,
the yoimg heir was conveyed aw.ay to the
west of Ireland, and not restored for fifteen
years ; and then only on condition that tlie
gates of Howth Castle shall never be closed
at the dinner-hour — a condition which is ful-
filled to this day. The scene of this remark-
able transaction is laid at the old landing-
place of Howth, the spot where it actually
occurred, and the point of view selected is
where the late King George IV. first set foot
on Irish ground. The hill of Howth forms
the back-ground': Lord Howth 's castle being
on' the right cf the spectator. The leading

\VINE-TAPJ,R l.\- inKII B0« VEW.— JONE.S, OF DUBLIN.

AiN U.LUSTUATED CYCF.OPvEDIA OF TI[K GREAT KXIIIHri'lON OK 1H51.

4<)5

I 'A Oil tlio acclivity of tlio liiU.iinil llic
ortliool(lubl)ny church, aroHhowu.
•etcliinK o\it to the left, Iivland'a
th its coiiMpicuoiiH Hint pic-
■esfivio cra^t^y clift'H, is depicted from
)urc. Around this picture, foriiiiuf;
ort of fninio, arc objects ill keopiug
ih iiiiirino Kcenery, shoU-work, coral,
ling apparatus, kc. From the centre
th(! Hereon projects an ornate rotatory
jstcr, composed of rich clusters of
Jies and foliage, and traverses the
er semicircle of the table. Arising
m the coasters arc two aiirial figures,
I Irish fairy man and woman, sup-
ting an ancient Irish nioatlier, and
ntiiig to the national motto inscribed
roon, Ct'«(/ mille faille, ' A hundred
usand welcomes.' The ancient Irish
%rtaiued a strong superetitious belief
1 revei-euce of ' Fairies,' or ' Good
pic' attributing virtues and vices,
their corresponding rewards and
lishnients, to their influence; so
t every propensity, whether bad or
d, resulted from their enchantment.
•y are reinmeiiled mi the coaster as

'isinff tlicir bewitching power to tempt
lovers of the ' pure blood of the grape '
M'ced due bounds. In this period of
ir progress they appear in celestial
[US and with captivating smiles ; but,
'iiig accomplished their ^miyose, they
capable of as&umiug the most inalig-
t and hideous aspects, and inflicting
dly punishments." A long story,
ly, by way of prelude to a glass of
e ; and one which would surely
s a relish to the generous gi'ape but

the concluding portion, which,
ler the circumstances, sounds a
le uncalled-for, not to say unkind,
.he designer had any arriere pens^e of
ing the host's wine (as an induce-
Qt to purchase this particular table),
should pronounce the proceedings
itively " shabby ! "

X DECOHATION IN STEVENS MARTIN S

CEMENT.

[S chaste and elegant piece of work,
n the designs of J. T. Kuowles, Esq.,
intended to show the various pui'-
es to which the above cement can
pplied. A minute examination con-
^es one of the great beauty of the
cle in its pure white state, as used
the architectural enrichments of
ms, while some portions of the design
lonstrate its excellence in the shape
scagliola work ; and others show
I well suited it is for painting and
ling upon, which processes can be
formed in a few hours after the
lent is put up. This material is
proof, and susceptible of the highest
ish.

lODEL Paving. — This consists of
ken stone, inserted between blocks
wood ; driven hard ■ on to the wood
he bottom of a groove, which is first
have placed therein a composition
gravel and ground lime, and a por-
1 of the same brushed over the aur-
> to fill up the vacancies that may
eft, after which a thin layer of gravel
lid over the surface.

a
w
o
o

I— I

<-3

4qq

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

MAOHINE.^Y AND MECHANICAL CONTRIVANCES.

CLUNE'S ROTARV PUMP.
A MOXG tlie many macliines of this class in the great Exhibition, Mr.
Clune's invention seems to claim notice, from the simplicity of its con"
stniction. portability, and neatness of design. Jt may be either placed
on a bracket iitt.aelied to a wall, or be fixed on the top of a pedestal or
colinim. The cylinder is placed horizontally, its axis projucting thi'ongh
the front of the case, to a handle, by which motion is communicated to
it. The eylinder, having a flange at bottom, is secured by means of bolts
to the top flange of the supply-pipe, at the top of which pipe is the clack
valve in a curved chamber at the bottom of the cylinder, which leads into
the external channel, passing half round the cylinder, and terminating in
a port at top. Bshiud this port is a vertical slide, or diaphragm, which
acta as a stop, and slides up and down in a groove, and is enclosed in a

case above the cyHndar, its lower
edge being faced with leather, caout-
chouc, or other suitable substanoea.
For the greater part of the revolu-
tion of the hor zontal shaft of ihe
pump, the stop rests upon a cylin-
drical boss surrounding the shaft,
which passes through one side of
the cylinder by means of a stuffing-
box, its opposite end resting on a
fixed bearing on the other side of
the cylinder. The boss U ca-st with
an excentric or spiral cam, the outer
end of which works in contact with the interior surface of the'cylinder,
whereas its sides are in contact with the ends of the cylinder. In front
of the vertical slide is the delivery-port, with its valve opening out at the
top of the cylinder, having a discharge-pipe for the water or other fluid to
be pumped up. At each revolution of the cam, which causes the stop or
diaphragm to fall, a vacuum is formed behind it, after passing the inlet-
port already described ; and thus a body of water is at once elevated to
the cylinder through the lower valve, at the same time the water already
in the cylinder in front of the excentric is driven out through the upper
clack-valve. The action of the gradually-curved cam effects a smooth and
easy action on the diaphragm, and a regular discharge of the fluid is
secured by the rapid rotation of the cam.

COINING-PRESSES.
Maudslav's CoiNrx&PRESs.— This beautiful machine is worked by a
double-cylinder direct acting high-pressure engine, on the shaft of which
is a metallic pulley of 36 inches, and a fly-wheel of 72 inches diameter,
respectively. The cylinders are each of 5 inches diameter, and the length
oi the stroke 16 inches. From the pulley of the engine, a strong double
leather strip passes to a drum of 56 inches diameter on the main shaft of
the press, by which motion is given to the cross-head and other parts of
the machine ; this dium being attached to the engine fly-wheel, of 64 inches

•diameter. In coining-presses, as ordinarily used, either a screw or lever
employed to give motion to that part of the machine by which the nece
impressions are given to the metallic hlanJc ; but in the present instani
this motion is obtained by means of an excentric, by which a pressure
brought into action of 140 tons : the cross-head, worked by the excentril
which is concealed from view, having an alternate vertical motion of threa
quarters of an inch. Underneath, and attached to the cross-head, are twfl
collars, the lower one of which contains the upper die ; while the low^
die is contained in a collar, which is kept up by three radially-placed sprinij
pressing thereon, and forms the temporary resting-place for the blaM
undergoing the process of stamping. At proper intervals, the coUai' i|
pressed down by two small levei-s or arms, having an alternate motioa
The blanks, twenty-eight in number, each of nearly one-eighth of an inch it
thickness, ai'e placed in a circular brass hopper, from an opening in t})f
bottom of which they are successively transferred to the lower die by mea^
of a split curved ai'm, or tongs of ingenious construction, having tw(
fingers at the end, by which the blank is held during its transference fron
the hopper to the lower die, when the curved arm is opened so as to releas
the die : the distance between the centre of the hopper and the centre if,
the die is 5 inches. The opening and shutting of the split-arm, or tongj
is eSected by a vertical pin moving in a short slot formed in the stem o
the curved delivery arm ; this pin is attached to the end of a second hori
zouta} arm or lever, which is worked by a vertical spindle in connexioi
with an elliptical cam towards the top and front of tho press. In case of
blank being larger than that of the requii-ed gauge, a safety spring is attache!
to the second horizontal arm already mentioned, having its centre of motica
on the vertical spindle, by which the error is detected. By this press, 61
double impressions are thrown off in a minute.

German Coining-Press. — ^-i^ong the contributions to ttp Exhibitiqi
from Cologne was a coining-pres3, on the principle of the knuckle-joini
which, coining at the rate of Irom thirty to forty a minute, completes thi
coin and mills the edyc in letters at one motion. By Maudslay's coining-pres
above described, the coins are silently and successively stamped, pushe(
off, and replaced by another blank disc, in a manner that seemed, until W'
examined the German press, the perfection of art. But the milling tbi
edge with letters by the motion which forms the die, has not hitherto beei
effected by English machine-uiakers.

PAPER-MILL.
In the French department wa^ exhibited Middleton and Elwell's paper-mill
At one extremity is an endless band of wh'e gauze of the required width
which pa.sses round rollers ; on this the pulp is allowed to flow^; the thicknesi
of the paper"beiiig regulated according to the flow of the pulp, or to thi
speed at which the wu-e gauzej is driven. As the pulp is carried along bj
the gauzBj the water percolates ; sometimes a jogging motion is given t(
the gauze more effectually to pet the pulp, which having acquired a certail
degree of consistency, just sufficient to bear being removed, it passes on ti
a long jack-towel, if we may so term it, which absorbs the moisture mon
effectually; the pulp thus travels on, gi'adually acquiring a greater degrei
of consistency, till it passes over three cylinders heated by steam, eac|
eylinder increasing in temperature ; the paper is then made, and is cui
longitudinally and transversely into any sized sheets. All this is done bj
the same machine.

LATHES AND TOOLS.

Sharp Brothers and Co., of Manchester, contributed some good exampl^
of lathes ,for turning the wheels of locomotive engines and oth
purposes. The fii-st of these is called a Railway Wheel-turning Latliffi
having two face-plates each of 7 feet diameter, adapted for turning a paij
either of locomotive or railway carriage wheels of that size, when fixe.^
upon their axle or otherwise, without torsion. Two tii-es may be bore^
at the same time, or a wheel may be turned on one plate whilst the boring
or bossing of a second wheel is going on, being attached to the other face-
plate. The extreme distance between the centres of this lathe is 9 feet

6 inches, so that axles and wheels of the broadest gauge may be turned in
it. The advantages of this machine are, that the two tools employed hav^
self-acting motions, whereby one man is enabled to accomplish more than
twice the amount of work by lathes of the ordinaiy description.

The second machine was that used for cutting the key-grooves in tha
bosses of railway and other wheels, up to any diameter not exceeding

7 feet ; having also longitudinal, trsmsverse, and cucular self-acting
motions.

The third was a machine for planing articles of metal; the article being
moved along by a traversing table, while the cutting tool is attached to
a cross slide, and so arranged that the machine itself, having been onoei
put in motion, causes the tool to cut either horizontally, vertically, or 4|i
any required angle, without the assistance of an attendant.

AN ILLUSTllATEU CYCLOPiliDlA 01' THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851.

407

Next was a liorizoutal tiliiipiii^,' iitut i>liiiiiiiK inncliine, tlifleriiig from tlio
previous (ino, in tijo tool moving whiio tliu article oporatccl on ia Htulioiinry.
Horizontiil ami cireulur woi'k is ellucled l)y Kclf-ttutiiig movements of the
niauliino ; wliilo incgular ciirvcsi are plttuod by a motion roquiring the
attention anil iliroction of tlio wtjrkniau.

lloltzapilcl and Co. oxliibited some of their machines and tools adapted
to ornamental turning, speeimcns of whieli were
aim* di,si)layed. There wa>^ a liitiiu with a new and
rather eomplieatod rest; its eliief peculiarity being
that it enables splieres to bo turned witli greater
precision than hitherto. There werojilso the geo-
metrieal, excentrie. and oval chucks. In this clasi
of instruments tlie to ils, made of every variety of
form, revolve, while the work under operation re-
mains stationary ; being the opposite conditions to
those usually observed iu ordinary and rose-engine
turning. In some instances a .'still larger amount of
elaborate work is produced by putting both the
work and the tool iu motion at the eaiuo time.
There was also a valuable rose-engine, very com-
pletely fitted witli a variety of apparatus, bucIi as a
compound slidmg rest, segment engine, oblique
motion, excentric, oval, stiaiyht line, spherical, geo-
metric, and many other chucks; which are em-
ployed either iiKlepentlently or in combination with
each other, with or without the rose-engine move-
ment, which ia itself is a prolific source of elegaut
embellishment.

Whitworth und Co. contributed a complete series
of their beautifully fiuibhed self-acting lathes ; as
also their planing, slotting, drilling, boring, screvT-
ing, cutting, dividing, punching, and shearing ma-
chmcs, respectively. Most of these machines were
seen daily iu action iu connexion with a steam-
engine.

Parr and Co. exhibited a general shaping ma-
chine, used for cutting out and forming hollows iu

metals to half an inch in radius. Its novelty consists in the introduction
of a pair of excentric wheels, which give motion to the crank, thus effecting
a more uniform motion.

Next was Parr and Co's machine for drilling holes in metal, up to 1^
inch diameter. It is supplied with a self acting feed motion ; the pressure
being regulated either by a friction-brake or by the operator. Parr and
Co. also exhibited their slide and screw-cutting lathe — fitted with geared
head-stocks, having a conical mandril, and case-hardeued steel bearings
and collar. The
guide-screw ex-
tends the wholo
length of the
machine, aud
the compound
slide rest is self-
acting, both lon-
gitudinally and
transversely :
motion being
given to the
machine by

steam.

Shepherd and
Co. contributed a
self acting lathe
and Bcrew-cut-
tiug apparatus,
self-acting sur-
face motion, and
improved disen-
gaging motion,
remarkable for superior finish.

It has been well observed of this department, that "if we find but little
novelty, there ia much to excite admiration for the perfection of its execu-
tion and the maguiticent scale of its operation. Thus, we have a lathe
which turns a shaft nearly forty feet iu length, and another which turns
the tire of a wheel eight feet in diameter, both being driven by steam."
The planing machine exhibited by this firm operates upon metal as success-
fully as wood is planed by the carpenter. The fii-st illustration shows the
elevation of this machine. On the left is a multiplying pulley, by which,
in Connection with a band or str.ap from a steam engine, the motion of the
macliine is accelerated or retarded at pleasure, merely by shifting the strap
from one step in the pulley to another. It is self-acting, both ;is regards
metallic forms to be cut either vertically, horizontally, or angularly; it is
simple in its several parts, and is evidently constructed with a view to
strength. The second illustrati'm is an elevation of one side of the " sliile
aud cutting lathes" of the same firm. It will be seen that the main parts
of tins machine have a solid ap|>earance, particularly the bed on which
the whole is fixed. It is fitted with geared head stocks, having a conical
mandril, and case-hardened steel bearings and collar. The guide screw

extendi) the wholo length of the machine, and the compound tlidc rcit !•
self acting, both longitu<Iinal)y ai>fl tniiiHVAmely. ^lotion in riven to the
maeliino by the Fame mcaiiH iih in the ai^oof the planing machine, .-.^ fhowa
on the riuht hand Bide of the cut. The eflict« of a coloual punch n({
machine (Hick and Son's hydraulic prcnn,) are exhibited, by which a atcel
punch eight incbeit in diameter ia panted through a plato of iron four

P.vUIl, CUimS, AND M.U3ELEYS PLANING MACHISE.

inches thick, with as little apparent effort as though it passed through
the s.ame thickness of cheeses, although to effect this a force of 2500 tons ifl
required."

WOOD CARVING, "SPRING." — BY WALLIS, OP I.OUTH.
This magnificent group of spring birds and flowers we have commented
upon in a former notice of •' Wood Carving in the Great Exhibition." For
truthfulness of character, variety of objects and delicacy of workmanship

PARK, CnRTia, AND MADELEY's SLIDE AND CUTTINQ LATHE.

it was perhaps without a rival in the Exhibition. In the opinion ot
many, a greater variety of size in the objects represented would have im-
proved the group; but, embodying the characteristics of spring when only
flowers are to be met with, the artist was prevented from availing himself
of the varied forms which the introduction of fruit would have placed at
his disposal.

TOILET-GLASS, MADE FOB HER GRACE THE DCCHESS OP SUTHERLAND.
BY W. POTTS, BIR.MINCHAM.
We believe this toilet-glass is one ot the largest pieces of ornamental casting
iu bronze of this genre executed in England. Its design and workmanship
reflect the hishest credit on its spirited manufacturer. The idea evidently
sought to be carried out is, a couple of Nereids, sitting on marine phmts,
arranging their toilet. The upper part of the frame is enriched witli the
monogram, motto, and coronet of the noble Lady. Two herons also grace
the top, holding in their beaks chains, whence are pendiut brule-ji'rlnn.s of
elegant form. Springing from foliage of the lower part of the de^igll are
two pairs of branches for wax lights, partaking of the same fltiral cl.ararter ;
between these, supported on very elegant seroU-work, aie three perfume
bottles of cut glass. The figures of the Nereids are of Parian.

408

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

Toilet glass. — potts, of iiiu.\aNGHAii

LAMI'. — BAILY AND SONS.

AN l!-I,rSTl{ATK!) (;YCL01M<;D1A of TJIK GllKAT EXIIIJUTIO.N (JT JHf,!

4<)y

it^

BlIOXZK. — me.vf;.

VASR. — ASDRH.

fPRJNQ FLOWERS. — WOuD CARVlNii.— WiLf.:

410

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

CRYSTALLISED ACIDS.

A MONG the numerous crystallised bodies which were exhibited in this
section, none were more important thau the various and yeiy beautiful
specimens of crystallised organic acids. Of these substances one of the
mo«t Etriking, both on account of the size and the perfect limpidity of
its ciystals, is tartaric acid, which is extensively prepared from crude
tartrate of potash, and is chiefly employed by the dyers of cotton fabrics,
in the preparation of their colours.

Argols, or tartar, from which this acid is manufactured, is the crude
bitartrate of potash, which exists in the juice of the grape, and is depo-
sited by wines in theh- fermenting vats, in proportion as the alcohol is
formed, in consequence of its insolubility in that Uquid. There are two
kinds of tartars known in commerce — the white and the red ; the former,
which is of a pale pinkish colour, is the crust which falls during the
fermentation of white wines ; the second is a dark red substance, and is
deposited by the red wines under similar circumstances. This salt, after
being purified by repeated boilings with white argillaceous clay, becomes
perfectly white, and is tlien known in commerce under the name of
ci-eam of tartar, in which form it is much employed by dyers and calico
printers.

To make tartaric acid, crude tartar, or argols, is from its cheapness
alone employed, and on an average it contains from 69 to 71 per cent, of
this substance in a crystalline state.

The manufacture of this article is earned on to a considerable extent
in the neighbourhood of the metropolis, and is conducted in the following
way. Into a large tub, capable of containing three or four thousand
gallons of water, is thrown from 16 to 18 cwt. of finely washed chalk
(carbonate of lime), which is agitated by means of a moveable arm
woi-ked by machinery, untU it has become incorporated with the water,
and forms a sort of milky fluid. The mixture is now heated to the
boiling point by the aid of steam, which is introduced into it through
proper pipes, and the tartar is afterwards added to it by degrees, and well
stirred dm-ing the whole time by the instrument before described. By
this means the tartar is made to yield to the lime exactly one half of its
tartaric acid, tartrate of lime being deposited with evolution of carbonic
acid gas, whilst neutral tartrate of potash remaios in solution. To
decompose this second atom, and separate from its base the portion of
tartaric acid still united to potash, a proper amount of sulphate of lime,
obtained from a subsequent operation, is added to the mixture, which, on
being again heated and stirred, will be found to consist of insoluble tar-
catrate of lime, deposited at the bottom of the tun, together with a solu-
tion of sulphate of potash which is drawn off and evaporated in proper
vessels, in order to obtain that salt in a crystallised and marketable form.

The tartrate of lime remaining at the bottom of the tun is now well
washed with pure water, and when judged sufficiently clean is decomposed
by the addition of a sufficient amount of dilute sulphuric acid, into free
tartaric acid (which is held in solution by the water) and insoluble sul-
phate of lime or gypsum, which soon settles at the bottom of the vessel
in which the decomposition is effected. To separate the solution of
tartaric acid from the insoluble gypsum with which it is associated, a
system of filtration on a large scale is had recourse to ; the clear liquor
which passes thmugh being pumped into large evaporators, whilst the
solid sulphate of lime is reserved to produce the decomposition of neutral
tartrate of potash in the succeeding operation. The vessels in which the
weak tartaric acid liquors are evaporated down are commonly made of
wood, lined with sheet lead, and the heat is usually obtained by passing
through the liquid coils of leaden pipes, through which a current of
steam, at a considerable pressure, is made to pass.

The liquors, after being concentrated to the proper point, are now run
off into large leaden tubs, where crystals of crude or rough acid are
quickly formed. These are subsequently redissolved, and the solution is
filtered through a layer of animal charcoal, for the purpose of removing
the brown tint caused by the extractive matter contained in the argols.
By successive crystallisations and filtrations tlie acid is in this way made
to assume a great degree of transparency, and when crystallised from
solutions which are not too highly saturated, the finest specimens are
obtained. We observed some very beautiful crystals of this substance in
the case of Messrs. Pontifex and Wood, and some extremely pure speci-
mens of the same acid among the collections belonging to JVIessrs. Howard
and Kent, of Stratford, and Mes-ira. Huskisson, of Gray's-inn-road.

Citric acid — fine examples of which were exposed by the exhibitors
a'ove named — is inanul'actured from the concentrated juice of the lemon
or lim»- and is used bolli for the preparation of cnoling drinks, and also by
the dyers of silk and calico. The metlioils by whicli this acid is obtained
from the imported lime juice very closely resemble those employed in the
manufacture ot tartaric acid. It is, however, far more expensive than
tartaric acid, and is consequently sometimes adulterated by the cheaper

article. This adulteration is easily discovered by the addition of a little
carbonate of potash to the suspected acid ; for if tartaric acid be present,
a precipitate of cream of tartiu- will quickly take place, particularly on
stirring with a glass rod — whilst if pure citric acid be thus treated, no
sort of deposit %vill be produced. This acid sells at about 2s. 6rf. per lb.,
whilst the cost of tartaric is but lid per lb. Among the salts of this
acid which were exhibited, we may notice a specimen of efi'ervescent
citrate of magnesia, by Mr. W. King, of Soho-street, Liverpool.

Among the numerous preparations exhibited by J. F. Macfarlane
& Co., of Edinburgh, and Mr. Button, of Holborn-bars, London, were
some large and extremely beautiful specimens of gallic acid. This sub-
stance is prepaj-ed from the gall-nut, and is employed in photography, for
the production of galtronitrate of silver.

Gallic acid may be obtained by mixing powdered gillls with water, and
exposing the paste for some weeks to the air, at a temperature of about
70° Fahrenheit, and occasionally adding a little water to prevent the mix-
ture from becoming dry. The powder thus treated gradually swells, and
becomes mouldy, and on subjecting the magma to pressure, a quantity of
dark-coloured liquor is easily squeezed out ; the residue, or cake, is now
boiled in water, and the solution filtered whil-t hot ; and on cooling, it
deposits long acicular crystals of gallic acid, which may be purified by
i-e-solution and boiling with a little animal chavcoal. On again crystal-
lising this solution, crystals of a much lighter colour are obtained. Gallic
acid forms one of the ingredients of common writing ink, the colouring
matter of which consists of a mixture of galhite and tannate of iron.

In the case of Mr. J. Fowler, of Bedford-street, Covent-garden. was a
beautiful specimen of pure benzoic acid— a substance obtained either by
sublimation, or in the humid way by the action of bases on gum benzoin.
It is much used, in combination with ammonia, by the scientific chemist,
as a means of effecting the separation of iron from manganese, cobalt, and
other metals.

Benzoin, or Benjamin, is a species of resin used chiefly in perfumery.
It is extracted by incision from the stem and branches of the styrax
benzoin, which grows in Java, Sumatra, Santa Fe, and in the kingdom of
Siam. It enters into numerous preparations, among which may be men-
tioned fumigating pastiles and fumig,iting cloves. It is, moreover, some-
times employed, when dissolved iu alcohol, for varnishing snuff-boxea
and other objects, iu order to give to them an agreeable smell when they
become heated in the hand or pocket.

Oxalic acid may be prepared by the action of nitric acid on sugar, silk,
saw dust, hair, glue, and several other animal and vegetable substances ;
but for commercial purposes sugar and molasses are alone employed, and
yield acid of gi-eater purity than that obtained from any of the other
above-mentioned commodities. To make this acid, four parts of nitric
acid, of specific gravity 1'40, are added in a large stonewai'e vessel to one
part of raw sugar, and the mixture subsequently heated in a water bath
until the whole of the nitrous gas which is at first driven off has become
totally disengaged. When this point has been attained the pipkin is
removed from the water bath and allowed to cool, by which means the
oxalic acid is obtained in a crystallised form, whilst the malic acid gene-
rated at the same time remains dissolved in the mother liquors.

Oxalic acid is chiefly used for discharging colours in certain styles of
calico printing ; it is also employed for whiting the leather of boot-tops,
and cleaning straw-bonnets, and other similar fabrics. Nine parts of
water at 60° Fahrenheit dissolve one part of oxalic acid, and this solution,
if taken into the stomach, rapidly acts as a deadly poison. From the
great similarity of appearance which exists between this substance and
sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts), mistakes attended with the most
disastrous consequences have not unfrequently occurred ; but frum the
insolubility of oxalate of lime, and its consequent inactivity in the system,
all dangerous symptoms may be readily removed by a prompt and cau-
tious use of lime-water.

This acid likewise occurs ready formed in the juice of the wood sorrel,
in combination with potash as a binoxalate — a salt which is in Switzerland
largely prepared from this source, and sold under the name of salts of
sorrel, or salts of lemon. Oxalic acid is much used by the scientific
chemist as a means of detecting lime in any solution in which it may
exist. For this purpose, the oxalate of ammonia, as being more certain
and delicate in its action, is more frequently employed than the free acid.
Some extremely beautiful crystals of this salt were exhibited iu the case
belonging to Ml'. Button, which contained numerous other chemical pre-
parations of great beauty and purity.

Among the inorgauic crystallised acids we find white arsenic, or arse-
nious acid. Tliis substance is prepared by sublimation from minerals
which contain arsenic in the state of combination with other bodies, such
as iron and cobalt. A large portion of the arsenic employed in this
country is obtained from the mines of Cornwall, where it is prepared
during the " burning " or roasting of the ores of tin. The oxide of tin
raised from the mines in that country is always to a greater or less extent
associated with arsenical pyrites or mispickle, which, having nearly
the same density as the tm ore itself cannot be separated from it by
washing. To eUmiuate this substance, which, if allowed to remain with
the tin ore would materially deteriorate the metal produced, the ore is
roasted for a considerable time in reverberating furnaces adapted (or that
purpo.se. The arsenious acid which is thus driven off is collected in
chambers placed iu connexion with the flues of the furnace, whilst the sul-
phurous acid which is at the same time produced escapes cgndeasation, and

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OP THE GREAT KXllllUTION OF 1851.

411

finila its way into tlie nir tlirough tho chimney attached to the apparatus.
The nr«, iifter beinj; piiriKoil. U easily Hepaiatcl by wa-hinj; from tiio
oxifle of iron with which it is cnulaniinatod, artl th*; arHuniovi.f ucitl in
cnilectetl in tlio flnefi, Imt it is conHiderably Hoiled l>y tlio snioko j)aMsin^
thro\i;,'h tlicin, anil in therefore purified by a neconil hubliuiatiou. Tliin in
(lone by plaoin'^ the impure ar.seniovis aci^l in a pot or retort, wiiero it
in agiiiii Iieated to tho Kubliniing point, and eolh-eteil in large receiving
chaihlpoi's, in which it in deponited in a oryntallino foi'm. Whi-u firiit
deposited, arncnious acid in perfectly transparent, but after a short expo-
sure to tho atmosphere it becomes opacpie, and assumes tho appearance
of enamel, in which state it is much less solublo in water than when in
tho transparent form. This change of molecular structure it found to
commcnco on tho surface of tho exposed fragments, and gradually to
s)iread throu'^h the whole mass, as pieces which are completely whitened
on tho outsido aro found to retain their transparency towards tUo centre
of the mass.

Arsonious acid, in combination with other bodies, is extensively used
in the arts, and is in some case? administered as a medicine, although, in
extremely minute iiuimtities only. It is also occasionally introduced, to
a small extent, into the materials of flint glass, either before their fusion,
or in tVie melting-pot itself. M'licn thus em]>loyed, it has tho jjropcrty of
peroxidising tho iron of tho sand, aiid thcrei)y improving tlie colour of
tlio glass, although if an excess bo added, tho reverse is found to bo tho
case, and a dull milky ciist is imparted to the crystal.

Ai-senious acid is, moreover, extensively employed in tho manufacture
of Scheele's, or emerald, green, which is prepared by adding a solution of
arseiuatc of soda to another of sulphate of copper. The colour thus
obtained lias a very beautiful tint, and in much used by paper-stainers in
the preparation of various kinds of ornamental papers.

Ai-seniate of potash, which is an acidulous salt, prepared by fusing
together arseuious acid and nitre, is sometimes used in calico-printing, for
the purpose of preventing certain spots of cotton cloth from receiving tho
mordant. AVitli this view it is mixed witli gum-water and pipe-clay, till
it forms a pasty fluid, and is applied w-ith a block to the places ou which
the mordant is not i-equired to adhere.

Some fine specimens of this substance wei'e exhibited by Mr. T. Garland,
of F.iirfield, Redruth ; and Jlr. H. W. Jenkins, of Truro ; but they were
placed among the mining and metallurgical products of class 1.

Chromic acid, of which specimens w ere exhibited in this section, is
made by tlic addition of sulphuric acid to a solution of bichromate of
potash, which causes a copious deposit of red acicular crystals to
be produced. This substance is remark,able for the fine colour of its
crystals, but it has not as yet been employed for the purposes of the
arts. It is a powerful oxidising agent, and as such is occasionally used by
chemists.

CIVIL ENGINEERING MODELS.
CTEPHENSON'S Britannia Bridge ; tho model executed by James, of
Broadwall, is to a scale ; all the parts bear an exact proportion to things
as they are and as they were. The bridge consists of t a'o tubes, forming
the up and down lines ; and each tube was made of four different parts,
namely, two laud tubes of 230 feet span each, and two centre tubes of 460
feet span ; when these had been raised to their proper position ou the piers
(at a height of 103 feet above high water mark,) they were joined together
to form one. The total weight of the two tubes is about 11,000 tons. In
the model, one tube is shown complete, stretching aprosa the Straits ; and
the land tubes having been built on scaffolding in the position they now
occupy, the scaffolding is shown. The two central portions of the second
tube, illustrate the transits of tho tubes from the platforms on which they
were built to their ultimate destination on the piers ; one tube 'is shown
being floated to the basement of the piers, and the other is sho^vu in the
act of being raised by the hydraulic presses.

The Railway Bridge over the Wye, at Chepstow, by Brunei, is a novelty
in engineering. It is composed entirely of wrought-iron. One span is 300
feet, and others 1.00. The principle of construction adopted in spanning
the 300 feet scMis to be that of an extravagant trellis ; the principle of the
trellis is of the saiuf cljaracter as the Britannia tubes, or any other beams
or girders, — that '-, the top is subject to compression, and the bottom to
extension. This brid^ie has two hues for the up-and-down trains. The
span of 300 feet cou<ists of two huge trussed girders, the bottom of each
composed ot two slmrlo wrought-iron beams, which resist extension, and
between which one of the lines runs ; these beams being formed of boiler
plate, riveted together. These two girders are supported at two points,
100 feet apart from each end, from a wrought-iron tube above, which
stretches across the liiijiole span, and this tube resists the compression. This
tube also has been raised at a considerable elevation above the bottom
girders, so that the weights, such as trains, &e.. passing along the line, may
bo properly resolved or distributed over the tube by means of the tie-rods
and stays; the 100 feet spans being crossed simjily by wrouglit-iron beams.

The WBouGHT-moN Bar-chain Suspension Bridge, at Kietf, in Russia,
across the Dnieper, by Vignoles, is the most extensive work of the kind ever
attempted, being half a mile in length. This bridge has fom- principal

opcningfi. of 4 lU feet each, and two side openings of 225 feet. On the right
bunk of the river Ik a Swivel Bridge, wbieli givcH a free opening of SO lee^
for tho paHsagc of boati, &c. There is a dn-a^lviuitagc in tho biupeiitiQa
priiiciplu when the chuioH cannot be moved from hlioru to nborc, ax iu this
ca.su, an islaiKl of muKoory having to be formed in the river «f a inooiiog
abutment, to allow of the free pan.-ngo for boats ut the otlierside ; tbere are.
therefore, three abutments — two for tho chuinu, and one for tlie Bwivel
bi iilgo, and five piers ; all these rc(|iiira coffer-dauH of unuisuiti nize, paiti-
ciilarly for tho abutments. The chains are comjio.ned of broa<l flat liuks,
12 feet long, and weigh about 4 cwt each. The lierodn, which hang from
tho ehainB on each side, aro 2 inches in diameter, and are iuimcdiatcly con-
nected to tho girders which support tho platform. Tho platform in the
chief novelty ; ami consists in a judicious combination of iron and wood,
light and stiff. The trussed girders aro mostly of wood, and are deeper than
the tension girders, which latter aro rendered i-igid by tension bars. One
Bet of chains supports tho trunseil girders, and tlie other set Bupport.s the
tension girdorsand these occur alternately; tlieadditional depth of the trussed
girders being for the double purpose of stiffening the platform, and supporting
the footpaths outside tho chuiiiH. Tlie trussed girders are connected under-
neath at each euil by longitudinal tics, which run the whole length ; the
balustrades separate the carriage-way from the footpaths; and tiiey act
conjointly with the ties underneath in checking any tendencies to undulation;
the girders aro also br.iccd diagonally to prevent bide-play. The model is
executed by Mr, James. Tho whole of tho machinery and iron u^ed in tho
construction of the Kieff bridge was made in England, and weighs about
3300 tons ; nine steam engines are employed, varying from eight to fifty
horses power, in pumping, driving piles, grinding mortar, hoisting timber,
&e. The cost of the bridge, when finished, is estimated at 400,00U/.

Stephenson's High-level Bridge, at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, wag also
exhibited in model, by Hawks andCo, who were contractors for the iron -work.
The banks of the Tyne, both at Newcastle and Gateshead, are exceedingly
steep, and are connected by a viaduct, 1375 feet in length, running at a
height of 112 feet above high-water mark. There are six principal openings,
each of 120 feet span. The principle of construction is the bow and string;
the arches, which form the bow, are of cast-u'on, and the rods, whic'i form
the strings, are of wrought-iron, to resist tension ; there are four arches to
each span, two on each side, which bear properly on the piers, through the
medium of bed plates, on which the arches rest ; and the strings of each
arch consist of two wrought-iron rods, keyed to the arches at the abutments.
Cast-iron columns connected to the arches support a platform above, on
which three sets of rails are laid, and they also support another platform
below for a carriage-road, the footpaths runnmg betv^'een the two .arches on
each side ; this road, in fact, runs along the strings, but has no connexion
with them ; the arches take the whole weight of both platforms above and
below, leaving the strings independent, to resist only the tension. The
ii'on-work required the adjustment of an immense number of parts ; yet
no joints, and hardly any fastenings, are to be seen ; in fact, it is difficult
to make out how it has been put together.

Ouse-bdrn Viaduct. — Amongst other objects of interest exhibited by
B. Green, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, was a model of the central ai'ch of the
Ouse-burn viaduct, on the Newcastle .and North Shieljs railway ; the arches
are of timber, built up of layers or planks sufficiently thin to allow being bent
to the required sweep. The arch having thus been built dp to the required
size, is bound together by iron straps, bolts, &c. It is then scientifically
strutted, to resist and distribute the thrust properly.

Salter's Model of the Great Opening Bridge at Selbt, on the Hull
and Selby RaQway, was exhibited, and is of novel character, on account of
its lai'ge span. 'The River Ouse is at all times rapid, and particularly so
during the frequent freshes ; it required, therefore, that a peculiar con-
struction should be resorted to ; and, by the Act of Parliament, it was
stipulated that the bridge at Selby should have an opening arch of 44 feet
span for the sea-borne vessels trading to York. Messrs. Walker and Burges
were engineers for the railway ; the bridge was likewise executed under
their direction ; the contract for the iron-work being undertaken by the
Butterly Iron Company. The river, at the point of crossing, is about 200
feet in width, and at low water 14 feet in depth; the tide rising 9 feet at
springs, and 4 feet at neaps. The bed of the river consists of silt, resting
on a thin bed of sand, beneath which is clay of a hai-d quality. The land
abutments are constructed of brickwork and masonry, resting on piles.
The intermediate piers for the support of the supersti-uctm-e are formed of
open pile-work, the piles being driven 15 feet into the solid clay, and their
tops surmounted with cap sills, of large scantling, upon which the ii-on-work
is bedded. To give additional stiffness to the two centre piers, a novel
plan was resorted to in the bracing by rounding the centre piles for a
portion of their length, so as to allow the cast-iron sockets to descend and
take a soHd bearing ou the square shoulders of the piles, to which were
connected the long timber braces ; so that when the sockets, with the
braces attached, were let down to their bearings, the tops of these braces
were brought to their places at once, and secured to the cap sills. The
superstructure is of cast-iron, cousistmg of six ribs m the width of the
bridge. The opening arch is formed of two leaves each, worked upon a
centre carriage, with tail pieces acting as counterbalances for assisting the
opening and shutting when necessary. This is accomplislied by an iron
segment of nine-feet radius firmly fixed upon the main shaft, and worked by
a system of wheels, so ai'ianged that one man can raise or lower either leaf
of the bridge in fifty or sixty secpud.s. A double line of railway is laid

412

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

along the bridge on continuous timber
bearers. To provide for the eftects
caused by changes of temperature on
the iron-work of the bridge, wedge-
shaped iron keys, fitting into proper
grooves at the junction of the two
leaves of the opening pai-t of the bridge,
are inserted to such a depth as to give
the necessary beai-ini;. The extreme
Tariation of the width of the opening
from the above cause is found to be
about three-quarters of an incli. The
entire weight of cast and wrought-u'on
is equal to about 600 tons, and the
weight of each leaf of the opening span
rather more than 90 tons.

Static Bridge. — This model was
exliibited by the inventor, Mr. Sankey.
who, to add increased strength to all
bridges on the principle of the arch,
whether of stone, brick, or other ma-
terial, proposes to cut the voussou*s in
such a manner as to add them a wedge-
shape hoth in their vertical and liori-
zontal planes, so that each voussoir
shall become the integral or component
part of two arches, viz. ; the vertical,
or that which spans the road, river,
&c., intended to be crossed, and a
hm-kontal arch bounding one side of
the roadway. Now, if the voussoii-s
on both faces of the bridge be so cut.
it followes that there m-iy be two hori-
zontal arches, each having the direc-
tion of its thrust opposed to the other;
in fact, substituting portions of a cone,
or portions of a cone and cylinder, for
the common cylindrical arch ; and if
the spaces between these two horizon-
tal arches are well keyed in by headers,
i-unning continviuusly through the en-
tire width of the bridge, or, where
hollow spandrils are deemed requisite,
by means of cross walls, &c., any force,
such as a mountain torrent, a very
strong wind, or a heavy body striking
against the side of the brid";e, would be
resisted by theconvexarch on theother
side ; and the concave ai-ch, against
which such force must first impinge,
would retain its position unaltered, pro-
vided the abutments be solidly and ju-
diciously constructed. Were a bridge
built on this principle, with abutments
so formed as to counteract the thrust of
these side arches, any lateral pressure
that might be exerted against it would
only tend to wedge the
convex arch on the op-
posite side more closely
together ; or i-ather, these
arches, having been well
keyed in the firet in-
stance, would undergo no
change whatever ; a very
valuable condition for
bridges thrown over rivers
subject to floods, or other
sudden causes of side
pressure, which so often
carry a\vay bridges built
in the ordinary manner.
S'JSniELDs's Models op
Bridges, Etc, prom New
South AVaxes, were ex-
hibited in the Colonial
Department. These en-
gineering contrivances
are especially suitable for
New South Wales, where,
the cost of iron-work
being very considerable,
the engineer has to econo-
mise to the utmost extent
the use of this valuable
material, anil in cases
where practicable to dis-
pense with it altogether.
Mr. Shields's model of

centre-piece. — SMITH AND NICHOLSON.

a "lattice bridge," and also that of
a " railway trestle frame," are of the
latter chai'acter; and are, therefore,
suitable for many other parts of the
world — New Zealand, for instance,
which abounds with valuable timber,
suitable for bridges and similar works.
The American engineers have long
paid considerable attention to the best
disposition of timbers in the constnic-
tion of their bridges and extensive
railway viaducts ; and these have been
followed, to some extent, both in the
railways of Euglaud and Ireland.

Mr. Shields's lattice bridge is of
I'ound timber, thus getting rid of much
expense in the shape of labour, and
also in the entire absence of iron fast-
enings. The model consists of three
lines of vertical round tiinbei-s, pro-
perly notched, and having two perfo-
rations to receive the horizontal tim-
bers. Between each pair of vertical
timbers are two diagonal pieces, rest-
ing at bottom on cross-timbers, and
framed into the vertical timbers at
top. There ai-e three double sets of
horizontal timbers, the upper ones
supporting the joists placed trans-
versely, and to which the floor-boards
are secured. These joists project on
either side of the bridge, in order to
gain additional width of roadway ;
a wooden i-aiiing, properly strutted,
completing the whole. The " railway
trestle frame" is intended specially as
a substitute for embankments, in
countries where labour is dear and
timber plentiful. The framing is simi-
lar to that of the lattice bridge.

A third model shows Mr. Shields's
economical method of laying the rails
in New South Wales, which is the
same as that adopted in the north of
England, and to a great extent in
America ; but the peculiar mode of
placing the rails, and securing them
to the timbers, are the novel parts of
the design.

Captain Moorsom was the first en-
gineer in our country to introduce the
I'ailway lattice bridge from America :
this he first effected on the railway
between Birmingham and Gloucester ;
and hcj has since erected, over the
Norr, in Ireland, a handsome bridge
on^this plan, a model of which was
exhibited, as also a model
of his design for the pro-
posed bridge over the
Rhine, which gained for
him the second prize.

Le.^ther's Suspension
Aqueduct over tlie Col-
der was exhibited in
model. This fine work
can-ies over the river
Calder the caual, which
is navigable for sea-going
vessels of 7 feet draught
of water, and 120 tons
burthen. The tank or
troui;'' is 9 feet deep, and
24 feet wide within, and
contains, between the
points resting upon the
abutments, 940 tons of
water, being more than is
held in the 1 9 arches of the
Pont-y;Csyllte aqueduct
in Wales. On each side
of the Calder aqueduct is
a towing-path ; a Grecian-
Doric colonnade masks
the sides of the tank, with
a portico and pediment
at each end, the suspend-
ing-rods passing through
the columns to the ends

KLIZABKTHAN FURNITURE. — RICHARDSON.

AN [LLUSTIIATKD CYCLOlMiDlA OF TlIK GRKAT KXIIIHITION OK IH.Jl.

U.3

of tlie traiiKVcrHO Inirs,
oonccnloil by stejis. Tlio
span of tho Huspcncling
arc is 166 feet; weinlit
of each, 101 tons; widtli
between tlio suHpi'iidiiig-
roda, Mo,^ feet ; diamotor,
2J inelie.s ; tutal weight
Bupportcd liy area, in-
ducting thoii' own weight,
1700 tons. Theio wiuj
also exhibited a model
of Liather's Coat- Iron
{bridge ovvr the A ire
(areli, 120 feet span), re-
markable for its archi-
tectural beauty, though
strictly an engineering
work.

Suspension Piers. —
Cnptain Sir Samuel
Brown, tho inventor of
the Chain Bridge, exlii-
bited a model of the
Brighton Suspension
Pier, one of the first of
the kind executed, and
which has led to the
adoption of thU pleasuig
form of pier and bridge
by many of the first en-
gineers of Europe, iu
cases where the traffic is
not of a ponderous cha-
racter. The fairy-like
structure of the great
Telford over the Meuai
Straits serves as an illus-
tration ; for, so soon as
the heavy traffic of the
• Holyhead Railway was
anticipated, a new bridge
of great strength was de-
signed and carried into
execution by Mr. R. Ste-
phenson ; while the light-
er traffic of the Holy-
head road is still carried
over the original struc-
tui'e.

SIDEBOARD.

BY JOHNSON AND JEANES.

The mahogany sideboard
exhibited by Messrs.
Johnson and Jeanes, of
Bond-street, is a very
handsome production, of
admirable workmanship.
The supports are boys,
.with grapes, &c., resting
respectively upon a lion
and a tiger. The mould-
ings along the edges are
very bold, and carefully
finished.

CENTRE PIECE.

BY SMITH AND NICHOLSON.'

This is a very fine piece
of workmanship. The
design represents an-
cient Britons seated
under an oak.

ELIZ.4.BETHAN FURNI-
TURE.

BY BICHABDSON.

QrAiNT in character,
these pieces of furniture
were admirably exe-
cuted, and carved in
Biitish oak.

414

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

JTIG

TEXTILE MANUFACTURES.

CALICO-PRINTING MACStNEKY.

IGURED patterns were foi-merly printed on white cotton cloth by means
of wooden blocks cut after a fashion similar to those used at present for
wood engravings. These blocks being smeared 'with a colouring matter,
■were pressed upon the cotton cloth by hand ; and when patterns of more
than one colour were produced, different blocks, carrying the figures corre-
sponding with the different colours, were successively applied to the same
cloth. This hand-labom- gave way to the invention of a system of Calico-
Priuting Machinery, by means of engraved copper rollers, of which numerous
specimens were shown in the Exhibition. By one machine constructed upon
this principle, calico can be printed in eight colours at once, and dried and
finished for consumption ; and another claims a still greater power in refer-
ence to the combination and variety of colours. Although these machines
are very complicated, even with one under our eyes, their general principle
may be rendered intelligible. The patterns on printed calicoes and similar
figured cloths are formed by a continual repetition of the same figure,
which, so fiu- as it consists of a single colour, is engraved upon a copper
roller, the lengtli of which corresponds with the breadth of the calico, and
the circumference of which corresponds with the length of the pattern.
Generally, the breadth of the pattern is repeated many times in the width :
it is, therefore, engraved upon the .surface of the roller, the length extend-
ing completely round it, and being repeated throughout the length of the
roller in tlie same manner as it is intended to appear on the cloth. Tliis
roller receives the colouring matter by a certain apparatus which first
smears, and then wipes it, so as to remove all dye except what fills the
incisions of the engraving. The cloth is then passed between this roller and
another which has a soft surface ; when the two being pressed severely
together, the colour deposited in the lines of the engraved roller is trans-
ferred to the cloth, and the printing is comjileted. For printing patterns
in two colours, a second engraved roller is provided, carrying upon it the
pattern corresponding to the second colour ; and the cloth, after having
been printed with the first colour, is made to pass in contact with tliis
second roller, so that the pattern of the second colour is transferred to the
cloth from the roller in the same manner as that of the first; whilst the
movement of the cloth is so nicely regulated that the pattern of the second
colour falls precisely into its place. Where patterns of three colour.? are to
be printed, a tliird roller is in like manner provided and worked.

Until lately, calico has not been printed by these means in more than
four colours ; a fifth colour, however, has been added, but by a different,
slower, and more expensive expedient. In a machine, however, sent to the
Exliibition by Messrs. Mather, the means of printing in eight colours by a
single operation, and afterwards drying the cloth, are provided.

But the most admirable part of this machinery is the method by which
the copper rollers on whicli the patterns are delineated are engraved. This,
by ordinary tool-engraving, would be very expensive ; and the engraved
copper rollers would be rapidly worn by the printing. The cost has, accord-
ingly, been evaded by the following beautiful and ingenious mode of pro-
ducing tho=e engraved rollers at a trifling expense : —

Suppose that the length of the pattern, and consequently the circum-
ference of the roller on which it is to be engraved, is six inches. A small
soft steel roller is taken, whose circumference is six inches, 'and whose
length is equal to the mdth of the pattern. Upon the surface of this roller,
the proposed pattern is engraved, and the surface is hardened by a certain
process : it is next placed by a powerful press, in contact with another
roller of soft steel, and the one roller being rolled upon the other, the sur-
face of the soft roller takes in relief an exact impression of the intar/lio
pattern engraved upon the original roller. The second roller, with the
pattern in relief, is then hardened, and is rolled by a powerful press, upon
the copper cylinder to be engraved, and leaves upon it the engraved charac-
tei-s. These rollers being '"repeatedly applied to the copper cylinder
throughout its entire length, the engraved pattern is reproduced in the
same manner as it is mtended to be printed upon the cloth.

It is evident that when a pattern has been once engraved in the manner
above described upon a soft steel roller, afterwards hardened, the engraving
may be multiplied indefinitely; for the first roller may transfer it in relief
to a second ; and that being hardened may again transfer it in intarjUo to a
third, which may produce another in relief, and so on. A pattern, therefore,
however complicated, elaborate, and costly, being once engraved, may thus
be literally perpetuated ; and the expense of the first artistic labour applied
to the original roller, being spread over the unlimited multitude of rollers
which may be made from it, becomes insignificant.

A single calico-printing machine worked by engraved rollers, as above
described, driven by steam or water power, and attended by a man to
superintend them, and a boy to feed the colour troughs, is capable of pro-
ducing as much calico per hour printed iu four colours as would require
the labour of two hundred men to produce by the old method of block-
printing. And the economy of labour is, of course, still more surprising,
when a machine for printing in a greater number of colours is used.

BRICKS, AND BUILDING CONTiUVANCES.

TJRICK Maki>-g Machines.— Messrs. Randcll and Saunders exhibited a

brick machine, with double screw-press and perpetual cutter, for making

patent draining sewerage bricks. The machine occupies a space 12 feet by

4, and can be placed under the plug-mill, or the clay may be otherwise

thrown into it, to fill on two screws working into one another, driving the
clay out at the further end of the cylinder, and giving it in its transit great
compression, so that the bricks are delivered through the dies firm and
solid. They then pass under a perpetual cutter, which works \\ithout
checking the progress of the clay, severing the bricks or tiles at any rcqixired
lengths, giving the ware joints either square, angular, circular, or any segment
of a circle, plain joints, or tongues and grooves. Two men and one lad,
with the machine working at little over one-hoi'se power, produce 1000
bricks per hour.

The curious and interesting machinery, invented by Messrs. Bovie, and
applied by them to a similar manufacture in France, deserves notice also,
as producing an amount of strength, with a small consumption of material
and greatly-diminished weight, which, if in any sense economical in the
first cost, must have an extraordinary value. These bricks of Messrs.
Bovie's manufacture are much larger than those at present used, or those
just described, and can be made of considerable length if required. They
are extremely strong, and must be very compact and readily dried. They
contain several small hollows, and in this respect, and the mode of
manufacture, are entirely new.

The hollow bricks sent by the Society for Improving the Condition of
the Labouring Classes are considerably larger than the common size, and
have one large open hollow in the centre of a recess in the top and bottom
for mortar. Bricks thus made, dry very quickly and thorouglily ; and are
admirably adapted, by their comparative lightness, for various purposes in
fireproof buildings, and for party-walls. They are also much cheaper, bulk
for bulk, than ordinary bricks.

Other new kinds of bricks were exhibited by Mr. Workman, who has
invented and patented a new process for rendering tliem waterproof at
small cost ; and by Mr. Haddon, who has manufactured them of a rhom-
boidal form, ensuring their bonding. There were also a number of
ornamental bricks, of which some sent by Lord Lovelace were interesting
and ingenious ; and others, by Mr. Ambrose, also indicated taste and good
material. ' , . .

Amongst the foreign goods of this kind, were the Austrian bricks and
tiles exhibited by the establishment of M. Miesbach. The raw material
was not sent with the manufactured article ; but, from an authentic account,
it appears that one brick and tile factory (the largest of several), belonging
to M. Miesbach, and situated close to the city of Vienna, occupies upwards
of 250 English acres, on which are di-ying-sheds 25,000 feet in length,
adapted for common bricks ; forty-three kilns, capable of burning three
millions and a half bricks at a time: and more than 8,300 feet of .shed for
moulding tiles and ornamental work. The annual make from this single
establishment is 05,600,000 of bricks, employing nearly 3000 persons in the
manufacture. This is only one of seven large estabhshments belonging to and
worked by the same manufacturer, who employs in all nearly 5000 persons,
and sells upwards of 107,000,000 of bricks per annum. The colour and
texture of the bricks aud tiles are admirable ; and the selling price is almost
inconceivably low, considering the cost of fuel and the price of labour.
M. Miesbach obtained the gold medal — botliat the Industrial Exhibition at
Vienna, in the year 1845, and at that in Pe.5th, in 1846 — in consideration
of the magnitude of these establishments, and the excellent manufacture
of all descriptions of bricks. The light yellow and red ornamental bricks are
said to be the most excellent productions of the kind since the fii-st manu-
facture of bricks in Vienna under Drusus and Tiberius (13 years before the
birth of Christ).

LEATHER, SHOES, GLOVES, &c.
"THE leather manufacture is one of the greatest importance in tliis kingdom.

It has been computed that no fewer than 250,000 persons are supported
in one way and another by this branch of industry.

The total quantity of all sorts of leather tanned, tawed, dressed, and
curried in Great Britain, may at present be estimated at about 60,000,0001b.,
wliich, at l.«. 6rf. per lb., gives 4,500,000/. as the value of the leather only.
It is generally supposed that the expenditure upon shoes .annually may be
taken at an average of the whole population at 10s. each individual, young
and old ; which, supposing the population to amount to 18,500,000, would
give 9,250,000/. for the value of shoes only. The value of saddlery, harness,
gloves, &c., has been estimated at about 5,000,000/. Such is the importance
of this branch of British industry.

Tanning is eSccted by soaking the skins in a solution of tannic acid or
tannin, until a chemical compound of gelatine and tannin is produced.

The hides are brought to the tanner either in a fresh state, wlien I'rom
animals recently slaughtered, or, wlien imported from other countries, dried
or salted, and sometimes both, for the sake of preserving them from decom-
position. . In the former case the horns are removed, and the hide is scraped
to cleanse it from any portion of flesh or fatty matter ; but in the latter it
is necessary to soften the hides, and bring them as nearly as possible to the
fresh state, by steeping them in water and repeated ruVibing oi- beating.
After this the hair is removed — sometimes by steeping the hides iu a solution
of lime in water for several days, and sometimes by suspending them in a
smvl-e-hovsc. The hair is carefully removed by a curved kuife, and tli e hides
are prepared for the actual tanning by stee|)ing them for a few days in a
pit containing a solution of rye or barley flour, or in a very weak menstruum
consisting of one part of sulphuric acid mixed with from 500 to 1,000 parts
of water. The hides or skins are then placed in the tanning solution, which
is generally an infusion of oak bark, or some other vegetable product rich in

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPTEDIA OF THE GREAT EXHIRITION OF 1851.

415

tannic jit-ii]. llcsidi'^ osik liiirk, which in (trnnloycil in lli*^ prcutoHt rjuimtity,
vahtnia — thn acnrn.s oi' tlm Qurrru^-t ay/llftpn — in hr<tut;ht frnin tiio Levant and
tlio Mor-ca. (.'atoclni, or Term juptniira, is tlio inftplBsfttutl juico of tho Acacia
cattr/ni, ami a bciin-i)0(l ciilluil rho i/ivi-Uivi

Tuivi/Uf irt tho iianio applied to the jiroccsH l)y which tlio nkinn of Hheep,
lanihs. anil kidn nro converted into soffe luatlicr liy tho action of aUiiu : of
this leiitlier gloves ai*e nsually made.

Cun'f/ivf/ is the process of dressing tho Icatlicr BO as to fit it for tho
pnrposes of mannfactnre. Many jtarts of tlio process arc of exceeding
delicacy, reqniring nnicli manipvdatory skill.

Aniontrst the varieties of leatlicr exhibited, wero morocco, cape, sheep,
seal, hunb and kid, ox, buffalo, calf, horse-hide, walrus, chamois, goat, hog-
fikins, liippop<jtainusdiido, and rhinoceros.

1 Mr. ]•;. XVhitby, juQ., glove-manufacturor, of Yeovil, obtained a prize for
" lambskin gloves," usually sold as kid. His case contained an illustration
of the process of glove ni.auufactnriug, hhowiug tlie skin in its various stages.
One portion of the skin w;ia in the raw state, .as imported from Italy ;
another ]>ortion was partly manufactured into leather ; auotlier portion was
completely made into leather, out of which was cut one pair of ladies' white
gloves, and one of tho cloves was in a finislied state. No portion, from the
raw skin to tho finisheil glove. \v;i3 detached. Tho Koyal Commissioners
have done Mr. Whitby the honour of accepting thft skin, to be preserved as
a specimen of the Exhibition. The glove manufacture of Yeovil is a very
extensive industry, upwards of 100,000/. per annum being spent in wages
alone in the towu and neighbourhood.

NAUTICAL DEPARTMENT.

ANDERSON'.S LIFE BOAT.
Tiiw is n pattern of an improved lifu-bont, c*lculnt«d for oithe* bflaoh
Kcrvico or for paMsengor vcshcIh and stcnmors. 10 f.-ct 6 inchen long, C feet

6 inches broad, and 2 foot deep. Uuiiwalo sheer, 18 inches; curve of keel

7 inches ; cHnker built, entirely of wood, and copper nailed ; weighs about
n cwt. She has an inner, airtight skin or ceiling, upon which all the air
and water cases are littcil ; she hai a well in the centre of her bottom,
capable of containing 43 gallons of water, which can bo tilled with salt
water .as ballast, or with fresh water when leaving a sinking vesiel, by means
of valves, which can bo opened and shut as required. On each side, and at

ILLUSTRATIONS OF GLOVE-MAKING. — E. WHITBY, OF TE0V(L.

ARTICLES IS COTON

JIACHE,— HART ^. '

These are specimens of a
new and interesting m,a-
nufacture, the invention
of illr. Hart, wherein
waste cotton is applied to'
the construction of arti-
cles of furniture, some,
tiling after the fashion
of papier milche. It is
equally appplicable to ar-
ticles of utility and orna-
ment, such .as boxes, ta-
bles, candlesticks, &c.
The surface, by the na-
ture of the material, ig
susceptible of a grain-like
appearance, as is p;irtiou-
laily exemplified in the
panel of the larger box,
which is composed of
rnuslin only,
it- _i

the ends of the well, are air-tight cases ; diagonal air-cases are also attached
to each side, and air-tight seats round each end of the beat, capable of
carrying dry provisions, as sho.vn in the drawing. .She has sufficient
buoyancy to empty hereelf, with a crew in andthe well full, in two minuto
through two tubes in the bottom ; and with four tubes she would empty
herselt m one minute. Tho water ballast, 435 lb., gives her so great stiffness
that she will not upset ; and, as she empties herself when filled, there is no
danger of her being swamped or sunk. The water ballast has the advantage
m beach service that it is no weight to the boat until she is in the water
when the well fills itself. She has been severely tested in heavy broken
water, on the head sand at the entrance of the Tyne, with perfect" success.
Rows four or six oars, double-bauked ; is fitted up with storm-sails in case
of need, and everything necessary for sea service.

ARTICLES IN COTON MACHE. — HART.

416

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS.

REGISTERING'COMPASS. BY D. NAPIER AND_SON.

This compass registers upon paper the exact course which a vessel has
been steered for twenty-four consecutive hours. Its object is to enable
the captain at any time to ascertain if the ship has been steered correctly ;
and, if not, to sliow the period of eiTor, and the amount of deviation.

MODEL OP AN ARAB BATELLE.

EXHIBITED BT CAPTAIN HAWKINS.

The batelles were the boats principally used by the Joaseme pirates of
the Persian Gulf, who were a terror to the native mariners till exter-
minated by the efforts of the King's ships and tlie East India Company's
vessels of war. These vessels have a very sharp and hollow flow, a very
clesr run, and a perfect wedge-like entrance, w'hich offers littlo or no
resistance to the water. They are noted for their fast sailing and their
wealherly qualities : tlie consequence was, that to capture them was a very
difficult task, a'nd they were frequently known to make off in gallant
style when within gun-shot of a ship of war. The Arabs assert that
no vessels can sail so close to the wind as the batelle ; and, with the
exception, perhaps, of the recent case of the America, there may be good
reason for the assertion ; and even the America, if put to the test, would
be found not to surpass the Arab cx'aft in this quality. The mode of steering
the batelle is singular ; the rudder projects several feet below the heel of the
stern-post; to the after part of the radder is fixed the tiller, which has a

This is one of
the many contri-
vances for the
preservation ot
life in the event
of accidental im-
mersion. The ribs
are of cork ; and
it is so fashioned
as to be capable
of being worn un-
observed under a coat or mantle ; and, in"consequence
be used without inconvenience whilst rowing a boat,
it can be folded up and stowed away in a small space.

of its
When

pliability, csn
not required,

ARAB BATELLE.

curve pomting upwards; th^ ropes are led inboard by an out-rigger at the
side, by which the helmsman steers. Thevare lateen-rigged, and have three
suits of sails of Bahrcen canvas. In calms they are propelled by sweeps.

The largest is 150 tons, and only
used by the Arab chiefs of the
Persian Gulf on state occasions
and visits of ceremony. The
• model is from Captain Hawkins,

I. N., and intended as a present to
the Court of Directors for their
Museum^.

The Sampang is a swift boat,
u.sed in the Indian Archipelago,
and is propelled by sails and oars.

MODEL OF a SA-MPAXU, FROM THE INDIAN AKCHII'ELAOO.

.Tudkin's Sewing Machine sews
in a circle, curve, or straight
line, 500 stitches per minute; the
rack in which the cloth is placed
being moved forward by a spring,
at a given distance for cveiy
stitch. There are two threads —
one is carried in the shuttle, the
other taken from a reel at the
top of the machine, and passed
tlu'ough the cloth by the nee-
dle, and, when withdrawn, both
threads are locked in a lastins

.-t;i-b.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPAEDIA OF TIIK GREAT KXIIIIUTION OK 1851.

417

oiiANUKLiiin. uy rEiiiiy.

All previous in'oducliou.i in this Hub
are probably oclipsod by Iho maguificout
Crystal Chaudolior, manufactured by Mr.
Perry, which was a cons[)icuoua object
in the Gallery over the iiortli-west corner
of the Transept, iu the immediate ueigli-
bourhood of the carpet worked for her
Majesty by the hundred and fifty ladies
whoso names are recorded in connexion

witli It in tlio Official Catalogue. This
chandelier, which is a dozen or more foct
high, is intended for 144 lightn. It«
design shows the style of glasn-cutting of
the eighteenth century, with the modem
improvements. A large portion of the
glass (all of which was of the purest
quality) is cut in what is termed " lapi-
dary cutting." The candles are grouped
in clusters in the lower tier, and in
pendant groups for the upper tier.

^fl

tLT liLAiiS cha.«l>i:li:.i

I'Eni'.v, oi' ;:oxD-sr;:LLT.

418

THE CRYSTAL P.iLACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

The luhabitants of Mr. Milton's '

SILVER SOUP TUREEN. — OPIOT.

»y/»'^«^/^^W!6r/R',«»ff«wS9?.*.W*'W«»f>B^

BEES AND BEEHIVES.
THERE were siveral interesting contributions of Bees and Beehives, and
contrivances for securing swarms, not only from various {)arts of the
United Kingdom, but also from France, Gei'many, and the United States
of America. Amongst the most interesting exhibited, ivcre those of Jlr.
Milton and Mr. Neighbour.

mansion of industry," which, with his
" Royal Alfred hive," and the '■ uni-
comb hive," occupied a large space
close to the " wall " of the North
Trauscpt Gallery, the whole being en-
closed in a large glass case, forming,
in fact, a very fine apiary, consisted of
foiir swarms of bees, the first of which
was hived on the 20th July, 1850;
the second and third on tiie 2Srd of
the same month, and the fourth on
the 31st. As hiving the bees after j
swarming is one of the operations ;
which requires the greatest care and j
attention on the part
of the bee-keeper, it
may be as well to
mention the mode
adopted by Mr. Mil-
ton of successfully
hiving the fourswarms
of bees within a few
days of each other.
and uniting thewholi
together " without
any trouble or fight-
ing about queens," —
this immense pojiula-
tion, amoimting, ac-
cording to Mr. Mil-
ton, to 200,000
strong, continuing t"
work harmoniously
ogether, after a resi-
dence of nearly four
months in their appar-
ently close quarters. The
first of these swarms came
out about three o'clock
on the 20th July, as
above, and was immedi-
ately secured or hived in
a wooden box, which wa ;
left in a shady place until
eight o'clock in the even-
ing, when it was removed
to its intended position.
The two swarms whicli
came out on the 23rJ
July were each hived in
a common straw hive, and
at eight o'clock at night a
cloth was spread on thr
gi'ound near to the box-
hive, abrick being placi. '
on the cloth, on which t
rest one of the sides <
the box, for the purpose
of admitting the bees into
the box. After beiiiL;
tumbled altogether int"
the cloth by a smart r:i'
on the brick with on-
edge of the hive, tin
other swarm was treated
precisely in a similar
manner ; both swarms
were speedily imderneatli
the box, which was left
undisturbed till the fol-
lowing morning, when it
was put back again to its i
proper position in the
apiary. On the 31st of
the same month the same '
process was performed '
with the fourth swarm.

Contiguous to JMilton's
mansion of industry, we
find his "Royal Alfred

SIDEBOARD. — BANTINO.

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOP/EDLV OF THE GREAT EXHIRITION OF l«r,l.

119

hive." namcil after his Uoyal HiglincaH IVinco Alfrcil, on wliotu liiitli^hiy,
tlie (itli of Auj^nist, 1844, i\iu liriit cxiicninent "f plaiing bees witliiu tliin
nowly-foniioil liivo was siiccoHsfully made. Tlio ]>riMrii«iI novelty in ttiiH
liivo appear.s to lio the inciiiiod lioorH. by wbicli tUv Inmn can oaftily oi^coud
to any p;ii't of tlie hivo, and tlio dead bees and other rufiiao, instead of
rcnKiiiiing, afl on level lloorn, ucceHsariJy fall to tlii! iiottoin, anil ho are eiuiily
renioved. Tlu'ro were, on the two upper slopinj; eompartmont.'i, covered
over with Dans hnny with hiiif,'eR, three bell ^laHses in each,
which will luild altogether about IS lb. of honey. By means
of windows, the vfholo of the interior can be inspected from
time to time, without any risk or annoyance. The; bees may
bo' fed either at top or in front.

Milton's revolving top hivo, for which ho received the Society
of Arts' silver Ceres medal in 1846, consists of a cylindrical
case of straw, covered with two board.s having corresponding
holes in each, by turning the \ipper one of which the openings
can l>e closed at pleasure. Bell-shaped glasses
are placed on the top above the openings,
which, when lillcd, are readily removed, and
fresh gla.sses substituted. Bees are easily hived
by this arrangement, by placing the hive from
which they are to be removed on the revolv-
board, taking cai'e to leave only one open-
ing, and the bees will severally descend into
their new habitation without any trouble, the
lower hive being prepared for their reception
by washing its interior walls with a mixture of
sugar and beer, or other suitable sweet liquor.

Mr. Neighbour's apiary consists of a large
glass case, with parts of the sides covered with
perforated zinc, for the sake of ventilation;
This apiary also contains three hives : first.
Neighbour's ventilating box-hive, from Jlr.
Appleyard's apiary, Harrow Weald, containing
from 15,000 to 20,000 bees, which were hived
on the 30th of April, IS.'Jl, the day before that
of the opening of the Great Exhibition ;
Neighbour's observatory glass hive, containing
about the same number as the box-hive ; and

two-storied square box-hive, with sloping
roof. From this latter, the bees decamped
■within a week after they had been hived,
owing to some disturbance, or to the dislike
taken by the bees to their new habitation.
The ventilating box-hive is square, having win-
dows and shutters. The entrance is at the
back, enabling the bees to go to Kensington-
gardens, or other resort. In front, at bottom,
is a long door hung with hinges, so that all dead
bees .and refuse may be easily cleared away.
By means of a perforated metal slide in the
floor, ventilation, which some apiarians con-
tend for, is effected. Above the
wooden-box ia placed a bell
glass, into which the bees ascend
to work by means of a circular
opening in the top of the square
box. In the top of the bell glass
is an aperture through which is
inserted a tubulai' trunk of per-
forated zinc to take o2 the mois-
ture from within.
The observatory
hive is of glass, with
a superior crystal — ^.^

compartment, an
opening being form-
ed between the two.
A straw cover is sus-
pended over the up-
per compartment by
a rope over a pulley,
which coyeris raised
up by the attendant
at pleasure. The
larger or bottom
compartment rests
on a wooden floor,
which has a circular
sinking therein to
receive the bell glass.
A landing-place,
projecting, with
sunken way, to ena-
ble the bees to pass in
land out, completes
this contrivance.

TOP OP WMTINO BUREAU. — RAMEXDAHL, OP HAMBURGH.

The Writing Bureau and some other pieces of furniture, by Ramendahb
of Hamburgh, are of characteristic appearance ; the materials of decora-
tive horn, and the subjects generally relating to the chase.

BEE-HITES. — NEIGHBOUR AND SOX.

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

tS^M^^

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LAMP.— i^rrn.
The dfsign of this lamp, though tho materials-
Uttle chubby boys— are commonplace enough, is •
novel and not ungraceful in arrangement.

SILVER SOUP TUREEN. — ODIOT.

The silver soup tureen, by Odiot, is extremely
elaborate, but not very graceful in design ; the sub-
1 ject includes a great variety of objects in vegetable
and animal life ; two ox-heads with horns serving as
handles,. The execution and finish, however, are of
the highest order.

INLAID CABINET, DESIGNED RT ORDNEB.

This richly-ornamented Cabinet was a conspicuous object in the Western Nave, where it was
much admired. The design is by Gruner, and is very chaste and beautiful. It introduces various
coloured woods, the panels being ornamented with marqueterie and carvings ; and there are paint-
ings in china after the Raffaelle school in the panels. The whole is finished with richly-gilt
mouldings. Altogether we have seldom seen a more elegant production of its kind.

I'ANEL OF A STc/VE — jr\!;ii3.

AN lLLUSTRATl':i) CYCWl\VA)l\ OF TIIM GllKA'!' KXHIHITlOX OF 18:,].

1-21

GROUPS, STATUETTES, &c., IN CuI'lOLANDS .STATUARY PORCELAIN.

^I^v On this pngo wo ongrftvo fivo ppecimens of Copoland's Statuary

^^ Porcelain, wliich aro entitled to tlio liighont commendation for

'•AT-A'^d^'^^-V'''^-'' design, quality of material, and cxecvition.

GROUP OF SILVER PLATE. — HEID AXD SONS. (SEE PACE 423.)

TiiK vi;;x.vC.E oap.de;; vase.

422

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS;

DUPLEX KUDDER AXD SCREW-PROPELLER.
THIS invention has just been patented by Captain E. I. Carpenter ; and
the engravings represent steru and quarter views of a vessel with two
ruddei-s and two screw-propellers, fitted in new positions for improved
steering and propelling. From the midship section of the vessel to the
•stem, no alteration is inti-oduced into the form of the hull ; but abaft this
point they commence. First, the keel, with the dead-wood, stern-post, and
rudder, are removed, and the flooring above receives a suitable form for
.strength. Two additional keels lie in a line pai'allel with the former keel,
but placed at a distance of two or more feet, according to the size of the
vessel, on either side of it, terminating at the midship section in the fore-
part, and in a line with the former stern-post in the after-part. Framework
is carried down to these keels, leaving a free eliannel for the water to ran

DUPLEX RUDDER .\XD SCREW PROPELLER.

between them in the direction of the midship keel. A stern-post is placed
at the end of the additional keels, and iipon each of them hangs a rudder.

A screw-propeller works in an orifice in each framework, on the common
arrangement. One of the pi'opellers is a little more aft than the other, to
allow full play to both, and yet economise space in the mid channel.

The appearance nf the vessel in the water is not altered in tlie side view,
neither is it much changed in the steru view.

The consequence of this new arrangeme^it i.% that thp rudders and pro-

DUPLEX BUDDEU .\XD SCREW PROPELLER.

pellers are acting with double effect in each case. The rudders are receiving
an increased power, because the impact of the water upon them takes place
at an angle which is constrained by tlie situation of the keels, and which is
the most favourable that can be had. The two propeller.?, also, revolving
as they are in water confined in a limited space, are working to considerable
advantage. The effect actually produced is, that, when required, a vessel
can be turned about in nearly half the space that a single rudder can turn
it, and the two propellers will give a proportionate increase of speed. Ex-
periments have been made to teat the principle in an open space of water,
and they can be seen daily on a model at the Royal Polytechnic Institution,
Regent-street.

The advantages gained by the now construction of the vessel are also
considerable. There will be more .strength, more bearings In the run, more

breadth for cabin room. The rolling and pitching -nnll be reduced very
considerably. The vessel will not make lee-way as formerly ; the vibration,
or tremulous motion, will be lessened. The safety of the vessel will be
very much increased, because the duplex i-uddcr will have the effect of
instantaneously changing the direction should she be running into some
unexpected danger ; also, if one rudder should be damaged, the other can
be used to steer with. The propellers also can be used separately when
required. For river navigation, the advantages obtained by the two radders
and two propellers will jointly enable tlie screw principle to be applied to
steam-boats plying in shallow water, such as the Thames above London
Bridge, or to vessels having small draught of water. For transatlantic
ships the use of the two rudders and two jiropellers will jointly ensift'e
their making a passage in less time and at less expense than before, also
with more certainty and safety than can be done by a single screw or
paddle-wlieels.

The duplex rudder is applicable to paddle-wheel as well as screw
steam-boats.

ENVELOPE-MAKIKG MACHINES.

jVTESSRS. Delanie's Envelope Machine was shown in motion, on the north

side of the western nave. In the contrivances for folding, gumming,
forwarding, and delivering the envelopes, which were formerly done by*
hand, the inventor has closely followed several natural movements of the
human frame ; the cams, especially, exhibiting his thorough knowledge of
animal mechanics. Fu-st, the lozenge shapes of paper are cut out by a
powerful lever machine, with a steel cutter, worked by hand, thus forming
at one stroke 480 blanks at once ; and a single cutting-machine, worked by
one man, cuts a sufficient number of blanks to feed ten folding machines.
In that exhibited, two boys were employed ; one placing the lozenge-shaped
blank on the flat bed of the machine, between four vertical register gviider.o,
at the rate of sixty per minute ; the other boy removing the envelopes as
finished. In front were seen the fust and loose pulleys, with a band passing
lialf round the working pulley, and thence below the floor to other pulleys
in connexion with one of the .steam-engines at work in the Machinery in
Motion depai-tment. All the chief movements are obtained by means of
cams on the principal shaft, whicli derives its motion from the pulley fixed
on one end of it. The cams are five in number, viz., two double, tvvo single,
and a large central double cam, which works the double plunger levers,
provided with counterpoise balls. The curved plunger, in two pai'ts
attached to the levers, is brought down on to the paper at regular inter-
vals ; the lower part of the plunger remaining down, while the upper part
is drawn upwards. The folders, which turn down the flaps in proper
rotation, are worked by the two side cams of the main shaft ; and the other
double cam of the main shaft gives motion to the takiug-off apparatus, or
" artificial hand," by which the paper is removed when folded. The two
fingers of the hand are small cylinders, fitted at their lower ends with India
rubber, which is pressed on to the paper by a spiral spring within, similar
to that used in Palmer's candle-lamps: when, the air being excluded by
the closeness of the two surfaces, the paper is readily removed.

The envelopes, being transferred by the artificial fingers, are deposited
on an incline metalUc table, each envelope, as it is finished, being placed in
turn at bottom of the pack, by means of two small springs projecting above
the table. An endless blanket now conveys the finished envelopes into a
metallic case or shield, from which they are taken by the carrier boy.

To the gumming apparatus, motion is given by means of a small shaft,
worked by a pulley trom the main shaft, in connexion with a segment lever
and wheel at one end of the frame. The effect produced by this contrivance
is, first, to move an artificial hand on to an endless moving blanket covered
with gum, and afterwards to transfer the gum to the proper flaps of the
envelope.

Auotlier motion at the top of the frame consists of a segment lever, the
teeth of which woi'k into the circular rack or screw, which again works into
a small toothed wheel, by which each of the four flaps is made to perform
a half revolution, the horizontal circular rack moving fii'st in one direction
and then in the other. Eleven of these machines are constantly emploj^ed
at the manufactory of Messrs. Delarue, in BuuhiU-row, by which 396,0iiil
envelopes are completed in a single day of ten hours, averaging 25,000 each
machine ; more hands are employed by this machine than were formerly
occ\ipied in hand-folding at 3000 per day ; and only twelve envelopes are
spoiled on an average day's work.

Remond's Machine, also exhibited, differs essentially from that of
Dclanie ; atmospheric pressure being employed for raising singly each sheet
of paper, and placing it on the top of tlie folding apparatus ; and, again,
in giving the necessary inclination to the flaps of the envelopes previously
to their being folded down by the action of the plunger. Several hundred
blanks being placed on the feeding table of the machine, by a very simple
operation it is started by the girl in attendance. The top sheet is raised
from the rest by a " finger," the underside of which is perforated : when, a
partial vacuum being formed, each sheet is sucked up against its under
surface, and transferred to the folding apparatu.s, on reaching which, the

AN ILLUSTRATED CYCLOP/EDIA OF TIIK GHKAT KXIIIIUTION 0I<" 1851.

'12.3

cxliiviistion being no loiigoi- iimiiitiiined, tliu Bheot noccsHarily dio|m into
its place. Thu folding apparatuH coiiai.st.s of an open box or frauio,
tlic sizo of tlio iwinii'oil cnvulopo, over which Li lixed a creaser or
pliiugei-, littiiig tlio in-iidi; of the frauie. Tlio lilaiik ])icco of papoi'
having been placed on the top of tho hox by the feuding fingor, the
jilnnger descends just within tho box, and tho Haps of tho onvelopu
aie thns bent to a I'iglit angle. The bottom of tho creasingfranio or box
is perforated, to prevent any atmosphcrio rcsi.stanco on the entrance of
the paper, and tho piiasing back of the plunger leaves tho paper within tho
frame, with its four Haps standing iipriglit. At this point, tho second
atniosphei'ic action gives tho llajis td" tho envelope a preliminary inclina-
tion inwards, and iits tlieui lor receiving the ilat folding
jirossuro of the return stroke of tho plunger; to this end,
the four sides of the folding-box are perforated, so as to
allow tho streams of air to bo forced against the outsides
of tho flaps of tho envelopes, in order that, on the sccoml
de.seout of the plunger, they may all be folded <,

down at onco. There are also certain contiiv mcos
for embossing tlie outer flap of the euvelopo and
for gumuiiug the lowest flap, as a fastening lo
compensate for the
continual decrease
hi tho height of tho
pile of blank papers,
and to provide for
tho upper one al-
ways coming in close
contact with tho
lifting finger whcu
the platform rises,
tho addition of a
S[iring has been
found amply effec-
tive. By this ma-
chine, forty enve-
lopes are produced
in a minute, which
gives as many as
•24,000 ptr "day,
gummed, embossed,
and entirely com-
pleted for use; if
needed, the velocity
might be increased.
Black's Patent
Folding Machine
was also exhibited,
and was much ad-
mired for its sim-
plicity and effi-
ciency. It consists
of a box or case,
with a main shaft,
wdiich being caused
to rotate by manual
or by any other
power, gives motion
to folding blades
and rollers. The
newspaper or print-
ed sheet to be fold-
e 1, is laid upon the
tible of the ma-
chine, with a slit,
through wbicli a
blade descends up-
on the sheet) and
forces the same at
the requisite line of
fold. This opera-
tion is repeated, ac-
cjrdingly as the
blades are set for
the sizes, within the
machine, which is

I'oltCKLAIN CANnK.I.AHUIJM. BV I.AIIOCIIK.
I..MIOCHB, of the I'liiai* National, liad a very fine clinplay of porcelain and
crystal, in dinner scrviccM, cIocUh, vanes, lamps, &c. That which we have
ongruved in a liaudHonio lamp or candelabrum in porceluio and or-inoulu.
The dcHigna upon tho former aro painted in rich colour* upon a pslo blue
foundation.

BE LA RUES rXVF.I.Oi'ElTAiaXO MACHINE.

said to insm-e perfect register, and to fold 2000 quires of pnper, or 48,000
sheets in an hour. i i ' >

SIDEBOARD. BY BAN'TING.
Thil-nrrr ^^'^T'^^ Sideboard is made from oak gi-own in Windsor forest,
which r» iT^ • ''°T"t^^ ''^ " ^''■■'b '•'=^ti"g "P°i four truss supports,
lin el f '^.f'''- The plate gla-ss mirror at the back is of large

oniTtneir'^r'''i'' "'r'">.^ .'" '■°''"- The frame has the appearand
bv th. ?ntl """f^'^^f ^'* t"*""^"* ^°''dity. This production is favoured
ture " Tt LTf • '^°^°.Yr".« mention," as part of " a collection of furni-
ture. It was fairly entitled individually to a prize.

f R lUP OF SILVER PLATE. BY KEID AXD SONS.
TnE articles of silver plate exhibited by iieid and Sons, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne, are very tasteful in design and beautifully executed. We observed
a coffee-pot and tea service, raised in medallions, and richly engraved in
bouquets of flowers, in new shaded grounds : a bread-brisket, engraved and
pierced, the border composed of three domestic and three wild animals'
heads : a basket, richly chased, for bread or fruit (the handle being move-
able), with medallions representing the four seasons: a claret-jug, richly
chased, with medallions of the four quartei-s of the globe ; an oblong or
pincushion dish, with richly ornamented and pierced border, and dome
cover, with chased leaves and pianels, and handle to suit ; an oval dish,
with richly ornamented flower border and panelled dome cover, &c.

424

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AND ITS CONTENTS.

rORCKr.,\IN- C'ANDELABllUM. —

\ ait
CORAL nlNG A^'D RKD CORAL.— PAR.VYAfiNA AND CASELLA.

CORAL ORNAMENTS.-BY PARAVAGNA AND CASELLA.
Red coral has, from time immemorial, been used aa an ornamental material in jewelleiy, in all
parts of the world, in beads, brooches, drops, bracelets, chamis, studs, and many fancy contrivances
The price varies from Is. per oz. up to 5/. and 20/. per oz. The best colours are considered a bright
red or pale pink ; the hitter is most scarce. We must not confound with this substance the coral
reefs found by mai-iners, as they are nothing but a spongy white rock, havnug no analogy whatever
with the real red coral The fishery of the real coral is carried on m tlio Mediterranean bea. 1 lie
largest samples are taken along the Barbary coast, but not the d.arkest colours. Along the coast
of Spain a considerable quantity is taken annually, of a deep red colour, but sometimes rather
wormy. The pink and deepest red, but in comparatively small hr.anches, are taken m the Straits
of Bonifacio,. between Corsica and Sardinia. The amount annually taken v.anes from 100,000/ to
200 000?., the principal stations for the fishing smacks being La Torre de) Greco, near ISaples;
Leghorn; and Santa Margherita, near Genoa. This article is supposed to give employment to
° ' from 30,000 to 20,000 hands. The speci-

mens which we engrave in our present
sheet are from the establishment of Messrs.
Paravagna and Casella, at Genoa, who em-
ploy 400 workmen. The principal object
is a superb, and for its size almost unique,
branch of rough coral in its natural state.

ZXPASDINCi CIIKUI.AR TABLE. — JOHNSTONE AND JEANE3.

KXPANDIXG CIKCULAR TABLE.

BY JunKSTONE AND JEANIiS.

This is an extremely ingenious inven-
tion (patented), which has received the
honour of a prize medal. It is a circular
table, which, by means of a very simple
arrangement of radiating curved iron bare
beneath the top, may be made, by a slight
revolution of the surface, to expand to
the size required at any moment, exti-a
leaves being provided lor insertion be-
tween the separated parts. The tabk'
exhibited is capable of being arranged to
two different sizes, besides the original
form ; but, of course, the number
changes is optional. The mechanism is so
simple, that one pair of hands can adjust
it in a couple of minutes, and that appa-
rently with very little exertion. The
Bfcmd is carved in the Italian style, with
grotesque masques.

DUAl/LvCV AXD EVANS, PltlSTl-IlS, WllITEFfilARS.

'M':s^.

■■^■/L/v'V/

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Full text of "The Crystal Palace, and its contents : being an illustrated cyclopaedia of the great exhibition of the industry of all nations, 1851 : embellished with upwards of five hundred engravings, with a copious analytical index"

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